(1)WHAT IS ECOTOURISM?

Ecotourism, ecotravel, ecolodges and just generally being "eco" have become popu
lar tourism sales pitches. What is true ecotourism? What defines an ecolodge or
an ecological company? How is the surrounding community involved? And finally
, is ecotourism such a great thing anyways?
In order to truly understand ecotourism and all of it's attendant pros and cons
it is necessary to do some background research. This page offers an introductio
n to the topic along with several links to more detailed information. The basic
definitions below have been adapted and clarified from commonly used travel ind
ustry lingo. Some of the links are to articles that help further define ecotou
rism some promote it and some attack it but all are provocative and informative.
The goal of this page is neither to sell nor devalue ecotourism but rather to ex
plore it as a concept and to help create informed travelers who ask lots of ques
tions before, during and after their trip. Well informed travelers choose their
guides, travel companies and lodges from a position of knowledge. This purchasi
ng power can be the driving force behind positive or negative impacts on the pla
ces you visit.

(2)Defining The Experience:

There are almost as many terms to describe types of travel as there are trave
l companies. A couple of buzzwords that you often hear these days are "Eco-Tour
ism" and "Adventure Travel" . To further confuse the issue there is also "Susta
inable Tourism", "Responsible Tourism", "Nature Based Travel", "Green Travel", "
Multi-Sport Adventures" and "Cultural Tourism". The following are Untamed Path'
s definitions based on common usage.
1)Eco-tourism: Perhaps the most over-used and mis-used word in the travel indu
stry. But what does it mean? The Ecotourism Society defines it as "responsible
travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and improves the welfare
of the local people". A walk through the rainforest is not eco-tourism unless
that particular walk somehow benefits that environment and the people who live t
here. A rafting trip is only eco-tourism if it raises awareness and funds to he
lp protect the watershed. A loose interpretation of this definition allows many
companies to promote themselves as something that they are not. If true eco-to
urism is important to you, ask plenty of questions to determine if your trip wil
l help "conserve and improve" the places you visit.
2)Adventure Travel: Another term which is heavily used by marketing department
s. While travel to another country is often adventurous it is not necessarily "
Adventure Travel". Most dictionaries define adventure similarly: "an unusual ex
perience including some level of risk and uncertainty". "Adventure Travel" incl
udes this idea of risk and oftentimes some unconventional means of transport. A
dugout canoe journey deep into the Amazon basin with it's attendant difficultie
s meets this definition. While a city tour of Paris might have some level of un
certainty it is not by definition "Adventure Travel". If you love true adventur
e you probably already know this and can see through the hype to find the real t
hing for yourself.
 There is sometimes a distinction made between "Soft" and "Hard" adventures.
Soft adventures have a lower level of risk, greater comfort in accommodations an
d are less physically rigorous. Hard adventures often have very basic facilitie
s, higher risk factor and greater physical challenge (ie: mountain climbing, bac
kpacking or river expeditions).
3)Sustainable Tourism: Any form of tourism that does not reduce the availabili
ty of resources and does not inhibit future travelers from enjoying the same exp
erience. If the presence of large numbers of tourists disturbs an animal's mati
ng patterns so that there are fewer of that species in the future then that visi
t was not sustainable. Kayaking school on a free flowing river is an example of
sustainable tourism. Big game hunting in Alaska is not.
4)Responsible Tourism: Tourism which operates in such a way as to minimize neg
ative impacts on the environment. A wilderness camping trip using "Leave No Tra
ce" ethics would be considered responsible tourism while dune buggy tours would
not.
5)Nature-Based Tourism: A more generic term for any activity or travel experie
nce with a focus on nature. Large jungle lodges fall into this category as do c
ruise ships to view penguins in Antarctica. These types of trips may or may not
be environmentally sustainable or responsible. -
6)Green Tourism: Often used inter-changeably with eco-tourism and sustainable
tourism but more accurately described as "any activity or facility operating i
n an environmentally friendly fashion". A lodge with composting toilets, gray w
ater system, and solar powered lighting is probably "green". There are varying
degrees of "greenness"; an awareness of where resources are coming from and whe
re wastes are going is at the heart of the idea.

7)Multi-Sport Adventures: These trips have a focus on physical outdoor activi

ties. Rafting, mountain biking, climbing, surfing, diving, etc. all offered in
the same package. Not necessarily sustainable or eco but might be since many co
mpanies want to protect the areas where these activities take place.
8)Cultural Tourism: Interacting with and observing unique cultures is the focu
s of this style of trip. The concept of learning from other cultures to broaden
ones perspective is usually a core value. An artisan showing you how to weave
a tapestry and learning from them about their traditional dress would be a form
of cultural tourism. Buying crafts in the market with no more interaction than
the exchange of money does not provide the insight into another culture that is
the central theme of cultural tourism.
Clearly all of these definitions are debatable. What one person or company c
alls "eco" another calls "sustainable" and so on. The main distinction between
these terms is the motives and ethics behind them. Is the environment being car
ed for? Is there genuine effort to help the local economies? Are resources bei
ng left intact for future generations? Is the local culture being honored and v
alued and not just photographed? These questions will cut through the semantics
and allow you to see what is really being offered.
At Untamed Path we've blended many of these ideas together to create our own
unique form of travel. We place a high priority on preserving the places we vis
it, both environmentally and culturally. We enjoy active outdoor pursuits so ma
ny of our trips incorporate these sports but never at the expense of the natural
world or the people who already live there. However, we don't make claims to b
e something that we can't live up to and are constantly reassessing our trips fo
r ways to improve their ecological and cultural soundness. All of our trips con
tain elements of adventure travel, eco-tourism, multi-sport and cultural travel.
 We operate in a focused responsible and sustainable fashion and always, always
have fun.

(3)Ecotourism Guidelines For Responsible Travelers:

The conscious attitude, actions, participation and interactions on the part o
f the individual traveler directly affect the outcome for all involved. As a th
oughtful and responsible traveler there are several things you can do before, du
ring and after your journey to ensure the experience is in line with the values
of "ecotourism" and minimize your impact on the host country. It is far easier t
o simply go on vacation as an uninformed tourist but making the choice to be an
informed traveler can have far reaching impacts on the world around us. The more
you put into your trip the more you'll get out of it. The following is a code
of conduct for responsible travelers.

1) Prepare for your trip: Educate yourself about your destination. Be on the l
ookout for news and current events about the area. Learn about local history, cu
stoms and culture as well as vital ecosystems. Learn at least the basics of the
local language. A simple hello, please or thank you goes a long way. Approach t
ravel with the desire to learn rather than just observe.
2) Respect local traditions and etiquette: Wear clothing that is accepted by th
e local culture. Be aware of people's sensitivity to being photographed; always
ask first. Observe local customs. Be perceptive of your own cultural values an
d how they affect your judgment of others. Remember that you are the visitor. T
here are many different concepts of time, personal space, communication etc. whi
ch are not wrong or inferior, just different. Act as an example for other trave
lers who are less informed than you.
3) Avoid ostentatious display of wealth: What may not seem a display of wealth
to you may be considered extravagant by another culture. For example, a camera h
anging around your neck or something as simple as a wristwatch or wedding band.
Tuck these items away when visiting rural communities. Leave jewelry and other u
nnecessary valuables at home. They only create barriers and inhibit genuine int
eractions. Don't hand out sweets and loose change, this only serves to corrupt
and create a begging mentality where none existed before.
4) Be flexible in your expectations: Approach your adventure with an open mind
and you won't be disappointed. Sometimes plans change and an opportunity for mo
re in-depth learning or a unique cultural experience presents itself. Adapt you
rself to the situation rather than trying to adapt the situation to you.
5) Conserve resources: Often times the resources in an area visited by tourists
are under a great deal of pressure already. Be aware of the resources that are
being used because of your visit. This includes your personal consumption of i
tems like water and wood for building fires or specialty foods that had to be tr
ansported from afar. Don't allow your guide to hunt endangered or threatened sp
ecies or harvest rare plants for your consumption. A large luxury hotel in the m
iddle of nowhere takes far more resources to build and maintain than does a smal
l family run inn.
6) Practice environmental minimum impact: Follow the International Leave No Tra
ce Rules. Pack out everything that you bring in including toilet paper (if there
is no toilet) or plastic water bottles (use purification tablets or a filter).
Go to the bathroom at least 200 feet (70 paces) from any water source. Remove li
tter that others left behind. Do not remove any objects, plants or animal produc
ts from nature. Be aware of local endangered or threatened species so as not to
purchase souvenirs made from their skin, feathers etc. Not only is this impactf
ul on the environment but it is illegal.
7) Choosing a tour operator or guide: Thoroughly research your tour operator or
guide by asking them pointed questions about specifically what they do that is
"eco" and how they involve the local communities and economies. The "greening o
f tourism" has led companies to promote themselves as "eco" simply to sell trips
. The larger the company with more luxurious accommodations, the less likely it
is to be true ecotourism. Be persistent in your inquiries of an international or
local tour operator.
8) Support local economies: How will your visit directly benefit the local econ
omy or entire community? This is an integral part of true ecotourism. Use local
transportation, guides, inns, restaurants and markets. This helps create a buff
er zone for the environment surrounding protected natural areas by giving locals
an economic alternative to potentially destructive practices. Community based
ecotourism spreads the wealth and workload.
9) Bridging cultural gaps: Take the opportunity to be a cultural ambassador. M
uch of the world's image of western tourists is based on the unrealities of tele
vision and magazines. Look for situations for cultural exchange whereby learnin
g about each other's lives is mutual. Getting to know the person sitting next t
o you on a local bus or the person cooking your food takes some effort but is of
ten a rewarding experience.
10) Continued ecotourism: Ecotourism doesn't need to end with your flight home.
Follow through on your commitment to conservation in your everyday life. Shar
e your experiences with others to foster a greater understanding of our world.
You will have seen and learned much from your journey. While it is still fresh
in your heart and mind take action using the various agencies, grassroots organi
zations and resources available to you.
(4)Defining Ecotourism
Defining "Ecotourism" a has proven to be a difficult task given all the differen
t players attempting to define it. People tend to define things in terms that a
re beneficial to themselves, hence the variety of definitions. There are howeve
r several workable definitions currently in wide use.
The International Ecotourism Society defines Ecotourism as: "responsible travel
to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of loc
al people".
The Australian Commission on National Ecotourism Strategy calls it: "nature-bas
ed tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment
and is managed to be ecologically sustainable" .
Since the publication of her excellent book "Ecotourism and Sustainable Developm
ent" Martha Honey's definition is quickly becoming the standard. Most serious s
tudies of ecotourism including several University programs now use this as the w
orking definition. Here then are her 7 defining points:

1) Involves travel to natural destinations. These destinations are often remote

areas, whether inhabited or uninhabited, and are usually under some kind of env
ironmental protection at the national, international, communal or private level.
2) Minimizes Impact. Tourism causes damage. Ecotourism strives to minimize the
adverse affects of hotels, trails, and other infrastructure by using either rec
ycled materials or plentyfully available local building materials, renewable sou
rces of energy, recycling and safe disposal of waste and garbage, and environmen
tally and culturally sensitive architectural design. Minimization of impact als
o requires that the numbers and mode of behavior of tourists be regulated to ens
ure limited damage to the ecosystem.
3) Builds environmental awareness. Ecotourism means education, for both tourist
s and residents of nearby communities. Well before departure tour operators sho
uld supply travelers with reading material about the country, environment and lo
cal people, as well as a code of conduct for both the traveler and the industry
itself. This information helps prepare the tourist as The Ecotourism Societies g
uidelines state"to learn about the places and peoples visited" and "to minimize
their negative impacts while visiting sensitive environments and cultures". Ess
ential to good ecotourism are well-trained, multilingual naturalist guides with
skills in natural and cultural history, environmental interpretation, ethical pr
inciples and effective communication. Ecotourism projects should also help educ
ate members of the surrounding community, schoolchildren and the broader public
in the host country. To do so they must offer greatly reduced entrance and lodg
e fees for nationals and free educational trips for local students and those liv
ing near thetourist attraction.
4) Provides direct financial benefits for consevation: Ecotourism helps raise f
unds for environmental protection, research and education through a variety of m
echanisms, including park entrance fees, tour company, hotel, airline and airpor
t taxes and voluntary contributions.
5) Provides financial benefits and empowerment for local people: National Parks
and other conservation areas will only survive if there are "happy people" arou
nd their perimeters. The local community must be involved with and receive inco
me and other tangible benefits(potable water, roads, health clinics, etc.) from
the conservation area and it's tourist facilities. Campsites, lodges, guide ser
vices, restaurants and other concessions should be run by or in partnership with
communities surrounding a park or other tourist destination. More importantly,
if Ecotourism is to be viewed as a tool for rural development, it must also hel
p shift economic and political control to the local community, village, cooperat
ive, or entrepreneur. This is the most difficult and time-consuming principle i
n the economic equation and the one that foreign opeators and "partners" most of
ten let fall through the cracks or that they follow only partially or formally.
6) Respects local culture: Ecotourism is not only "greener" but also less cultu
rally intrusive and exploitative than conventional tourism. Whereas prostitutio
n, black markets and drugs often are by-products of mass tourism, ecotourism sti
ves to be culturally respectful and have a minimal effect on both the natural en
vironment and the human population of a host country. This is not easy, especia
lly since ecotourism often involves travel to remote areas where small and isola
te communities have had little experience interacting with foreigners. And like
conventional tourism, ecotourism involves an unequal relationship of power betw
een the visitor and the host and a commodification of the relationship through e
xchange of money. Part of being a responsible ecotourist is learning beforehand
about the local customs, respecting dress codes and other social norms and not
intruding on the community unless either invited or as part of a well organized
tour.
7) Supports human rights and democratic movements: Although tourism often is gl
ibly hailed as a tool for building international understanding and world peace,
this does not happen automatically; frequently in fact tourism bolsters the econ
omies of repressive and undemocratic states. Mass tourism pays scant attention
to the political system of the host country or struggles within it, unless civil
unrest spills over into attacks on tourists. Ecotourism demands a more holisti
c approach to travel, one in which participants strive to respect, learn about a
nd benefit both the local environment and local communities. Although not part
of The Ecotourism Societies definition, giving economic benefits and showing cul
tural sensitivities to local communities cannot be seperated from understanding
their political circumstances. In many developing countries, rural populations
living around national parks and other ecotourism attractions are locked in cont
ests with the national government and multinational corporations for control of
the assets and their benfits. Ecotourist therefore need to be sensitive to the
host country's political environment and social climate and need to consider the
merits of international boycotts called for by those supporting democratic refo
rms, majority rule, and human rights. For example the campaign by the African N
ational Congress(ANC) to isolate South Africa through a boycott of investment, t
rade, sports and tourism helped bring down apartheid. Determining whether to bo
ycott or visit a country is not always easy. Among the questions to ask are: Do
es the economic growth fueled by tourism really improve the chances of human rig
hts being respected? Will boycotting a country harm already impoverished worker
s more than it will corporate or government titans? Or are the short term econo
mic penalties more than offset by the ultimate benefits of change? If one visit
s a repressive state like China, Indonesia, Peru or Syria, it is possible to mak
e the trip rewarding both personally and politically by consciously learning abo
ut the country beforehand, meeting with dissidents and average folks, as well as
government officials while there, and speaking about the political climate, not
just the weather after returning home.
 Clearly this is a tall order to fill for anyone claiming to run "Ecotours" an
d it is highly doubtful that any one project or operator can claim to meet all t
hese criteria. However it does give a base of ideas to work from when looking i
nto whether or not something is or isn't "Ecotourism". Most operations which can
truly be called Ecotourism are striving to meet as many of these criteria as po
ssible.
Properly understood then, the emphasis in ecotourism is on a set of principl
es and how to put them into practice; on what ecotourism stands for and how thes
e standards are being implemented.

(5)Tourism, Globalisation and Sustainable Development

Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the global economy and devel
oping countries are attempting to cash in on this expanding industry in an attem
pt to boost foreign investment and financial reserves. While conceding that the
uncontrolled growth of this industry can result in serious environmental and soc
ial problems, the United Nations contends that such negative effects can be cont
rolled and reduced.
In the following article, Anita Pleumarom considers whether the global touris
m industry can really be propelled towards sustainability under the current inte
rnational and political regime that underpins the drive towards globalisation.

BEFORE getting into the cold facts of global economics, let me begin with an
other story to warm up. I was perplexed when I recently read in the newspaper th
at Thailand's forestry chief had said: 'Humans can't live in the forest because
human beings aren't animals. Unlike us, animals can adapt themselves to the wild
or any environment naturally.' This was to legitimatise the government's plan t
o remove hundreds of thousands of rural and hill tribe people from protected are
as. This man, who is in charge of conserving the forests, is at the same time v
ery strongly pushing to open up the country's 81 national parks to outside inves
tors and visitors in the name of 'eco-tourism'. Can we conclude, then, that the
forestry chief considers developers and tourists as animals that know how to ada
pt to the forest and behave in the wild naturally?
 While authorities want to stop the access to forest lands and natural resourc
es of village people, another group of people - namely tourism developers and to
urists with lots of money to spend - are set to gain access to the area. While a
uthorities believe that local people, who have often lived in the area for gene
rations, are not capable of managing and conserving their land and natural resou
rces - under a community forestry scheme for example - they believe they themsel
ves in cooperation with the tourist industry can properly manage and conserve 'n
ature' under a national eco-tourism plan. Taking the above quote seriously, cyni
cs may be tempted to say there is obviously a gap between 'human rights' and 'an
imal rights'.
How is this story linked to globalisation? First of all, that humans cannot l
ive in the forest is - of course - not a Thai concept. It is a notion of Western
conservation ideology - an outcome of the globalisation of ideas and perception
s. Likewise, that eco-tourism under a 'good management' system is beneficial to
local people and nature is also a Western concept that is being globalised. In
fact, Thailand's forestry chief thinks globally and acts locally. A lesson that
can be learned from this is that the slogan 'Think Globally, Act Locally' that t
he environmental movements have promoted all the years, has not necessarily serv
ed to preserve the environment and safeguard local communities' rights, but has
been co-opted and distorted by official agencies and private industries for pro
fit-making purposes. The tourism industry is demonstrating this all too well.
Many developing countries, facing debt burdens and worsening trade terms, hav
e turned to tourism promotion in the hope that it brings foreign exchange and i
nvestment. Simultaneously, leading international agencies such as the World Bank
, United Nations agencies and business organisations like the World Travel & Tou
rism Council (WTTC) have been substantially involved to make tourism a truly glo
bal industry.
However, tourism in developing countries is often viewed by critics as an exten
sion of former colonial conditions because from the very beginning, it has benef
ited from international economic relationships that structurally favour the adv
anced capitalist countries in the North. Unequal trading relationships, dependen
ce on foreign interests, and the division of labour have relegated poor countri
es in the South to becoming tourism recipients and affluent countries in the Nor
th to the position of tourism generators, with the latter enjoying the freedom
from having to pay the price for the meanwhile well-known negative impacts in de
stinations.
Transnational corporations
Travel and tourism has emerged as one of the world's most centralised and compet
itive industries, and hardly any other economic sector illustrates so clearly th
e global reach of transnational corporations (TNCs). Over recent years, the ind
ustry has increasingly pressured governments around the world to liberalise trad
e and investment in services and is likely to benefit tremendously from the Gen
eral Agreement on Trade in Services - a multilateral agreement under the World T
rade Organisation (WTO).
GATS aims to abolish restrictions on foreign ownership and other measures whi
ch have so far protected the services sector in individual countries. For the ho
tel sector, for example, GATS facilitates franchising, management contracts and
licensing. Moreover, foreign tourism companies will be entitled to the same ben
efits as local companies in addition to being allowed to move staff across borde
rs as they wish, open branch offices in foreign countries, and make internationa
l payments without restrictive regulations.
Foreign investment will also be increasingly deregulated under the GATT/WTO s
ystem. According to the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs),
foreign companies will no longer be obliged to use local input. The Multilateral
Agreement on Investment (MAI) proposed by The Organisation for Economic Coopera
tion and Development (OECD) countries goes even further, calling for unrestricte
d entry and establishment of foreign firms, national treatment, repatriation of
profits, technology transfer, etc.
Accordingly, the WTTC has recently presented its 'Millennium Vision' on trave
l and tourism, including the following key areas:
Get governments to accept travel and tourism as a strategic economic developm
ent and employment priority;
Move towards open and competitive markets by supporting the implementation of
GATS, liberalise air transport and deregulate telecommunications in internat
ional markets;
Eliminate barriers to tourism growth, which involves the expansion and impro
vement of infrastructure - e.g. the increase of airport capacity, construction a
nd modernisation of airports, roads and tourist facilities.
On a tour through South-East Asian countries in February 1998, WTTC presiden
t Geoffrey Lipman also strongly supported the privatisation of state enterprises
, particularly airlines and airports. His visit in Thailand, for example, coinci
ded with the announcement of British Airways - a prominent member of the WTTC -
that it was interested in taking over 25% of Thai Airways International. And the
British Airport Authority promptly followed up by proposing to buy a major equi
ty share in the provincial airports of Chiang Mai, Phuket and Hat Yai, which are
all located at popular tourist spots. However, the selling out of state compani
es to foreigners has been facing growing public opposition in Thailand so that p
rivatisation is not progressing as planned.
Meanwhile, even the voices of the tourism industry in Asia are urging a cauti
ous approach towards globalisation. Imtiaz Muqbil, a renowned tourism analyst ba
sed in Bangkok, warned: 'The independence of thousands of small and medium size
enterprises, including hotels and tour operators, is at risk.' This is because m
ost local enterprises will hardly be able to compete with foreign companies. Mor
eover, Muqbil suggested that as an outcome of globalisation, Asian countries may
face 'the prospects of huge growth in leakage of foreign exchange earnings.' In
conclusion, he said, 'The radical restructuring of travel and tourism ... could
strike at the heart of national economies. It is already a well-established fa
ct that in some developing countries, more than two-thirds of the revenue from i
nternational tourism never reaches the local economy because of the high foreign
exchange leakages. Now, as the new free trade and investment policies are bein
g implemented, their balance sheets may even worsen because the profits and othe
r income repatriated by foreign companies is likely to grow larger than the infl
ow of capital. That means, the claims that globalisation and liberalisation of t
ourism will bring wealth, progress, social achievements and improved environment
al standards to developing countries need to be seriously questioned.
A recently published document by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (
UNCTAD) states that Asia-Pacific countries urgently need to bolster their bargai
ning positions in the field of tourism services and negotiate better terms in ex
change for opening their markets. However, governments have barely had time to e
xamine the potential impacts of globalisation, and many local tourism-related co
mpanies are already in financial trouble due to the economic crisis. So it is ve
ry unlikely that they can strengthen their negotiating power. Even major Asian a
irlines can hardly survive in this crisis-hit business environment; the recent t
emporary closure of Philippine Airlines is an illustrative example.
 Economic globalisation has also generated considerable criticism because it c
omes along with the erosion of power of governments. Opponents argue that local
and national institutions will no longer be able to properly fulfil their respon
sibilities such as providing social services, preserving the environment, and im
plementing sustainable development programmes.
Indeed, the multilateral agreements facilitating globalisation have shown lit
tle, if any, concern for social and ecological issues. On the environment front,
the WTO has discussed proposals to introduce 'environmental standards' and 'eco
-labels' developed by international setting bodies. Critics say this move is li
kely to be dominated by TNC interests, which attempt to appropriate the environm
ental agenda and push for self-regulation. Meanwhile, existing national environm
ental policies and laws adopted by democratically elected governments will be un
dermined.
The WTTC, for example, vows to 'promote sustainability in travel and tourism'
through its Green Globe programme, but - as its 'Millennium Vision' document st
ates - 'strongly believes that the environmental policy agenda should focus on (
the industry's) self-improvement, incentives, and light-handed regulation as the
preferred approach'.
Concerns
The increasing influence of private sector interests on international forums
negotiating the environmental agenda has reinforced concerns that genuine effort
s to set up a more stringent framework for the tourism industry may be jeopardis
ed. In this context it is important to note that the seventh session of the UN C
ommission on Sustainable Development (CSD) this year will include important disc
ussions on the issues of sustainable tourism.
So far, the UN General Assembly has adopted a resolution on 'Sustainable Tour
ism' as part of its 'Programme for the further implementation of Agenda 21', the
action programme adopted at the Rio Earth Summit. This resolution acknowledges
the need to consider further the importance of tourism in the context of Agenda
21. Among other things, it states: 'For sustainable patterns of consumption and
production in the tourism sector, it is essential to strengthen national policy
development and enhance capacity in the areas of physical planning, impact asses
sment, and the use of economic and regulatory instruments, as well as in the are
as of information, education and marketing.' Furthermore, the resolution calls f
or participation of all concerned parties in policy development and implementati
on of sustainable tourism programmes.
What is important to keep in mind is that this UN resolution stresses the need
for a democratic regulation of tourism development, which is in stark contradic
tion to the lobbying efforts by the agents of tourism globalisation towards dere
gulation and an industry-led and self-regulated scenario.
This conflict featured prominently at the fourth Conference of Parties to the
UN Convention on Biological Diversity (COP4) in Bratislava, Slovakia, last May,
which included discussions on the integration of biodiversity into sectoral act
ivities such as tourism. Many government delegates there resisted attempts by th
e German government to get approval from the Ministerial Roundtable at COP4 for
a programme to develop global guidelines on biodiversity and sustainable tourism
. Observers noted that the increased promotion of interests of the powerful Ger
man tourism industry at the UN level by the German government has been conspicuo
us over recent years.
Official and NGO representatives were surprised by the insistence of the Germa
ns to work on global guidelines and to seek endorsement for this programme from
the CSD. The delegate from Samoa, for example, reiterated that sustainable tour
ism is a complicated issue that will be dealt with by the CSD next year and comp
lained: 'We are not in favour of some of the top-down approaches we have seen he
re (at COP4).' Other delegates expressed concern over the relevance, objectives
and funding of the proposed programme.
Significantly, critical observers warned that an ill-advised proposal on glob
al guidelines under the Convention could have devastating consequences for local
and indigenous communities - socially, culturally and ecologically. 'The touris
m industry's propensity towards unrestricted growth and its commoditisation of i
ndigenous cultures must be recognised as clearly unsustainable,' commented an NG
O representative during the Bratislava Conference.
Meanwhile, there are justifiable fears that under the new economic globalisat
ion schemes, sustainable and eco-tourism activities will even further enable TNC
s to gain commercial access to ecologically sensitive areas and biological resou
rces and accelerate the privatisation of biodiversity, all to the detriment of l
ocal communities' land and resource rights and the natural environment. As the A
ustrian environment minister told delegates at COP4, 'Sustainable tourism offers
new market
opportunities.'
Vague, with buzzwords
Indeed, the debate on tourism principles and guidelines is a tricky one - not
only because it is heavily overshadowed by politics of global players. Another
point of concern is that guidelines and programmes, as discussed and adopted by
advocates of sustainable tourism at the international level, naturally remain ve
ry vague. Usually, they are also overly euphemistic, with buzzwords abounding: e
.g. empowerment of local communities; local participation and control; equitable
income distribution; benefits to nature conservation and biodiversity protectio
n; etc.
A tourism researcher from the University of British Columbia, Nick Kontogeorg
opoulos, suggested that attempts to implement tourism projects based on such gui
delines are bound to fail altogether because it is simply impossible to apply th
em to highly disparate and heterogeneous destinations. He says, 'While these alt
ruistic principles are laudable in theory, the absence of place-specific context
strips them of empirical evidence.' In conclusion: Not the global game, but loc
al circumstances and conditions represent the essential determinant of success f
or sustainable development.
In Asia, social and environmental activists argue that the inflationary touri
sm policies in the context of globalisation have greatly contributed to the pres
ent economic crisis. During the era of the so-called bubble economy, indiscrimin
ate and unsustainable investments led to the rapid conversion of lands into mass
ive tourism complexes, including luxury hotels, golf courses and casinos, and re
lated infrastructure such as airports, highways, and dams to generate electricit
y. With economic liberalisation, the tourism, real estate and construction indus
tries boomed, backed by local banks and global speculative capital. An essay wri
tten by renowned tourism critic and media activist Ing. K. reflects the anger of
many Thais about the developments that have led to the country's bankruptcy. Sh
e presents the hard facts as follows:
'Land speculation became a national pastime, permeating every beautiful villa
ge, however remote. Land prices skyrocketed. Villagers sold agriculturally produ
ctive land to speculators. Practically overnight, fertile land became constructi
on sites. The plague kept spreading; corruption got out of control. National par
ks and forest reserves were encroached upon by golf courses and resorts ...
'Many instant millionaires were made, but much of this new rich money was not
 wisely invested in productive ventures. Instead, most of it was spent on luxury
"dream" products and services, in pursuit of the consumer lifestyle.
'Many of these people were merely imitating tourists and were influenced by t
he prevailing free-spending frenzy. Greed and consumerism devastated whole commu
nities all over Thailand, raising the temperature even higher, on every level of
society...
'In the end, we have nothing to show for it but whole graveyards of unsold hi
gh-rise condominiums, shophouses, golf course and resort developments and housin
g estates.'
Now, all discussions and work programmes relating to the implementation of gl
obal and local Agendas 21 and sustainable development appear - more than ever -r
emoved from reality in view of the unfolding Asian crisis - a human disaster wit
h millions of unemployed and landless people falling below the poverty line. Acc
ording to the latest figures from UN agencies, more than 100 million people in t
he region are newly impoverished. And there are growing fears that the machinati
ons of unregulated global speculative capital now threaten to ruin not only Asia
n economies but the rest of the world as well.
A major question that needs to be addressed in this context: Where will all t
he money come from for sustainable development and tourism projects? In Thailand
, for example, the World Bank and the Japanese OECF have agreed to provide loans
to improve and expand tourism as part of a social investment programme (SIP) ai
med at tackling the problems of unemployment and loss of income arising from the
economic crisis. It has been stressed that tourism development is crucial for t
he country's economic recovery, and 'community participation' and 'sustainabilit
y' are mentioned as major components in projects. But critics have warned that f
irstly, tourism is not a quick commodity that can pull the country out of its ec
onomic pains. And secondly, much of the borrowed money will be used for new deve
lopments in national parks and biodiversity-rich areas in the drive to promote '
eco-tourism'.
Let me confront you with a provocative idea now. It is not the longstanding e
fforts by the many experts promoting and working on the implementation of global
and local Agendas that bring us closer to sustainable tourism. Ironically, it i
s rather the current all-embracing crisis which may eventually make tourism more
sustainable - at least in environmental terms. Why?
First of all, a basic problem of sustainable tourism has been the rapidly exp
anding numbers of travellers. But as a result of the crisis, tourism growth has
come to a standstill. Due to currency devaluation, increasing unemployment, decl
ining income and deflation, Asian markets are collapsing. Even the numbers of Ja
panese going abroad for holidays are now declining for the first time in 18 year
s. European and American holidaymakers have also shunned South-East Asian countr
ies because of 1997's smog disaster, caused by forest fires in Indonesia, and po
litical turmoil in the region - e.g. in Burma, Cambodia and - more recently - In
donesia.
As the economic contagion is spreading, the travel fever that had gripped Rus
sia and other East European countries after the fall of the Soviet Union is also
on the wane, as the Russian currency, the rouble, has plummeted dramatically an
d the economy slumps. Moreover, amid the decline of business activities in Asia,
stockmarket slumps and fears of a global recession, nervous companies around th
e world are limiting corporate travel spending. The WTTC, which had earlier in 1
998 forecast growth averaging 7% a year throughout 2008, now expects the global
tourism market to remain flat in the next years. This may be bad in terms of eco
nomics but, unquestionably, the environment will benefit from stagnating or even
decreasing tourist numbers.
 For instance, the air travel industry has been identified as one of the bigge
st environmental villains in tourism. With fewer people travelling, however, the
Asia-Pacific aviation industry is now flying into a deep recession. Airlines ar
e fighting for survival by closing or cutting unprofitable routes, selling aircr
aft and cancelling orders for new aircraft. Governments are forced to cut budget
s for airport expansion and construction. Ultimately, that means less pollution
and less environmentally damaging developments.
The real estate and construction industries, which are both inextricably linke
d to the tourism industry, were the first industries that crash-landed when the
Asian bubble economy burst. As a result, many speculative and unsustainable hote
l and resort development projects have been abandoned, and new construction is d
own to a trickle. An excellent example is golf, which became a symbol of globali
sed leisure and tourist lifestyle in Asian tiger societies. But as the frenzy to
build luxurious golf course complexes - including hotels, housing estates and s
hopping centres - has almost stopped completely, and middle-class people affecte
d by the crisis are turning away from the expensive sport of golf, environmental
ists can be relieved: The malaise of rampant land grabs, national park encroachm
ents, deforestation, etc. related to golf courses is no longer as threatening as
it was a few years ago.
On the other hand, while many tourism-related companies may have scrapped or
postponed potentially harmful projects, one needs to acknowledge that because of
the financial crunch, public and private investments in environmental protectio
n are also being cut. Moreover, there have been warnings that the crisis has res
ulted in an upsurge of crime, prostitution, drug abuse and other social vices re
lated to tourism.
Failed
But most importantly, Asian societies are beginning to realise that the curre
nt global economic capitalist system has utterly failed to bring achievements in
all terms. Now burdened with having to pay for the activities of unscrupulous s
peculators and additionally suffering from free-market-oriented structural adjus
tment programmes imposed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), people are lo
sing faith in a globalised economy. Some experts even go so far as to say that f
ree trade and investment liberalisation is 'yesterday's story'. Malaysia in part
icular has recently taken decisive steps to shut itself off from global markets
by strictly controlling foreign capital flows.
Asian governments are now likely to move towards greater self-reliance as th
ey are pressured by people of all walks of life to look into economic strategies
that are chiefly based on domestic financial resources and the domestic market.
This involves the strengthening of the agricultural sector and local industries
to protect people's livelihoods in the first place. Forces still seeking to fur
ther prop up economically risky service industries such as tourism are likely to
be weakened.
Moreover, the crisis has also created considerable public debate about the i
mpacts of global culture and lifestyle, including the issues of consumerism and
the wasteful and unproductive use of resources. In several Asian countries - suc
h as Korea, Thailand and Malaysia - outbound tourism is now being discouraged as
it is seen as conspicuous consumption that has contributed to the negative bala
nce of payments.
The issues of democracy and human rights are also gaining momentum in the re
gion. As never before, people are making use of their civil rights and call for
transparency and democratic procedures to phase out corruption and harmful gover
nment policies and development plans. The growing opposition of Thai environment
alists and villagers to the move of the government to open up protected areas fo
r 'mass eco-tourism' is just one example.
All in all, I believe, the current Asian crisis, which is likely to become a
global crisis, poses a fundamental challenge - and an important opportunity - t
o re-evaluate the issues of globalisation, sustainable development and tourism.
As Asian societies begin to acknowledge th
at rapid economic growth under global regimes has devastating effects on people'
s lives and the environment, we may find that a stringent regulation of tourism,
which involves a stricter limitation of tourist numbers and a halt to the unlim
ited spatial expansion of tourism, is better than further promoting tourism grow
th and hoping that this growth can be handled with 'good management', education
of tourists, etc. What the current crisis really appears to confirm is - what ma
ny tourism critics have been saying all along - the global tourism industry just
cannot be propelled towards sustainability under the conventional economic and
political structures. That means, efforts to implement social and environmental
agendas and sustainable tourism are unlikely to progress unless profound structu
ral changes take place in the global system. (Third World Resurgence No. 103, Ma
rch 1999)
Anita Pleumarom coordinates the Bangkok-based Tourism Investigation & Monitor
ing Team (t.i.m.-team) and publishes New Frontiers - a bimonthly newsletter on
tourism, development and environment issues in the Mekong region - with support
from TWN.