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(OLM
TH E O AK
– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
huania. It is the perfect timber for furniture, since its structure is really hard
and it hardly ever rots. The leaves were used as food for the cattle, the acorns
for both animal- and human food. The barrels in which whisky and wine was
aged was made out of oak wood. And it was, and is, a symbol of majesty.
Picture 1 and 2:
Through history, oak timber
has been used by mankind
for the construction of i.e.
houses, churches and ships.
Picture 3:
A field with old pollarded
oak trees – a method that
has been used to prevent
the tree from casting shade,
and also to protect valuable
timber from grazers.
Picture 4:
Coppicing is the practice
of cutting trees to ground
level, in order for the tree to
produce more timber.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
was a closed canopy forest. Forest reserves are considered to be modern ana-
logues of the primeval vegetation. Because in high densities existing grazing
and browsing animals can prevent the regeneration of trees in forests, these
animals are also artificially kept in low densities in these forest reserves. Wit-
hout a sufficient amount of wild ungulates, and the domestic animals remo-
ved from the landscape, the wood pastures soon turned into closed canopy
forests, where oak and other light-demanding species disappear.
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Picture 2: Different lines of oaks in Europe, one emerging from Italy (red dots) and one from Spain (yellow dots).
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
trees. Finally, they marked the trees that were supposed to be saved with a
sign.
In the second nationwide inventory, in 1819-1825, the navy officers that
performed it discovered that the number of good oaks had been reduced by
82 percent. The parliament came up with a solution in 1828, to try and save
the oaks. New trees, useful for the crown, were to be planted. At the same
time they decided that the peasants could buy the oaks on their land after a
new inventory. In 1832, a new inventory was made; this time not only the
good oaks were counted. This time, they marked the oaks that were going to
be felled – in the first inventories they marked the oaks they wanted to save.
The farmers oak-hatred, manifested in branch cutting, and the navy’s own
stamps ruined the timber trees. These scars were an easy way in for fungus
that started the decay process. In addition, the navy’s selective felling of good
trees and the farmers legal felling for clearance contributed to a landscape
dotted with large numbers of dead, decaying and hollow trees. The resulting
landscape changes were initially good for biodiversity, since the decaying
trees maintained habitats for many species. However, since many of the good
oaks at the same time were cut down, there were few trees left to grow old
and to constitute new habitats for the insects and fungi.
The consequence of the oak-hatred and the battle between peasants and
the crown, as well as the massive felling of good oaks to build ships for the
war – was a rapid deterioration of oaks. Remaining oaks grew mostly on
noble land and crown estates and even today the best oak habitats are on
these land areas – as a memory of our history.
Plant
oak!
Picture 1: An old map over Lake Vättern and a request from the crown to plant new oaks.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
The expression “Tender oak trees and young noblemen should be hated” is
an ironic peasant saying originating from the 18th century. It expresses the
hatred within the peasant community towards the nobility and the oak trees,
caused by what they perceived as injustices in the contemporary Swedish fo-
restry acts.
In the Middle Ages the oak tree, regardless of its place of growth, was
more or less considered state property. During the 16th and 17th century this
policy was reinforced as a result of the consolidation of the state interests and
the expansion of its military power. The production of oak tree timber was
dedicated to the Royal Navy. Therefore the felling of oak trees was an exclu-
sive state affair on both crown land and on allodial land.
What caused the strong dislike for the oak among the peasants were obvi-
ously the restrictions on their land use but also the fact that the oak trees had
a negative impact on the arable land. The dense tree crowns shaded the fields
and stunted the crop growth. Due to the slow decomposition of the acidic
oak leaves, fields, meadows and grazing lands covered with oaks were also
generally less productive.
Picture 1: The appearance of the grand oak tree of Picture 2: Today the oak tree is seen as a versatile asset
Rumskulla is an obvious reminder of the great time which enriches the landscape in many ways. However,
depth of the landscape. Photo: Nicklas Jansson. only a few centuries ago it was a source of conflicts bet-
ween the state and the peasants. Photo: Kristina Ask.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Because the birds do not move more than ten kilometres, the fragmentation and the
loss of habitat eventually led to the bird’s extinction.
Picture 1 and 2:
Two species, highly associated with the oak. The
Lucanus cervus, which is still seen in the Swedish oak
landscape, and the Dendrocopos medius which has
now gone extinct in Sweden.
Photo: Aivars Petrins
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TH E O AK
– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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TH E O AK
– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
HIGH FOREST
Coniferous: 32–60 oak saplings per hectare
Broad-leaved: 56–146 oak saplings per hectare
Overall: 63–74 percent of all saplings in the study area (Southern third of
Sweden), grew in coniferous young and high forest. These saplings may be
favoured rather than removed and it is potentially easy to increase the density
of oak trees.
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Picture 1 and 2:
Before and after conserva-
tion cutting in one of the
study areas.
Picture 3 and 4:
The practice of conserva-
tion cutting allows the
sunlight to reach the
ground, which favours the
regeneration of oak.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Picture 1:
Co-creative sculpting by
fungi and oak.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
since it lives solely on old oaks. There are not enough middle-aged oaks to
replace the old ones as they die.
The most famous Swedish oak is probably Rumskullaeken in Småland.
It is a fairly low tree, but with a substantial girth - more than 14 meters in
circumference. It has been hollow for a long time; even Carl von Linné wrote
in his stories about the oak – and it was then used as a tool shed. It is the
fungus Fistulina hepatica that has contributed to the hole in the tree. The
activity of this fungus has precluded the possibility to decide the age of the
oak, but by omparing the tree to other oak trees the age is estimated to about
1 000 years. Many times, the individual oak is colonized by several different
fungi, both brown and white rot species. It is quite common that the fungi
specialize on different parts of the oak. Some species are for example almost
always found on thick branches, while others are mostly seen near the base
of the tree. One way to protect and preserve threatened species of fungi is to
leave dead branches and dead, standing or fallen trees. These will make up a
perfect substrate for several fungi. Most fungi do not infect undamaged oaks,
but a small scar on the trunk or a broken branch may be enough for a fungus
to colonize the wood. One way to preserve these fungi is to inoculate an oak
with mycelia. This will speed up the decay in fresh trees in order to create
habitats for rare insects, as well as to transfer rare and endangered wood
fungi.
Picture 1:
One of the inventoried sites
– a fjord slope.
Picture 2:
Fistulina hepatica
Picture 3:
One of the inventoried sites
– a wood pasture.
Picture 4:
Inonotus dryadeus
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Measuring rarity
There are several reasons why a species is rare. It can have a low mobility, the
niche can be rare, it can be under-recorded, unknown or a recent colonist. It
can even be a newly established non-native species. Traditional inventories
are therefore not always enough. A new tool, Index of Ecological Continuity
(IEC) is one way to reduce the uncertainty.
The Index of Ecological Continuity is a scoring system, used in order to
assist in the site assessment. It consists of a list where the different selected
beetles have scores according to their rarity and occurrence in old habitats
– the more restricted to habitats. The sum of all the scores of the species
found on a particular tree then signals the conservation value of that habitat.
The IEC saproxylic beetle list contains 180 species, which are graded ac-
cording to:
1. Only known from sites with old trees and long history (3 scores)
2. Mainly in the above (2 scores)
3. More widespread but collectively characteristic (1 score)
An IEC total score of 25 or more is assessed as a site having national
importance. The Index of Ecological Continuity, and the saproxylic beetle
list have to be revised over time and continuously developed. But, it provides
a working tool and a robust scheme for the nature conservation work. It is
now adopted by nature conservation agency in England, but there is also
need for a European IEC listing.
Figure 1:
Diagram showing Index of
Ecological Continuity (IEC)
for a number of sites in dif-
ferent age classes.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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TH E O AK
– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Picture 1: Picture 2:
Adult beetle of O. eremita. Photo: Niklas Distribution of O. eremita. Blue dot: last record before 1950, or the
Jönsson time unknown; black dot: last record 1950-1990; red dot: last record
in 1990 or later.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Nicklas.jansson@e.lst.se
karbe@ifm.liu.se
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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TH E O AK
– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Picture 1:
Average establishment rate for
oak seeding at 20 Danish ex-
periments at clearcuts. Some
were monitored only one year
and some up to four years.
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
or ancient tree was mapped and described and positioned on a GIS sheet, by
unemployed but trained people. More than 110 000 trees have been recor-
ded. Of these, 25 000 are oaks and 15 000 of these are more than one meter
in diameter. An additional 200 000 younger oaks have been counted, but not
described.
By a newly developed system for describing the hollowness in oaks, the
shortages of hollow and/or old oaks in certain areas was recorded. The sys-
tem consists of seven stages of which the first was not used in this study. The
possibilities for regeneration and the amount of replacement trees are now
quite well known. In this project there are also plans for restoration of over-
grown pastures and oaks, with financial support to the landowners.
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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– HI S T ORY, E C OLO G Y MAN AG EMEN T AN D PLAN N IN G
P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
Replacement trees
Veteran tree management need to enhance the viability of the existing popu-
lation while incorporating an effective replacement strategy for young trees.
The loss of ancient trees is slow and hard to recover from - with 40 percent
fewer saplings you get 40 percent fewer trees 250 years later. ITMPs are used
to guide the restoration program for individual veteran trees, using arbori-
cultural techniques such as retrenchment pruning. The plan runs for over 30
years with a number of return periods during those years.
New arboricultural techniques have been developed that mimic the natu-
ral processes in the way trees age, fracture and decline. This approach is influ-
enced by the many different disciplines that contribute to the ATF and this
now forms the basis of British “environmental arboriculture”. Some typical
methods in this approach include:
Picture 1, 2 and 3: Different arboricultural techniques to mimic the trees natural ageing process.
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
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P r oceed in gs f r om a con ference in Linköping, Sweden, 9 –11 May 2006
In the cultural landscape the oaks have niches in the forests managed as
coppice and standard system forests. In abandoned fields oaks have in the
intermediate succession stages a broad niche in time too.
However to stabilizing these systems it needs conservation cutting and
clearing, or grazing animals, otherwise beech trees take over and the old oak
slowly disappears in the forest.
In the modern cultural landscape, old oaks are often relics of former land
using practices. It is seen in coppice forests and coppice and standard system
forests and especially in formerly grazed forests. Almost like a testimony over
the close bonds between oak regeneration and a more open landscape.
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Picture 1:
Oak tree as a natural playground for
children.
Picture 2:
Eva is a new kind of landowner with
many goals for her forest.
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settlings and farmland on Omberg, and in the 17th and 18 th centuries the
landscape was more open than it is today.
These different data – the biodiversity, the cultural heritage and the forest
structure – together form the basis for the environmental management plan
for Ecopark Omberg. It includes a number of long-term goals that will help
to determine how the area will look like in the future:
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are too isolated. Maximum distance between them should be less than 200
meters and areas further apart from one another must be bridged.
The problem with fragmentation became even more urgent when the mu-
nicipality of Norrköping decided to plan for more exploitation in Händelö.
Hence, the landscape planning for restoration and management of the oak si-
tes in that area competed with the plans for further exploitation. In the harsh
reality, the oaks lost the battle – but not completely. There have been some
compromises between plans for development and exploitation and manage-
ment of oaks. At least it can be seen as a step in the right direction. In a total
area of two hectares, there are now 150 new oaks planted and 700 shrubs for
protection, and even more will be planted. Some gaps between the different
sites are bridged and there are several new regeneration areas.
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the southeast part of Sweden, which reflects the distribution of the O. eremita.
In total, SEK 33 million (equals EUR 3,6 million) have been spent on the
project. Of the 52 sites, 45 are now protected, while others are either ongoing
in protection or have been protected in some other way. The new updated
action plan is more ambitious – all sites with O. eremita should be included
in it, and also some future areas nearby. The goal is to reach 5 000 hectares
before 2015.
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has shifted towards understanding more clearly the relationship between the
old tree and its environment. This is mostly due to the establishment of the
Ancient Tree Forum, inspired by Ted Green, and has brought together ecolo-
gists, foresters and arborists.
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The uniqueness and the beauty of the landscape are well known. Unfor-
tunately there are also some problems and threats against these areas, like
ongoing overgrowth of single oak trees and habitats and problems with frag-
mentation, which decreases the ecological function of the areas. The situation
for legal protection is locked, and there is only a week interests for oak-fo-
restry. And of course – there are conflicts around planning issues.
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biological values. There are certainly ways to develop a forestry with more
concern to biodiversity, to aesthetic values and all other interests. However, it is
best done in cooperation with the landowners to get the best result possible.
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There will also be a lot of effort on the information and access to the
area. Walking tracks, information signs, folders, guided tours and local non-
governmental organisation activities.
The goals for the Tinnerö program is to create a grazed oak dominated
mosaic landscape, and to increase the amount of old trees and dead wood
to enhance biodiversity in the area. But also to have grazed conifer forests, a
well developed shrubbery of hazel, hawthorn, sloe and dog rose and a diverse
grassland – grazed or for haymaking.
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in diameter. For a steady state age distribution, there should be most oaks in
the lowest age classes, which is obviously not the case in this area.
Overall, there seem to be substantially more regeneration of oak in grazed
areas with thorny shrubs. In those areas, the oaks grow 85 times denser than
in the whole areas of ungrazed plots. There was no obvious difference bet-
ween the oak regeneration in small or large shrubs. However, there may be
an advantage for larger oak saplings in large shrubs since they will have a
better protection from grazing.
Picture 1: Karin Bornefall and Karl-Olof Bergman in the study-site in Brokind oak- Picture 2: Liocola marmorata
landscape.
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leaving oak and hazel to grow more successfully. Some rocky areas with
aspen are also left without too much clearing – the idea is to create a mosaic
landscape. The sites are Woodland Key Habitats and the clearance was done
purely to benefit nature conservation.
A sustainable project
A total of 70 hectares are now used as single grazing areas. There are almost
no thorny shrubs in the area, which may complicate the regeneration of oaks
when they let the animals graze the area.
Long-term solutions for the land use on Adelsnäs have to take both
the ecologic- and the economic matters into consideration. There has to be
concern over biological and natural values as well as over the yield from the
forestry and farming. And the fact is that the restoration project is already
financially viable. Clearing of the overgrown areas has resulted in a profit of
around SEK 450 000, after the costs for labour is withdrawn.
Restoration is a partnership between the landowner and the nature con-
servation advisors.
The future management on Adelsnäs is vital to the values in this oak
landscape, not only for conservation of biodiversity, but also for recreational
values.
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Händelö
Händelö is an island, and an industrial area, situated in the outermost areas
of Norrköping. The island is surrounded by Motala ström, Lindökanalen and
Bråviken. It has a quite heavy industry, with harbours, warehouses, chemical
industries and a power plant. It also has some oak habitats – of which all are
Natura-2000 areas.
In summary, there are not only heavy industry, and there are not only
oaks, but a mixture. The island also possess a population of Hermit beetle
and 25 more species that are on the national red list for threatened species.
This makes Händelö one of the most exclusive areas in Östergötland, when it
comes to insect fauna. Of the totally 60 surveyed areas in the best oak envi-
ronments in Östergötland, Händelö is placed fourth regarding species diver-
sity.
In the year 2002, the work with a more extensive overview commenced.
It is a document about how the municipality is going to develop during the
upcoming years – what kind of exploitation is to take place and which areas
should be spared. Already in an early phase of the work with the plan, the
ecologists from the municipality and the County Administrative Board star-
ted to work with how to try and save these unique oak environments. The
challenge was to call attention to the oaks in between and in the middle of all
heavy industry and roads.
There was not a complete success, but it was not either a complete loss.
Some areas were actually set of for oak plantations and oak regeneration,
while some others – despite having high natural values – are now going to be
exploited. One experience drawn from this example is that it is vital to show
the authorities the high natural values practically. Only if they have smelt
it, seen it, heard it and felt it, they will really understand the value of these
areas.
One of the politicians in the municipality fought hard for the oaks. She
managed to increase the area set aside for oak plantations to the 60 hectares
that exists today – the area that Karl Olof Bergman, from Linköping Uni-
versity, believes is a minimum area for a self-supporting oak area. With her
struggle she succeeded in increasing the area with fourteen percent.
It was five years since the first oak plantations started on one of the fields.
They are nursed by thorny shrubs and have now reached the height of two
meters. Beside the oaks, there are also hawthorn, sloe and dog rose newly
planted as a protection for the oak seedlings and oak sapling.
Ingelstad
Just in the middle of Ingelstad activity area, there is an extremely valuable
and species rich oak pasture. It is a Natura-2000 area and also protected
as a natural reserve. The ecologists in the municipality have worked hard
with the management and land use practices in the area during several years.
They have also had a clear focus on the natural areas close to the city centre
and highly populated areas. Oak landscapes tend to have a special place in
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people’s minds and it is therefore quite easy to awaken further interest for
these areas.
One example is the really popular beetle-safaris that the municipality
invite the inhabitants to. Once, there were more than 200 participants in one
day, on two safaris.
Picture 2: Excursion to Händelö, where Kjell Antonsson is giving a lecture. Picture 3: Thomas Appelkvist
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But the area does not only have a social- or recreational value. There is
also the natural value. In an inventory carried out last summer, a number of
red listed wood inhabiting insects were found. Ingelstad is one of the most
species diverse environments in the county, as is also Händelö. These two are
among the top ten in the country regarding species richness. There are a lot
of traces after these insects, for instance body parts from the Hermit beetle,
as well as cocoons and excrements.
The oak pasture was cleared in the beginning of the 1990s and is grazed
by sheep today. It was overgrown before, and had been so for a number of
years. The clearing was done with cautiousness, and the bushes that were
there were left in the first clearing. After seven years the area was thinned
out even more, and now the time is right for a complete clearing around the
old oak trees. The area has a really beautiful mosaic character, even though
the old oaks are a little bit to near one another. The area is ten hectares, and
there are more than 150 old hollow oaks. Even though there are quite a lot
of trees, and they are fairly close to each other, there are some really nice gaps
in the landscape.
Bråborg
Bråborg is situated 15 kilometres east of Norrköping, just beside Bråviken, a
bay in the Baltic Sea. It is a part of Svensksundsvikens nature reserve. There
are approximately 140 hollow oaks in the area and the total core area is 64
hectares.
In an ongoing project, the municipality of Norrköping restores the oak
landscape, in order to create a mosaic landscape. There are some oak planta-
tions, sheltered by different kinds of shrubs. There are plans for a new lands-
cape management in the area, which includes practices like nursing of shrubs,
edge management, construction of corridors and avenues, stepping stones for
dispersal and a forest management that favours oak trees.
61
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