BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY

A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two principal parts: the furnace, which
provides heat, usually by burning a fuel, and the boiler proper, a device in which the heat changes water
into steam. The steam or hot fluid is then recirculated out of the boiler for use in various processes in
heating applications.

The water circuit of a water boiler can be summarized by the following picture:

The boiler receives the feed water, which consists of varying proportion of recovered condensed
water (return water) and fresh water, which has been purified in varying degrees (make up water).
The make-up water is usually natural water either in its raw state, or treated by some process before
use. Feed-water composition therefore depends on the quality of the make-up water and the amount
of condensate returned to the boiler. The steam, which escapes from the boiler, frequently contains
liquid droplets and gases. The water remaining in liquid form at the bottom of the boiler picks up all
the foreign matter from the water that was converted to steam. The impurities must be blown down
by the discharge of some of the water from the boiler to the drains. The permissible percentage of
blown down at a plant is strictly limited by running costs and initial outlay. The tendency is to reduce
this percentage to a very small figure.

Proper treatment of boiler feed water is an important part of operating and maintaining a boiler system. As
steam is produced, dissolved solids become concentrated and form deposits inside the boiler. This leads to
poor heat transfer and reduces the efficiency of the boiler. Dissolved gasses such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide will react with the metals in the boiler system and lead to boiler corrosion. In order to protect the
boiler from these contaminants, they should be controlled or removed, trough external or internal
treatment.

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In the following table you can find a list of the common boiler feed water contaminants, their effect
and their possible treatment.

IMPURITY RESULTING IN GOT RID OF BY COMMENTS

Soluble Gasses
Water smells like rotten
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) eggs: Tastes bad, and is
corrosive to most metals.
Corrosive, forms carbonic
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
acid in condensate.
Corrosion and pitting of
Oxygen (O2)
boiler tubes.
Suspended Solids
Sediment & Turbidity Sludge and scale carryover. Clarification and filtration.
Carryover, foaming, deposits
Clarification; filtration, and
Organic Matter can clog piping, and cause
chemical treatment
corrosion.
Aeration, Filtration, and
Chlorination.
Deaeration, neutralization
with alkalis.
Deaeration & chemical
treatment with (Sodium
Sulphite or Hydrazine)
Found mainly in
groundwater, and polluted
streams.
Filming, neutralizing amines
used to prevent condensate
line corrosion.
Pitting of boiler tubes, and
turbine blades, failure of
steam lines, and fittings etc.
Tolerance of approx. 5ppm
max. for most applications,
10ppm for potable water.
Found mostly in surface
waters, caused by rotting
vegetation, and farm run
offs. Organics break down to
form organic acids. Results
in low of boiler feed-water
pH, which then attacks boiler
tubes. Includes diatoms,
molds, bacterial slimes,
iron/manganese bacteria.
Suspended particles collect
on the surface of the water
in the boiler and render
difficult the liberation of
steam bubbles rising to that
surface.. Foaming can also
be attributed to waters
containing carbonates in
solution in which a light
flocculent precipitate will be
formed on the surface of the
water. It is usually traced to
an excess of sodium
carbonate used in treatment
for some other difficulty
where animal or vegetable
oil finds its way into the
boiler.

Dissolved Colloidal Solids

Oil & Grease Foaming, deposits in boiler Coagulation & filtration Enters boiler with
2

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Scale deposits in boiler,
inhibits heat transfer, and
Hardness, Calcium (Ca), thermal efficiency. In severe
and Magnesium (Mg)
cases can lead to boiler tube
burn thru, and failure.
Foaming, carbonates form
carbonic acid in steam,
Sodium, alkalinity, NaOH, causes condensate return
NaHCO3, Na2CO3 line, and steam trap
corrosion, can cause
embrittlement.
Hard scale if calcium is
Sulphates (SO4)
present
Priming, i.e. uneven delivery
of steam from the boiler
(belching), carryover of
water in steam lowering
Chlorides, (Cl)
steam efficiency, can deposit
as salts on superheaters and
turbine blades. Foaming if
present in large amounts.
Deposits in boiler, in large
Iron (Fe) and
amounts can inhibit heat
Manganese (Mn)
transfer.
Hard scale in boilers and
Silica (Si) cooling systems: turbine
blade deposits.
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Characteristics of boiler feed water
Water absorbs more heat for a given temperature rise than any other common inorganic substance.
It expands 1600 times as it evaporates to form steam at atmospheric pressure. The steam is capable
of carrying large quantities of heat. These unique properties of water make it an ideal raw material
Softening, plus internal
treatment in boiler.
Deaeration of make-up
water and condensate
return. Ion exchange;
deionization, acid treatment
of make-up water.
Deionization
Deionization
Aeration, filtration, ion
exchange.
Deionization; lime soda
process, hot-lime-zeolite
treatment.
condensate
Forms are bicarbonates,
sulphates, chlorides, and
nitrates, in that order. Some
calcium salts are reversibly
soluble. Magnesium reacts
with carbonates to form
compounds of low solubility.
Sodium salts are found in
most waters. They are very
soluble, and cannot be
removed by chemical
precipitation.
Tolerance limits are about
100-300ppm as CaCO3
Priming, or the passage of
steam from a boiler in
"belches", is caused by the
concentration sodium
carbonate, sodium sulphate,
or sodium chloride in
solution. Sodium sulphate is
found in many waters in the
USA, and in waters where
calcium or magnesium is
precipitated with soda ash.
Most common form is ferrous
bicarbonate.
Silica combines with many
elements to produce
silicates. Silicates form very
tenacious deposits in boiler
tubing. Very difficult to
remove, often only by
flourodic acids. Most critical
consideration is volatile
carryover to turbine
components.
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for heating and power generating processes.All natural waters contain varying amounts of dissolved
and suspended matter and dissolved gases the amount of minerals dissolved in water varies from 30
mg/l in sea water to anything from 0.005 to 1 mg/l in fresh water supplies. Since water impurities
cause boiler problems, careful consideration must be given to the quality of the water used for
generating steam. The composition of boiler feed water must be such that the impurities in it can be
concentrated a reasonable number of times inside the boiler, without exceeding the tolerance limits
of the particular boiler design. If the feed water does not meet these requirements it must be
pretreated to remove impurities. The impurities need not be completely removed in all cases,
however, since chemical treatment inside the boiler can effectively and economically counteract
them.

Feed-water purity is a matter both of quantity of impurities and nature of impurities: some impurities
such as hardness, iron and silica are of more concern, for example, than sodium salts. The purity
requirements for any feed-water depend on how much feed water is used as well as what the
particular boiler design (pressure, heat transfer rate, etc.) can tolerate. Feed-water purity
requirements therefore can vary widely. A low-pressure fire-tube boiler can usually tolerate high
feed-water hardness with proper treatment while virtually all impurities must be removed from water.
used in some modern, high-pressure boilers.Only relatively wide ranges can be given as to maximum
levels of alkalis, salt, silica, phosphates etc, in relation to working pressure. The actual maximum
levels must be obtained from the boiler manufacturer, who will base them on the characteristics of
the boiler in question.

The given tables are extracts of recommended levels from APAVE (Association of electrical and steam
unit owners), up to pressures of 100 bar for medium steaming rates and for volumes of water in the
chambers sufficient to properly control the blow down rates, and from ABMA (American Boiler
Manufacturers Association) in its standard guarantee of steam purity.

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 Working Pressure (Bar)

0 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 40 - 60 60 - 75 75 - 100
Feed water
Dissolved
oxygen
(measured
mg/l 0.02 (Physical removal of dissolved oxygen)
before oxygen
scavenger
addition)
French
0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total hardness degrees
Oily matter mg/l absence 0.05 0.05 0.05
pH > 8.5
Total Iron not specified 0.05 0.05 0.03
mg/l
Total copper not specified 0.03 0.03 0.01
Boiler water
M alkalinity French 100 80 60 40 15 10 5
P alkalinity degrees 0.07 M 0.07 M 0.07 M 0.07 M > 0.5 M > 0.5 M > 0.5 M
SiO2 200 150 90 40 15 10 5
TDS mg/l 4000 3000 2000 1500 500 300 100
Phosphates 30 to 100 31 to 100 20 to 80 21 to 80 10 to 60 10 to 40 5 to 20
pH 10.5 to 12 10 to 11
Make up water Softened or softened and carbonate free Demineralized
Given table are extracts of recommended levels from APAVE & ABMA

Boiler Feed Water Boiler Water

Specific
Drum Total Total
Iron Copper Silica Conductance
Pressure Hardness Alkalinity**
(ppm Fe) (ppm Cu) (ppm SiO2) (micromhos/cm)
(psi) (ppm CaCO3) (ppm CaCO3)
(unneutralized)

0-300 0.100 0.050 0.300 150 700* 7000

301-450 0.050 0.025 0.300 90 600* 6000

451-600 0.030 0.020 0.200 40 500* 5000

601-750 0.025 0.020 0.200 30 400* 4000

751-900 0.020 0.015 0.100 20 300* 3000

901-1000 0.020 0.015 0.050 8 200* 2000

1001-1500 0.010 0.010 0.0 2 0*** 150

1501-2000 0.010 0.010 0.0 1 0*** 100

ASME Guidelines for Water Quality in Modern Industrial Boilers for Reliable Continuous Operation

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The principal difficulties caused by water in boiler are:

1. Scaling

2. Foaming & Priming

Corrosion

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Scaling in boilers

Boiler scale is caused by impurities being precipitated out of the water directly on heat transfer
surfaces or by suspended matter in water settling out on the metal and becoming hard and adherent.
Evaporation in a boiler causes impurities to concentrate. This interferes with heat transfers and may
cause hot spots. Leading to local overheating. Scaling mechanism is the exceeding of the solubility
limits of mineral substances due to elevated temperature and solids concentration at the tube/water
interface. The deposition of crystalline precipitates on the walls of the boiler interferes with heat
transfer and may cause hot spots, leading to local overheating. The less heat they conduct, the more
dangerous they are.

Common feed water contaminants that can form boiler deposits include calcium, magnesium, iron,
aluminium, and silica. Scale is formed by salts that have limited solubility but are not totally insoluble
in boiler water. These salts reach the deposit site in a soluble form and precipitate.
The values corresponding to their thermal conductivity are:

Steel 15 kcal/m2.h per degree C

CaSO4 1-2 kcal/m2.h per degree C
CaCO3 0.5-1 kcal/m2.h per degree C
SiO2 0.2-0.5 kcal/m2.h per degree C

Scaling is mainly due to the presence of calcium and magnesium salts (carbonates or sulphates),
which are less soluble hot than cold, or to the presence of too high concentration of silica in relation
to the alkalinity of the water in the boiler. A carbonate deposit is usually granular and sometimes of
a very porous nature. The crystals of calcium carbonate are large but usually are matted together
with finely divided particles of other materials so that the scale looks dense and uniform. Dropping it
in a solution of acid can easily identify a carbonate deposit. Bubbles of carbon dioxide will effervesce
from the scale. A sulphate deposit is much harder and more dense than a carbonate deposit
because the crystals are smaller and cement together tighter. A Sulphate deposit is brittle, does not
pulverize easily, and does not effervesce when dropped into acid.

A high silica deposit is very hard, resembling porcelain. The crystal of silica are extremely small,
forming a very dense and impervious scale. This scale is extremely brittle and very difficult to
pulverize. It is not soluble in hydrochloric acid and is usually very light coloured.
Iron deposits, due either to corrosion or iron contamination in the water, are very dark coloured.
Iron deposits in boilers are most often magnetic. They are soluble in hot acid giving a dark brown
coloured solution.

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If unchecked, scaling causes progressive lowering of the boiler efficiency by heat retardation, acting
as an insulator. Eventually, scale built-up will cause the tube to overheat and rupture.
Boiler deposits can also cause plugging or partial obstruction of corrosive attack underneath the
deposits may occur. In general, boiler deposits can cut operating efficiency, produce boiler damage,
cause unscheduled boiler outages, and increase cleaning expense.

The first anti-scaling preventative measure is to supply good quality demineralised water as make–up
feed water. The purer the feed water is, the weaker the driving mechanism to form scale. Scale-
forming minerals that do enter the boiler can be rendered harmless by internal chemical treatment. A
long-established technique is to detach the hardness cations, magnesium and calcium, from the scale
forming minerals and to replace them with sodium ions.

Presence of Silica

Silica can vaporize into the steam at operating pressures as low as 28 bars. Its solubility in steam
increases with increased temperature; therefore, silica becomes more soluble as steam is
superheated. The conditions under which vaporous silica carryover occurs have been thoroughly
investigated and documented. Researchers have found that for any given set of boiler conditions
using demineralized or evaporated quality make-up water, silica is distribute between the boiler water
and the steam in a definite ratio. This ratio depends on two factors: boiler pressure and boiler water
pH. The value of the ratio increases almost logarithmically with increasing pressure and decreases
with increasing pH.If the silica enters the boiler water, the usual corrective action is to increase boiler
blowdown, to decrease it to acceptable levels and then to correct the condition that caused the silica
contamination.

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Foaming and priming in boilers

Boiler water carry-over is the contamination of the steam with boiler-water solids. Bubbles or froth
actually build up on the surface of the boiler water and pass out with the steam. This is called
foaming and it is caused by high concentration of any solids in the boiler water. It is generally
believed, however, that specific substances such as alkalis, oils, fats, greases, certain types of
organic matter and suspended solids are particularly conducive to foaming. In theory suspended
solids collect in the surface film surrounding a steam bubble and make it tougher. The steam bubble
therefore resists breaking and builds up foam. It is believed that the finer the suspended particles the
greater their collection in the bubble.

Priming is the carryover of varying amounts of droplets of water in the steam (foam and mist),
which lowers the energy efficiency of the steam and leads to the deposit of salt crystals on the super
heaters and in the turbines. Priming may be caused by improper construction of boiler, excessive
ratings, or sudden fluctuations in steam demand. Priming is sometimes aggravated by impurities in
the boiler-water. Some mechanical entertainment of minute drops of boiler water in the steam always
occurs. When this boiler water carryover is excessive, steam-carried solids produce turbine blade
deposits. The accumulations have a composition similar to that of the dissolved solids in the boiler
water. Priming is common cause of high levels of boiler water carryover. These conditions often lead
to super heater tube failures as well. Priming is related to the viscosity of the water and its tendency
to foam. These properties are governed by alkalinity, the presence of certain organic substances and
by total salinity or TDS. The degree of priming also depends on the design of the boiler and its
steaming rate.

The most common measure to prevent foaming and priming is to maintain the concentration of solids
in the boiler water at reasonably low levels. Avoiding high water levels, excessive boiler loads, and
sudden load changes also helps. Very often contaminated condensate returned to the boiler system
causes carry-over problems. In these cases the condensate should be temporarily wasted until the
source of contamination is found and eliminated. The use of chemical anti-foaming and anti-priming
agents, mixtures of surface-active agents that modify the surface tension of a liquid, remove foam
and prevent the carry-over of fine water particles in the stream, can be very effective in preventing
carry-over due to high concentrations of impurities in the boiler-water.

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Corrosion in boilers
Corrosion is the reversion of a metal to its ore form. Iron, for example, reverts to iron oxide as the
result of corrosion. The process of corrosion, however is a complex electro chemical reaction and it
takes many forms. Corrosion may produce general attach over a large metal surface or it may result
in pinpoint penetration of metal. Corrosion is a relevant problem caused by water in boilers. Corrosion
can be of widely varying origin and nature due to the action of dissolved oxygen, to corrosion
currents set up as a result of heterogeneities on metal surfaces, or to the iron being directly attacked
by the water. While basic corrosion in boilers may be primarily due to reaction of the metal with
oxygen, other factors such as stresses, acid conditions, and specific chemical corrodents may have an
important influence and produce different forms of attack. It is necessary to consider the quantity of
the various harmful substances that can be allowed in the boiler water without risk of damage to the
boiler. Corrosion may occur in the feed-water system as a result of low pH water and the presence of
dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide.Starting form these figures, and allowing the amount that can
be blown down, the permitted concentration in the make-up water is thus defined.
Corrosion is caused principally by complex oxide-slag with low melting points. High temperature
corrosion can proceed only if the corroding deposit is in the liquid phase and the liquid is in direct
contact with the metal. Deposits also promote the transport of oxygen to the metal surface.
Corrosion in the boiler proper generally occurs when the boiler water alkalinity is low or when the
metal is exposed to oxygen bearing water either during operation or idle periods. High temperatures
and stresses in the boiler metal tend to accelerate the corrosive mechanisms. In the steam and
condensate system corrosion is generally the result of contamination with carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Specific contaminants such as ammonia or sulphur bearing gases may increase attack on copper
alloys in the system.Corrosion is caused by the combination of oxide layer fluxing and continuous
oxidation by transported oxygen.

Cracking in boiler metal may occur by two different mechanisms. In the first mechanism, cyclic
stresses are created by rapid heating and cooling and are concentrated at points where corrosion has
roughened or pitted the metal surface. This is usually associated with improper corrosion prevention.
The second type of corrosion fatigue cracking occurs in boilers with properly treated water. In these
cases corrosion fatigue is probably a misnomer. These cracks often originate where a dense
protective oxide film covers the metal surfaces and cracking occurs from the action of applied cyclic
stresses. Corrosion fatigue cracks are usually thick, blunt and cross the metal grains. They usually
start at internal tube surfaces and are most often circumferential on the tube.

Corrosion control techniques vary according to the type of corrosion encountered. Major methods
include maintenance of the proper pH, control of oxygen, control of deposits, and reduction of
stresses trough design and operational practices.Deaeration and recently the use of membrane
contractors are the best and most diffused ways to avoid corrosion removing the dissolved gasses
(mainly O2 and CO2).

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Different Types Of Corrosion

• Galvanic corrosion
• Caustic corrosion /embrittlement
• Acidic corrosion
• Hydrogen embrittlement
• Oxygen attack
• Carbon dioxide attack

Galvanic corrosion in boilers

Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metal or alloy is electrically coupled to a different metal alloy. The
most common type of galvanic corrosion in a boiler system is caused by the contact of dissimilar
metals, such as iron and copper. This differential cells can also be formed when deposits are present.
Anything that results in a difference in electrical potential at discrete surface locations can cause a
galvanic reaction, including: scratches in a metal surface, differential stresses in a metal, differences
in temperature, conductive deposits.

Pitting of boiler tube banks has been encountered due to metallic copper deposits. Dissolved copper
may be plated out on freshly cleaned surfaces, establishing anodic corrosion areas and forming pits.

This process is illustrated by the following reactions.

Using hydrochloric acid as the cleaning solvent, magnetite is dissolved and yields an acid solution
containing both ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) chloride. The latter are very corrosive to steel and
copper.

Fe3O4 + 8 HCl  FeCl2 + 2 FeCl3 + 4H2O

Metallic or elemental copper in boiler deposits is dissolved in the hydrochloric acid solution by the
following reaction:

FeCl3 + Cu  CuCl + FeCl2

Once cuprous chloride is in solution, it is immediately redeposited as metallic copper on the steel
surface according to the following reaction:

2CuCl + Fe  FeCl2 + 2 Cu

Thus, hydrochloric acid cleaning can cause galvanic corrosion. A complexing agent is added to
prevent the copper from redepositing on the steel surface. The following chemical reaction results:

FeCl3 + Cu + Complexing agent  FeCl2 + CuCl

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This can take place as a separate step or during acid cleaning. Both iron and copper are removed from the
boiler, and the boiler surface can then be passivated.

Caustic corrosion/ embrittlement in boilers

Concentration of caustic (NaOH) can occur as a result of steam blanketing (which allow salts to
concentrate on boiler metal surface) or by localized boiling beneath porous deposits on tube surface.
Caustic corrosion occurs when caustic is concentrated and dissolves the protective magnetite (Fe 3O4)
layer, causing a loss of base metal and eventual failure.

The following conditions appear to be necessary for this type of cracking to occur :

1. The metal must be stressed,

2. the boiler-water must contain caustic,
3. at least a trace of silica must be present in the boiler-water, and
4. some mechanisms, such as a slight leak, must be present to allow the boiler
water to concentrate on the stressed metal.

Stem blanketing is a condition that occurs when a steam layer forms between the boiler water and
the tube wall. Under this condition, insufficient water reaches the tube surface for efficient heat
transfer. The water that reaches the overheated boiler wall is rapidly vaporized, leaving behind a
concentrated caustic solution, which is corrosive.

Boiler feed water systems using demineralized or evaporated make up or pure condensate may be
protected from caustic attack through coordinated phosphate/pH control. Phosphate buffers the boiler
water, reducing the chance of large pH changes due to the development of high caustic
concentrations. Excess caustic combines with disodium phosphate and forms trisodium phosphate, by
the following reaction:

Na2HPO4 + NaOH  Na3PO4 + H2O

This results in the prevention of caustic buildup beneath deposits or within a crevice where leakage is
occurring.

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Acidic corrosion in boilers

Low make up feed water pH can cause serious acid attack on metal surfaces in the preboiler and
boiler system. Feed water can also become acidic from contamination of the system (process
contamination of condensate or cooling water contamination from condensers).
Acidic corrosion can also be caused by chemical cleaning operations (overheating of the cleaning
solution, excessive exposure of metal to cleaning agent, high cleaning agent concentration).

In the boiler and feed water system, acidic attack can take the form of general thinning, or it can be
localized at areas of high stress.

Hydrogen embrittlement in boilers

Hydrogen embrittlement of mild steel boiler tubing occurs in high-pressure boilers (above 10 bars)
when atomic hydrogen forms at the boiler tube surface as a result of corrosion.
Hydrogen permeates the tube metal, where it can react with iron carbides to form methane gas, or
with other hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen gas. These gases evolve predominantly along grain
boundaries of the metal. The result increase in pressure leads to metal failure. Coordinated
phosphate/pH control can be used to minimize the decrease in boiler water pH that result from
condenser leakage. Maintenance of clean surfaces and the use of proper procedures for acid cleaning
also reduce the potential for hydrogen attack.

Oxygen attack in boilers

Without proper mechanical and chemical deaeration, oxygen in the feed water enters the boiler. Much
is flashed off with the steam; the remainder can attack boiler metal. Oxygen in water produces
pitting that is very severe because of its localized nature. Water containing ammonia, particularly in
the presence of oxygen, readily attacks copper and copper bearing alloys. The resulting corrosion
leads to deposits on boiler heat transfer surfaces and reduces efficiency and reliability.

Oxygen is highly corrosive when present in hot water. Even small concentrations can cause serious
problems: iron oxide generated by the corrosion can produce iron deposits in the boiler. Oxygen
corrosion may be highly localized or may cover an extensive area. Oxygen attack is an
electrochemical process that can be described by the following reactions:

Anode: Fe  Fe2+ + 2e-

Cathode: ½ O2 + H2O + 2e-  2 OH-

Overall: Fe + ½ O2 + H2O  Fe(OH)2

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In this reaction a temperature rise provides enough additional energy to accelerate reactions at the
metal surfaces, resulting in a rapid and severe corrosion.

The acceptable dissolved oxygen level for any system depends on may factors, such as feed water
temperature, pH, flow rate, dissolved solids content, and the metallurgy and physical condition of the
system. In general, the limit value of oxygen in make up water can be stared 0.10 mg/kg

For a complete protection from oxygen corrosion, a chemical scavenger is required following
mechanical deaeration. Membrane contractors are also a possibility.

Carbon dioxide attack in boilers

Carbon dioxide exists in aqueous solutions as free carbon dioxide and the combine forms of
carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Corrosion is the principal effect of dissolved carbon dioxide. The gas
will dissolve in water, producing corrosive carbonic acid:

H2O + CO2  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-

The low pH resulting from this reaction also enhances the corrosive effect of oxygen.

In boiler systems, corrosion resulting from carbon dioxide is most often encountered in the
condensate system. Because feed water deaeration normally removes carbon dioxide from the boiler
feed water, the presence of the gas in condensate is typically due to carbonate and bicarbonate
decomposition under boiler conditions. For an approximation is estimated that feed water with a total
alkalinity of 100 mg/l as calcium carbonate could be expected to generate a carbon dioxide level of
79 mg/l in the steam (alkalinity multiplied by a factor 0.79). Such a high carbon dioxide level would
create a very corrosive condensate. Carbon dioxide corrosion is frequently encountered in condensate
systems and less commonly in water distribution systems.

Carbon dioxide Corrosion Control Programs

The basic approach to chemical treatment of condensate systems is through the use of neutralizing
amines, filming amines, combinations of both amines and hydrazine.

Neutralising Amines. Simply stated, neutralizing amines hydrolyze in water to generate the necessary
hydroxide ions required for neutralization of the carbon dioxide. The normal approach to treating
systems with these amines is to feed sufficient quantity to neutralize the carbon dioxide and then
provide small additional amounts to buffer the pH to 8.5 or 9.0. At this pH, continued preservation of
the magnetite film is also achieved. It is also implied that corrosion will not exist at a pH>8.0-8.5.

14
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