Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Toward a
Consistent Design of
Structural Concrete
74
CONTENTS
Synopsis............................................. 77
Acknowledgment......................................147
References...........................................146
The truss model is today considered tie-models condense all stresses in com-
by researchers and practitioners to be pression and tension members and join
the rational and appropriate basis for the them by nodes.
design of cracked reinforced concrete This paper describes how strut-and-
beams loaded in bending, shear and tor- tie-models can be developed by fol-
sion. However, a design based on the lowing the path of the forces throughout
standard truss model can cover only a structure. A consistent design ap-
certain parts of a structure. proach for a structure is attained when
At statical or geometrical discontinu- its tension and compression members
ities such as point loads or frame cor- (including their nodes) are designed
ners, corbels, recesses, holes and other with regard to safety and serviceability
openings, the theory is not applicable. using uniform design criteria.
Therefore, in practice, procedures The concept also incorporates the
which are based on test results, rules of major elements of what is today called
thumb and past experience are usually "detailing," and replaces empirical pro-
applied to cover such cases. cedures, rules of thumb and guess work
Since all parts of a structure including by a rational design method. Strut-and-
those mentioned above are of similar tie-models could lead to a clearer under-
importance, an acceptable design con- standing of the behavior of structural
cept must be valid and consistent for concrete, and codes based on such an
every part of any structure. Further- approach would lead to improved
more, since the function of the experi- structures,
ment in design should be restricted to The authors are aware of the en-
verify or dispute a theory but not to de- couraging fact that, although they pub-
rive it, such a concept must be based on lished papers on this topic earlier,1.2.3
physical models which can be easily they are neither the first nor the only
understood and therefore are unlikely to ones thinking and working along these
be misinterpreted. lines. It was actually at the turn of the last
For the design of structural concrete* century, when Ritter*' and Mcirsch s in-
it is, therefore, proposed to generalize troduced the truss analogy. This method
the truss analogy in order to apply it in was later refined and expanded by
the form of strut-and-tie-models to every Leonhardt, ° Rusch, 7 Kupfer, 8 and others
part of any structure. until Thurlimann's Zurich school, a with
This proposal is justified by the fact Marti lu and Mueller," created its scien-
that reinforced concrete structures carry tific basis for a rational application in
loads through a set of compressive stress tracing the concept back to the theory of
fields which are distributed and inter- plasticity.
connected by tensile ties. The ties may Collins and Mitchell further consid-
be reinforcing bars, prestressing ten- ered the deformations of the truss model
dons, or concrete tensile stress fields. and derived a rational design method for
For analytical purposes, the strut-and- shear and torsion."
In various applications, Bay, Franz,
Leonhardt and Thurlimann had shown
'Following a proposal by Dr. J. E. Breen and that strut-and-tie-models could be use-
Dr. A. S. C. Bruggeling, the term "structural fully applied to deep beams and corbels.
concrete" covers all loadbearing concrete, including
reinforced, prestressed and also plain (unrein-
From that point, the present authors
forced concrete, if the latter is part of a reinforced began their efforts to systematically ex-
concrete structure. pand such models to entire structures
76
Synopsis
Certain parts of structures are de- ing structural concrete, which includes
signed with almost exaggerated accu- both reinforced and prestressed con-
racy while other parts are designed crete structures.
using rules of thumb or judgment This report shows how suitable
based on past experience. How- models are developed and proposes
ever, all parts of a structure are of criteria according to which the model's
similar importance. elements can be dimensioned uni-
A unified design concept, which is formly for all possible cases. The con-
consistent for all types of structures cept is explained using numerous de-
and all their parts, is required. To be sign examples, many of which treat
satisfactory, this concept must be the effect of prestress.
based on realistic physical models. This report was initially prepared for
Strut-and-tie-mode Is, a generalization discussion within CEB (Comitd
of the well known truss analogy Euro-International du Beton) in con-
method for beams, are proposed as nection with the revision of the Model
the appropriate approach for design- Code,
t n
-^ t,
b)
IIFH 2. h—L
h
I
Fig. 1 D-regions (shaded areas) with nonlinear strain distribution due to (a) geometrical
discontinuities; (b) statical and/or geometrical discontinuities.
78
Fig. 2. Stress trajectories in a B-region and near discontinuities
(D-regions).
corbels and splitting tension at pre- design procedure for the B-regions are
stressed concrete anchorages. And even then readily available and only the
these approaches usually only lead to strut-and-tie-models for the D-regions
the design of the required amount of remain to be developed and added.
reinforcement; they do not involve Stresses and stress trajectories are
a clear check of the concrete quite smooth in B-regions as compared
stresses. to their turbulent pattern near discon-
The inadequate (and inconsistent) tinuities (see Fig. 2). Stress intensities
treatment of D-regions using so-called decrease rapidly with the distance from
"detailing," "past experience" or "good the origin of the stress concentration.
practice" has been one of the main rea- This behavior allows the identification
sons for the poor performance and even of B- and D-regions in a structure.
failures of structures. It is apparent, In order to find roughly the division
then, that a consistent design lines between B- and D-regions, the
philosophy must comprise both B- and following procedure is proposed, which
D-regions without contradiction. is graphically explained by four exam-
Considering the fact that several de- ples as shown in Fig. 3:
cades after MOrsch, the B-region de- 1. Replace the real structure (a) by the
sign is still being disputed, it is only rea- fictitious structure (b) which is loaded in
sonable to expect that the more complex such a way that it complies with the
D-region design will need to be sim- Bernoulli hypothesis and satisfies
plified with some loss of accuracy. equilibrium with the sectional forces.
However, even a simplified methodical Thus, (b) consists entirely of one or sev-
concept of D-region design will be pref- eral B-regions. It usually violates the
erable to today's practice. The preferred actual boundary conditions.
concept is to use the strut-and-tie-model 2. Select a self-equilibrating state of
approach. This method includes the stress (c) which, if superimposed on (b),
B-regions with the truss model as a spe- satisfies the real boundary conditions of
cial case ofa strut-and-tie model. (a).
In using the strut-and-tie-model ap- 3. Apply the principle of Saint-Wnant
proach, it is helpful and informative to (Fig. 4) to (c) and find that the stresses
first subdivide the structure into its B- are negligible at a distance a from the
and D-regions. The truss model and the equilibrating forces, which is approxi-
d ht^
+ B
d=h
{c1
hlMI l t i M3 h2
V ^^
M1 VM M3
c b1
(c)
+ i U.
-dr r+–d 2 = h2
{ d1
iB / B
80
a]
IL l I 4 3 TTTTT r I- m
h
t t^
(C) d=h_,
+ I
rth
tf1:!II!1IIIIle!!!:
(a]
^`. d=b
D ^ ^ I^
f
Fig. 3.4. T-beam.
Fig. 3. Subdivision of four structures into their B- and D-regions, using Saint
Venant's principle (Fig. 4).
F a
6=0\i0
6 ^ d=h
b) F
y4______
2y!_2
?_iTIh
HI
d=h d
_' Y
" x x
1.0 h 10 h
dydy
1,0 h 1,0 h
mately equal to the maximum distance ation may influence the extent of the
between the equilibrating forces them- D-regions but needs no further discus-
selves. This distance defines the range sion since the principle of Saint-V€nant
of the D-regions (d). itself is not precise and the dividing
It should be mentioned that cracked lines between the B- and D-regions
concrete members have different stiff- proposed here only serve as a qualita-
nesses in different directions. This situ- tive aid in developing the strut-and-
82
p h
B B t
^ B
/a2h
c) }
B ^' B
B B
^a
0 ^h
f^4h
hI h B
01"Okol UIF^ B
I >Zh^•4h1
r r
f ► f
Fig. 6. A frame structure containing a substantial part of B-regions, its statical system and
its bending moments.
84
Fig. 7, Prismatic stress fields according to the theory of
plasticity (neglecting the transverse tensile stresses
due to the spreading of forces in the concrete) are
unsafe for plain concrete.
analysis and B-region design provide sectional effects by a statical system may
also the boundary forces for the D-re- be omitted and the inner forces or stress-
gions of the same structure. es can be determined directly from the
Slabs and shells consist predom- applied loads following the principles
inantly of B-regions (plane strain dis- outlined for D-regions in Section 3.3.
tribution) - Starting from the sectional However, for structures with redundant
effects of the structural analysis, imagi- supports, the support reactions have to
nary strips of the structure can be mod- be determined by an overall analysis
elled like linear members. before strut-and-tie-models can be
If a structure consists of one D-region properly developed.
only (e.g., a deep beam), the analysis of In exceptional cases, a nonlinear fi-
hrte,
9, reg an O-region
/ truss
f
—multiple truss
Mlz
t t4.--
single truss —-
tt
multiple truss (steps) --^
C) beam
oc
T model
Cclx)
I)
Cclx-a1
aI^i Mx
E
-1 11
VIx al ^
xo
vx I T
vix a}^^ Tw _
Ts(x-a) o
w
8' x Tslx)
xb S
,h—a-z cot 8 —
8 ——
Cc Ix } —M ll - V2x Co t o
Cw I x }_ s V(x)
cwlxl b z sn
B Ismeo ed dogcrd stress)
Z
Twlx- l = V (x} –– V(xJ a nil length of beam)
t w o) = z rat 9 (pEr
TS (xl= M x) • -
V cot 8
Fig- 8. Truss model of a beam with cantilever: (a) model; (b) distribution of inner forces;
(c) magnitude of inner forces derived from equilibrium of a beam element.
86
Table 2. Overall structural behavior and method of overall structural analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.
Corresponding method of analysis
Limit Overall of sectional effects and support reactions
state structural behavior
Most adequate Acceptable
nite element method analysis may be tures for the sectional effects using a
applied. A follow-up check with a strut- linear elastic analysis is conservative.
and-tie-model is recommended, espe- Vice versa, the distribution of sectional
cially if the major reinforcement is not effects derived from plastic methods
modelled realistically in the FEM may for simplification purposes also be
analysis. used for serviceability checks, if the
structural design (layout of reinforce-
ment) is oriented at the theory of elas-
3.2 Comments on the Overall ticity.
Analysis
In order to be consistent, the overall 3.3 Modelling of Individual B- and
analysis of statically indeterminate
D-Regions
structures should reflect the realistic
overall behavior of the structure. The 3.3.1 Principles and General Design
intent of the following paragraph (sum- Procedure
marized in Table 2) is to give some After the sectional effects of the B-re-
guidance for the design of statically in- gions and the boundary forces of the D-
determinate structures. Some of this regions have been determined by the
discussion can also be applied to stat- overall structural analysis, dimensioning
ically determinate structures especially follows, for which the internal flow of
with regard to determining deforma- forces has to be searched and quantified:
tions. For uncracked B- and D-regions,
Plastic methods of analysis (usually standard methods are available for the
the static method) are suitable primarily analysis of the concrete and steel stress-
for a realistic determination of ultimate es (see Table 1). In the case of high
load capacity, while elastic methods are compressive stresses, the linear stress
more appropriate under serviceability distribution may have to be modified by
conditions. According to the theory of replacing Hooke's Law with a nonlinear
plasticity, a safe solution for the ultimate materials law (e.g., parabolic stress-
load is also obtained, if a plastic analysis strain relation or stress block).
is replaced by a linear or nonlinear If the tensile stresses in individual B-
analysis. Experience further shows that or D-regions exceed the tensile strength
the design of cracked concrete struc- of the concrete, the inner forces of those
88
- 10 l-a La lh
a)
I IH -k i T l I I
L// t-/--.
Cj ^J C1 ^ `l il Z
T --- strut
tie
a^- a
b)
A^ Mfr
0,5 ____
1 t5 d r2F
QG Z' a/1-01
70° 0,3
/P I art/pt
Q
1
0
0.5 0,5 0.7 9.8 09 1.0 1.1 1,? 1,3 1,6 1,5 lbd/t
maximum moments and zero shear and discussed later in Section 5.1.
for simplicity be kept constant between For the D-regions it is necessary to
two adjacent points of zero moments. develop a strut-and-tie-model for each
Refinements of B-region design will be case individually. After some training,
pi
loodpoth
cjr
T 1 ti'–—`r
IA lB
A B
IF
15'
S /^
A '
I II
B B P
F B B
F
this can be done quite simply. De- principal compressive stresses or the
veloping a strut-and-tie-model is com- more important struts and ties can be lo-
parable to choosing an overall statical cated at the center of gravity of the cor-
system. Both procedures require some responding stress diagrams, C and T in
design experience and are of similar rel- Fig. 9a, using the y diagram given
evance for the structure. there.
Developing the model ofa D-region is However, even if no elastic analysis is
much simplified if the elastic stresses available and there is no time to prepare
and principal stress directions are avail- one, it is easy to learn to develop strut-
able as in the case of the example shown and-tie-models using so-called "load
in Fig. 9. Such an elastic analysis is paths." This is demonstrated in more
readily facilitated by the wide variety of detail by some examples in the next
computer programs available today. The section.
direction of struts can then be taken in 3.3.2 The Load Path Method
accordance with the mean direction of First, it must be ensured that the outer
90
C
al
e hi Cl
Ir I 1 ^ `7^ - Q ^f
ILL Y s p _P L ^ ^
Fig. 12.1. A typical D-region: (a) elastic stress trajectories; (b) elastic stresses;
(c) strut-and-tie-models.
a a
IF
" t r ,,
dI4
d'r ICT jCr
1 t
8 t !
A I I
Fig. 12.2. Special case of the D-region in Fig. 12.1 with the load at the
corner; (b) elastic stresses; (c) strut-and-tie-models.
II ^
Iv Ti
Al Tc
shear force'
A B c
moment
b) A B m P '
I I
I !
H )
f/
C AT tc
strut
tie
_.^ load path
-mtea anchorage length of the bar
Fig. 13. Two models for the same case: (a) requiring oblique reinforcement;
(b) for orthogonal reinforcement.
begin and end at the center of gravity of stress concentrations (support reactions
the corresponding stress diagrams and or singular loads).
have there the direction of the applied Obviously, there will be some cases
Ioads or reactions. They tend to take the where the stress diagram is not com-
shortest possible streamlined way in pletely used up with the load paths de-
between. Curvatures concentrate near scribed; there remain resultants (equal
92