TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12, NO.

4, 2001, 417 - 428

Using the competing values framework to

investigate the culture of Qatar industries

Khalifa N. Al-khalifa & Elaine M. Aspinwall

School of Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham
B15 2TT, UK

abstract The last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the level of awareness and the
incidents of implementation of total quality management (TQM). However, not all the applications
have been successful. Amongst the many reasons given for the failures, the literature often points to
the constraining eþ ects of an organization’s culture as a major barrier. In fact, many published
studies that deal with the implementation of TQM almost exclusively acknowledge the importance of
cultural factors on the success or failure of the venture. The focus of this study was to investigate the
degree of compatibility of the culture that exists in the industries of one of the Arab countries, Qatar,
and that required for implementing TQM. This paper, in particular, discusses how the competing
values framework (CVF) can be used in this respect. (The authors had already used the framework
to help identify the necessary TQM cultural pro® le.) The medium used to gather the information
was a questionnaire, which was completed by 141 organizations. The results indicated that many
organizations in the country were not characterized by just one cultural type, but a mix of two, which
did not match the cultural pro® le characteristics that support TQM. Implementing organizational
culture change is not an easy task, but this assessment of the current position, using the CVF, has
highlighted where changes are needed to support a total quality approach.

Introduction
The globalization of markets around the world has been expedited by the rapid improvements
in information ¯ ow capabilities (e.g. the World Wide Web), new waves of technological
developments, increased competition from emerging economies and newly opened opportuni-
ties. These changes have also transformed organizational life. Maintaining successes has
become more diý cult as organizations face an environment that has become more dynamic,
more complex and more challenging. This has forced businesses to become less product-
driven and more market-oriented.
In an eþ ort to become more eý cient, more ¯ exible and more competitive in today’s
changing business environment, many companies and, indeed, countries have realized the
importance of management information and techniques sharing or transfer management.
This transfer of management has included management philosophies aimed at increasing
competitiveness, improving products/services and reducing costs. Total quality management
(TQM) is one such philosophy. It helps to transform an organization from an ineý cient one

Correspondence: Mrs. E. Aspinwall, School of Manuf. and Mech. Eng., University of B’ ham, Edgbaston, B’ ham
B15 2TT, UK. Tel: 0121 414 4249; Fax: 0121 414 4152; E-mail: E.Aspinwall@bham.ac.uk

ISSN 0954-4127 print/ISSN 1360-0613 online/00/040417-12 € 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/09544120120066037
418 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

with a heavy reliance on inspection and with an autocratic leadership and hierarchical control
to an environment of teamwork, of paying attention to customer needs and of satisfaction,
innovation and continuous process improvement. It does, however, require a variety of skills
and methods and a shift in organizational culture, which have not been part of the traditional
education and work experience in most developing countries. Organizations usually have
diþ erent backgrounds in terms of history, style of leadership, management and cultural
environment, so the drive to improve quality has to be managed diþ erently and every
organization has to develop its own, unique way of implementing TQM. However, it should
be noted that national culture, or the shared values of a country, in¯ uences organizational
culture/climate which in turn will in¯ uence the success of TQM (Tata & Prasad, 1998).
Generally speaking, organizations that have developed within a particular society usually have
similar cultures and related mindsets with regard to getting things done, who makes the
decision and how, production processes, hierarchy and organizational structure.
Several of the developing countries, such as Qatar in the Arabian Gulf, have begun to
realize the importance of quality in their economy. Many organizations in the region
acknowledge that their locally made goods are inferior in quality and more expensive to buy
than certain imported ones (Kathawala & Nanda, 1989). This, together with the increased
globalization of markets and the liberalization of local economies, has made it necessary for
governments and organizations in these countries to develop competitive strategies for their
businesses. Such strategies often recognize quality as their focal point (Madu, 1997).

National culture and TQM

Many business leaders in developing countries argue that `it worked in Japan so why shouldn’ t
it work here’ whenever the issue of transferring new technologies, and quality in particular,
arises. However, this argument often ``fails to recognise the importance of culture and its
in¯ uence in transplanting what has worked on a diþ erent cultural set-up without reviewing
its compatibility or incompatibility with diþ erent cultures’ ’ (Madu, 1997). The success
experienced by Japanese industries over the last three decades can probably be attributed to
their culture, and the compatibility between social and economic factors.
TQM has been applied successfully in culturally diverse settings and the history of these
applications suggests that, over time, TQM takes on some of the host country’s cultural
values (Roney, 1997). It is true that the principles of TQ/TQM, in general, are the same
everywhere, but their practical implementations are diþ erent, depending on history, culture,
environment and resources. Thus, it is important to consider these issues when studying the
implementation of TQM in developing countries. Madu (1997) recommended that culture
and climate variations be investigated in such regions, to explore and identify any gaps
between those in place and those required for TQM implementation. A survey of Western
and Oriental organizations by Smith et al. (reported in Chen & Lu, 1998) suggested that a
universal approach to quality management may not exist because of the diþ erent cultures. In
addition, Nasierowski and Coleman (1997) stated that the process of transferring TQM
should be improved by recognizing that the activities involved were not culture free. They
reported that ``an appreciation of the fact that there are always two cultures involved in a
transfer- that in which the technique was developed, and the culture to which the technique
is to be transferred- will lead to a fuller analysis of situations, and hopefully improve the
chances of a successful transfer’’ . Therefore, it is a mistake to adopt quality practices that
have worked in other countries or cultures without ® rst exploring the inherent diþ erences.
As highlighted earlier, every society has its own unique work ethics that have been
in¯ uenced by the peoples’ environment and attitudes over the years which, in turn, in¯ uences
 COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK 419

their views. Roney (1997) pointed out several diþ erent issues that exist between national
cultures; they were:
· the way people view the world;
· how they deal with uncertainty;
· the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups;
· the extent to which the less powerful organizations accept and expect what is distributed
unequally;
· how information is processed;
· the concept of time;
· how individuals establish relationships with others;
· the modality of human activity;
· what a human being’s relationship to nature is;
· the character of innate human nature.

Each of the above exists in every society and even in a given individual, but cultural norms
and expectations are generally based on a dominant shared value (Roney, 1997). Thus, codes
of appropriate behaviour and preferred management style, for example, are based on the
dominant values within a given society. These in¯ uence polices and procedures, reward
systems and norms of accepted behaviour within the organization. In addition, organizational
members share expectations that policies will be consistent with these dominant values.
This paper describes how a well-established, organizational theory instrument, the
competing values framework (CVF), has been used to study the types/characteristics of
organizational culture in Qatar industries and to compare them with those necessary to
implement TQM in the country. Before discussing the empirical study, the CVF and the
reasons for using it will be explained.

The competing values framework

This framework, which was originally developed for understanding organizational eþ ec-
tiveness, focuses on the competing tensions and con¯ icts of three dimensions that are usually
visible or inherent in organizations. They are the diþ ering organizational focus (emphasis on
internal versus external), preferences about structure (stability and control versus change and
¯ exibility) and focuses of important organizational processes and outcomes (means and ends)
(Zammuto & Krakower, 1991). The model has been called the competing values framework
``because the criteria seem to be carrying a con¯ icting message. We want our organizations
to be adaptable and ¯ exible, but we also want them to be stable and controlled. We want
growth, resource acquisition, and external support, but we also want tight information
management and formal communication. We want an emphasis on the value of human
resource but we also want an emphasis on planning and goal setting’’ (Quinn, 1988).
The CVF has been applied to issues ranging from leadership development to organiza-
tional change, and was then extended by Quinn and Kimberly (1984) to examine organiza-
tional culture. They suggested that the value orientations inherent in the framework could
be used to ``explore the deep structures of organisational culture, the basic assumptions that
are made about such things as the means to compliance, motives, leadership, decision
making, eþ ectiveness, values and organisational forms’’ . It connects the strategic, political,
interpersonal and institutional aspects of organizational life by considering the diþ erent
patterns of shared values, assumptions and interpretations that de® ne an organization’s
culture.
420 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

Group Culture Toward Developmental Culture

Decentralisation,
Differentiation

· Concern · Insight Toward

· Commitment · Innovation Expansion,
· Moral · Adaptation Transformation
Toward
Spontaneity Flexibility
Development of
Human Resources

· Discussion · External Support

· Participation · Resource Acquisition
Toward · Openness · Growth Toward
Maintenance of the, Internal Focus Competitive Position
Sociotechnical System
External Focus of the Overall System
Long Time Lines
Short Time Lines
· Measurement · Accomplishment
· Documentation · Productivity Toward
· Information · Profit/Impact Maximisation
Management
of output
Predictability Order
· Stability · Goal Clarification
Toward · ·
Control Direction
Consolidation, · ·
Continuity Decisiveness
Equilibrium

Toward
centralisation,
Hierarchical Culture Integration Rational Culture

Figure 1. Competing values framework of culture.

Source: Quinn (1988).

The framework, see Fig. 1, distinguishes between two dimensions among those organiza-
tions upon which the competing model is based. The vertical axis re¯ ects the extent to which
an organization has a control orientation. The dimension runs from an emphasis on control
to one on ¯ exibility. The horizontal axis re¯ ects the extent to which an organization is focused
on its internal or external functioning. Built upon these two dimensions, four types of
organizational culture are developed: group, developmental, hierarchical and rational. Each
culture or quadrant represents a theory, a philosophy or position or characteristics of
organizing. It should be noted that these culture types are modal or dominant rather than
mutually exclusive. Organizations are unlikely to comprise only one culture, but rather a mix
of the four. Over time, however, one type of culture may emerge as the dominant one
(Denison & Spreitzer, 1991).
The CVF has attracted attention in the literature since its inception in the early 1980s.
It has been applied in various improvement approaches, and was used in a major management
and professional development programme for public sector employees in the state of New
York as well as for an organizational change process within the Ford Motor Company (Brown
& Dodd, 1998). It is a useful model for organizations to adopt in taking a system’s perspective
of their businesses and to plan and manage major change. The framework has certain
attributes that make it a desirable tool for investigating the cultural change necessary for
successfully implementing TQM. It introduces a new vocabulary into an organization. The
skills of pro® ling an organization, or parts of it (such as departments or units), can be quickly
taught to managers/employees and used as a basis for discussing organizational change. The
 COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK 421

method of presenting data as organizational or individual pro® les is quite innovative and
unique (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991). The interpretation of the results becomes implicit and
allows discussions to focus on interpreting the organization, rather than the data, thus
providing an understanding of the existing state of an organization’s culture. Individuals can
therefore create an ideal pro® le (e.g. a TQM culture) for their organization given their
industry type and environment. By using the graphical representation, an organization can
visualize the gap between the current `where we are now’ culture and the desired `where we
want to go’ or `should be’ culture. Decisions about generating a list of strategies for
improvement and human resource development in each of the four quadrants could be made
to help close the gap and move the organization along the desired route. These attributes led
the authors to consider the CVF as an assessment tool for organization culture and so
highlight the changes needed to reach a desired quality culture in Qatar.
In an earlier study, the authors (Al-khalifa & Aspinwall, 2000) used the CVF to identify
the ideal cultural pro® le for TQM implementation. A questionnaire based on the framework
was sent to `quality experts’ in the UK to help identify the ideal cultural characteristics that
they believed would support the TQM philosophy and facilitate its implementation. The
® ndings indicated that the ideal cultural characteristics in the context of TQM could be
classi® ed as a group and developmental culture. Its characteristics tend to be ¯ exible and
customer-oriented, which emphasizes participation, innovation, a concern for human resource
development and an attempt to decentralize decision-making.

Background to the empirical study

In order to identify the existing/current cultural pro® le of the majority of the organizations
operating in Qatar, a questionnaire comprising the same 24 statements used in the earlier
survey to identify the ideal TQM culture was sent to a sample of organizations in the region.
The respondents were asked to rate the extent to which each statement described their
organization. These results enabled comparisons to be made between the existing culture
and that ideal for TQM and to determine any gaps.
Three hundred and ® fty organizations were selected (generally at random) to participate
in the study, however, the authors ensured that the most well-known organizations in the
country were included. Approximately half of the questionnaires were delivered manually by
the researcher (these were usually given to either general managers, quality (if applicable),
human resources or public relation managers), the idea being to maximize the response rate.
The distribution took place during October and November 1998. A total of 162 were
returned, 21 of which were `spoilt’ , leaving 141 for analysis, a response rate of 40%. Although
the personal approach was time-consuming and costly and could be impracticable in some
cases (especially where a large geographical area is to be covered), it proved to be very
eþ ective in this study. Following the data collection, the data were coded to enable them to
be computer processed. The software package used for the analysis was the Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows-Version 8.0.
Of the 141 respondent organizations, 41% were from the services sector, 36% from
general manufacturing and the remainder from the oil and gas industry. The service
sector included the public sector, insurance companies, banks, construction companies,
telecommunications, health care, etc. General manufacturing covered companies from tex-
tiles, food and drink, steel, cement, clothing, etc. while the oil and gas industries were all
those related to oil and gas operations, such as exploration, drilling, production, lique® ed
natural gas departments, storage, supporting services, etc. as well as petrochemical/fertilizer
industries. This ensured that opinions were sought from a wide range of industries.
422 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

For the purpose of this study, companies having fewer than 100 employees were classi® ed
as small, those with 100- 500 as medium and those with more than 500 as large. Fifty-seven
per cent of the respondent companies could, therefore, be classi® ed as large, 18% as small
and 25% as medium. (It should be noted that a lot of companies in Qatar employ low-class
workers from Asian countries, because of their low wages demand, which results in many
companies having more than 500 employees.) Thirty-nine per cent of the respondent
companies were of a partnership/joint venture type indicating links not only nationally but
also internationally with European, US and other Arab enterprises. Government-owned
companies comprised 27% of the respondents and privately/foreign-owned, 34%.

Survey results
The cultural pro® le in Qatar was investigated for each organization by averaging the
respondent’s rating for each cultural type across the six dimensions. This produced four
scores, one for each of the group, developmental, hierarchical and rational cultures. An
organizational pro® le score was then obtained by averaging the six dimension scores across
each culture type. The average scores for all the participating companies are shown in
Table 1. Caution is advised, however, when interpreting the results, since the assessment was
based on only one response per organization, generally from top or middle management. In
general, the overall pro® le indicated by the respondents was of a mixed culture. A low score
was obtained for developmental and group values and a moderate one for hierarchical and
rational values, see Fig. 2.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was performed to determine possible diþ erences
in the mean scores of each industry type, size and ownership. The results are shown in
Table 2. Although Wilkins and Ouchi (1983) highlighted that group cultures were likely to
be evident in small organizations and Hofstede (1991) suggested that organizations operating
in diþ erent industries may re¯ ect diþ erent cultural characteristics, such patterns were not
evident in this study. In general, the ANOVA test showed that there were not signi® cant
diþ erences between industry sectors or in size in terms of the four culture type scores.
However, the results did reveal a signi® cant diþ erence at the 5% level for the rational culture
scores in terms of ownership. This type is more dominant in the private sector than in the
government one. This was expected since the characteristics of a rational culture are geared
towards a market emphasis, which is common in the private sector compared with non-pro® t
organizations within the government sector.
To facilitate interpretation and comparison with the ideal TQM pro® le, and since most

Table 1. The results of each culture type

The CVF four quadrants’ (cultures) average culture type score

Organizational culture dimensions Group Developmental Hierarchical Rational

Dominant characteristics 3.02 2.62 3.38 3.60

Leadership style 2.79 2.94 3.31 3.36
Organizational `glue’ 3.10 3.20 3.64 3.54
Organizational climate 3.02 3.06 3.32 3.27
Criteria of success 3.27 3.05 3.59 3.43
Management style 3.27 2.94 3.31 3.40
Average of the six dimensions
Cultural pro® le in Qatar 3.08 2.97 3.43 3.43

Scale: 1 5 strongly disagree, 2 5 disagree, 3 5 neutral, 4 5 agree, 5 5 strongly agree.

 COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK 423

5 Group Culture Developmental Culture 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4
Hierarchical Culture Rational Culture
5 5

Figure 2. The overall cultural pro® le in Qatar.

Table 2. Cultural pro® le scores for industry type, size and ownership

Culture types

Group Developmental Hierarchical Rational

Industrial
Manufacturing 3.115 2.912 3.442 3.462
Oil/gas 3.114 2.901 3.385 3.365
Services 3.025 3.046 3.431 3.451

Size
Small 3.109 2.967 3.407 3.427
Medium 3.205 3.162 3.438 3.605
Large 3.014 2.879 3.425 3.366

Ownership
Government 3.061 2.869 3.459 3.194
Private 3.052 2.956 3.452 3.600
Partnership 3.118 2.985 3.382 3.455
Other 3.000 3.533 3.400 3.533

organizations have attributes of more than one culture type, cultural con® gurations of
organizations with similar cultural characteristics need to be identi® ed. A k-means cluster
analysis was therefore used (for further details of this analysis refer to the SPSS for Windows
Professional Statistics Release 6.0 manual (Norusis, 1993)). Essentially, the method starts
by using the values of the ® rst k cases, where k is the number of clusters speci® ed by the
user, as temporary estimates of the k cluster means. Initial cluster centres are formed by
assigning each case, in turn, to the cluster with the nearest centre. The centre is then updated,
and the process repeated until no further changes occur in the cluster centres. Having
424 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

Table 3. Description of the three cultural clusters

Cultural clusters

Cluster I Cluster II Cluster III

Cultural types (n 5 39) (n 5 41) (n 5 61) F-value

Group 2.63 2.63 3.67 103.82**

Developmental 2.20 3.05 3.39 87.99**
Hierarchical 3.07 3.16 3.83 44.96**
Rational 2.86 3.51 3.75 47.97**

n 5 number of samples, **p < 0.001.

Figure 3. The culture pro® les of the three clusters.

performed several analyses using a diþ erent number of clusters, three emerged with no large
diþ erences between them. The classi® cation of the culture types, by cluster, is shown in
Table 3.
There was no dominant culture evident in any of the clusters, see Fig. 3. In general,
cluster I comprised organizations with moderate scores for hierarchical culture and low ones
for the others. Thirty-nine out of the 141 organizations, i.e. 28%, were classi® ed in this
cluster. Cluster II consisted of organizations with a low score for group culture and moderate
scores in the others. Forty-one (29%) organizations belonged to this group. Cluster III
contained the largest sample, with 61 organizations. In this cluster, there was a high emphasis
on hierarchical and rational cultures and to a lesser extent group cultures. Developmental
culture received a moderate score. It should be noted that the organizations in the three
clusters had higher scores for rational and hierarchical culture types compared to group and
developmental ones. This could be because each cluster comprises private and oil/gas
companies and organizations with a high level of government involvement. The former group
displays a rational culture (as Yeung et al. (1991) pointed out, rational cultures are essential
for survival in a competitive environment), while the latter exhibits a hierarchical one
(although the ANOVA test did not concur with this).
 COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK 425

Table 4. The characteristics of the current culture compared to the desired culture

Should be/
Current culture desired culture

Cluster I Cluster II Cluster III Combined TQM

Culture dimensions (n 5 39 ) (n 5 41) (n 5 61) (Total) pro® le

Dominant characteristics W R R R (3.60) D

Leadership style W W H W G
Organizational `glue’ H W H*R*G H (3.64) D
Organizational climate W W H*G*R W G*D
Criteria of success W R H*G*R H (3.59) G
Management style W D G*H*R W G

G 5 group, D 5 developmental, H 5 hierarchical, R 5 rational, W 5 weak in the four cultures (low and no
distinction between the four cultures).

The Existing cultural pro® le in Qatar versus the desired (TQM) one
As has been stated, most of the organizations were biased towards hierarchical and rational
cultures rather than group and developmental ones, the ideal culture for TQM identi® ed by
quality experts. Table 4 summarizes the culture types apparent in the three clusters for each
of the six organizational culture dimensions identi® ed in the CVF and the `ideal TQM’
culture types.
The results indicate that the dominant characteristics’ dimension in most of the respond-
ent companies was a rational type (this is certainly true of clusters II and III but not for
cluster I), i.e. one that is characterized as being results-oriented with an emphasis on
productivity, performance and achievement. However, the ideal one was a developmental
type to help or support the TQM process; this is characteristic of a dynamic, entrepreneurial
and creative place to work where people `stick their necks out’ and take risks. In terms of
leadership style, only cluster III (61 organizations) showed a dominant culture type. It was
hierarchical in nature, which implies that the leaders tend to be co-ordinators, organizers and
administrators. The preferred feature of leadership style inside a `TQM organization’ was
concluded to be a group one, where the leaders are considered to be mentors, sages or
facilitators who actively participate. It should be noted that the combined culture (the three
clusters together) did not indicate one speci® c dominant leadership style but rather it showed
a low rating on all four types.
The organizational `glue’ that holds most of the organizations together was reported to
be a feature of hierarchical culture in cluster I and a mix of the hierarchical, rational and
group cultures in cluster III. In general, the focus tends to be more towards formal
rules, policies and regulations compared to a greater emphasis on the commitment to
experimentation and innovation in the desired quality culture. In terms of the organizational
climate, clusters I and II did not indicate any dominant culture but were rather weak on all
four types. However, cluster III was characterized to be slightly higher in hierarchical, group
and rational cultures, which tended to be a mix of a smooth running organization, with
stability and eý ciency as important issues, and participation and trust as well as concern for
competitiveness and conformation. As far as the appropriate culture for TQM is concerned,
it was reported to be both group and developmental where the emphasis was on participation,
trust and openness, with the focus on encouraging dynamism and readiness to meet new
challenges.
The dimension, criteria for success, depended on both industry type and issues such as
marketing. However, the respondents in cluster II focused on market share and penetration
426 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

(a rational feature), while those in cluster III emphasized human resource development as
the basis of eý ciency, dependable delivery and smooth scheduling (a mix of hierarchical,
group and rational cultures). In terms of this dimension for TQM, the main emphasis was
on the development of human resources, teamwork and concern for people.
The last cultural dimension on the CVF instrument, the management style, was
characterized in cluster II by job security and in cluster III by a mix of the former and also
by teamwork and participation, predictability and hard-driving competitiveness. It should be
noted that cluster I did not have a dominant culture characterized by the last two dimensions,
criteria of success and management style.

Discussion and conclusions

Prior to implementing a total quality approach, it is advisable for an organization to
understand the dominant culture that exists within it. This is important for two reasons:
® rstly, it provides more reliable data for managing the implementation process; and secondly,
it identi® es priorities for action. Organizational culture change is not an easy task to
undertake, but using the CVF can give organizations an assessment of their current position
and a clear picture of what changes are needed to support a total quality approach.
The results of this study indicated that many organizations in Qatar were not character-
ized by just one cultural type, but tended to be biased towards a mix of hierarchical and
rational characteristics, while the ideal cultural pro® le that supports TQM implementation
should have group and developmental characteristics. These ® ndings were, to a certain
extent, anticipated because of the governmental and control cultures in the region. The
organizational culture characteristics in the country tend to emphasize measurement and
documentation with the intention of bringing stability and control. People in most of the
organizations are expected to follow rules that outline what they should do and for that
reason they expect job security. Some organizations reward employees ® nancially if they
perform well and ask them to leave otherwise. The organizations generally have short time
horizons. Managers are usually expected to monitor and co-ordinate activities to determine
if the employees are complying with rules and quotas. They are also expected to direct,
produce and clarify expectations through processes such as planning and goal setting and to
be decisive initiators who de® ne problems, select alternatives, establish objectives, de® ne
roles and tasks, generate rules and policies, evaluate performance and give instructions. It
should be noted that not all of the participating companies have hierarchical and rational
cultures but tend to have a mix of four, three, or two of the culture types in the CVF
instrument. However, if TQM is to succeed the organizational cultures of most of the
organizations have to change towards a more ¯ exible and customer-oriented one, see Fig. 4.
There is a need to have dynamism in the business where the environment is safe to take
risks. People have to feel that they belong and the levels of morale, trust and participation
should be high. Building teamwork, opportunities for growth and development and decentral-
ized decisions are important factors for the desired culture.
The ways to achieve TQM success are much broader and more complex than the pure
climate and cultural factors discussed and assessed in this paper. The implementation of
TQM includes many issues or factors that need to be understood and implemented with
careful planning and not merely linked to cultural issues. However, by obtaining environ-
mental and cultural information relative to a successful TQM process, decision-makers,
managers and/or organizations in Qatar can identify problem areas in advance, based on
culture gaps with desired values/culture and congruence with undesired values. Instead of
entering into TQM blindly, managers/organizations can bene® t from advanced knowledge of
 COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK 427

Hierarchy culture Group culture

Decrease the following issues: Increase the following issues:
· Bureaucracy · Feeling of belonging
· Freedomless · Participation
· Useless rules and procedures · Broader decision making
· Dictatorship · Employee ownership
· Emphasis on guaranteed job (will result in · Meet employees needs
greater individual productivity) · Morale
· Trust
Move Toward · Building teamwork
This Culture

Rational culture Developmental culture

Decrease the following issues: Increase the following issues:
· Freedom to take risks
· Process oriented concern · Opportunity for growth
· Focus mainly on profitability · Faster decision making
· Less focus on quality results (improve it) · Flexibility
· Individual competition (win/lose) · More ideas
· Customer Focus

Figure 4. Strategies to move the existent culture to the desired culture.

areas where an audit is likely to highlight trouble or where an organization has little to worry
about. The cultural information can then be used to modify behaviour in order to meet the
needs of a quality culture.
This study has provided evidence to support the authors’ previous arguments that the
implementation of total quality may end in failure in many organizations operating in Qatar
due to the existing/current working culture and climate inside most of them. TQM requires
a massive change in the social and technological components of a workforce. Decision-
makers and/or managers in the region have to understand that a radical change is required if
TQM is to be adopted. The basic principles must be eþ ectively communicated to the
workforce, rather than adopting a packaged version from other cultures or societies and/or
consultants.

References
Al-khalifa, K. & Aspinwall, E. (2000) Using the competing values framework to identify the ideal culture
pro® le for TQM: a UK perspective, The International Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Management,
vol. 2 nos. 1- 7.
Brown, F.W. & Dodd, N.G (1998) An approach to organisational intervention, Journal of Management
Consulting, 10, pp. 46- 49.
Chen, W.-H. & Lu, R. (1998) A Chinese approach to quality transformation, International Journal of Quality
& Reliability Management, 15, pp. 72- 84.
Denison, D.R. & Spreitzer, G.M. (1991) Organisational culture and organisational development: a competing
values approach, Research in Organisational Change and Development, 5, pp. 1- 21.
Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organisation: Software of the Mind (New York, McGraw-Hill International).
Kathawala, Y. & Nanda, V. (1989) Quality in a global context: a framework for analysis, International Journal
of Quality & Reliability Management, vol. 2, pp. 31- 39.
Madu, C.N. (1997) Quality management in developing economics, International Journal of Quality Science, 2,
pp. 272- 291.
Nasierowski, W. & Coleman, D. (1997) Lesson learned from unsuccessful transfers of managerial techniques:
cultural impediments to the transfer of TQM practices, International Journal of Management, 14, pp. 29- 39.
428 K. N. AL-KHALIFA & E. M. ASPINWALL

Norusis, M. (1993) SPSS for Windows Professional Statistics Release 6.0, Chicago, IL, SPSS Inc.
Quinn, R.E. (1988) Beyond Rational Management: Mastering the Paradoxes and Competing Demands of High
Performance (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
Quinn, R.E. & Kimberly, J.R. (1984) Paradox, planning, and perseverance: guidelines for managerial practice.
In: J.R. Kimberly & R.E. Quinn (Eds) Managing Organisational Translations (Homewood, IL, Dow Jones-
Irwin), pp. 295- 313.
Roney, J. (1997). Cultural implications of implementing TQM in Poland, Journal of World Business, 32,
pp. 152- 162.
Tata, J. & Prasad, S. (1998) Cultural and structural constraints on total quality management implementation,
Total Quality Management, 9, pp. 703- 710.
Wilkins, A. & Ouchi, W. (1983) Eý cient cultures: exploring the relationship between culture and organisa-
tional performance, Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, pp. 468- 481.
Yeung, A.K., Brockbank, J.W. & Ulrich, D.O. (1991) Organisational culture and human resource practices:
an empirical assessment, Research in Organisational Change and Development, 5, pp. 59- 81.
Zammuto, R.F. & Krakower, J.Y. (1991) Quantitative and qualitative studies of organisational culture,
Research in Organisational Change and Development, An Annual Series Featuring Advances in Theory,
Methodology, and Research, 5, pp. 83- 114.