Introduction

Our training was in Doordarshan maintenance centre at Rajahmundry. This

report contains a detailed study of the Doordarshan maintenance centre at
Rajahmundry.
There are three divisions in television broadcasting

• Studio

• Transmitter

• Earth station

1. Studio

Studio is the place where the real looked scenes created using artificial
materials and computer graphics. Studio is used to shooting various programs
and to edit and modify the actual videos

2. Transmitter
Here the transmission of both audio as well as video signals is being made
.The transmission section does the function of modulation of signals, power
amplification of signals and mixing of audio and video signals

At last these signals are transmitted to antenna and we get the signal at almost
65 to 75 kms of the distance of the antenna

3. Earth station

The main function of the earth station is to make contact with the satellite or to
communicate with it .The signals from other transmitters are down linked
here. Also the signals here are also up linked to send it to larger distance

Doordarshan maintenance centre Rajahmundry mainly concentrates on analog

terrestrial television transmission.
Studio
The studio has
· Camera and lights and other equipment required for production
of a feed.
· Camera control unit or CCU
The PCR is where the post production activities like minor editing and
Management of feed during a live program takes place. The production Manager sits
in the PCR and directs the camera men and selects the angles sound parameters etc
during the production stage in the PCR. It is in the PCR that we can control all the
studio lights and all the microphones and other aspects. The PCR has a vision mixer
and an audio mixer. Its working and other aspects are discussed in detail in the
following pages. The PCR is where the phone in console and other systems are also
kept.

The VTR is the next section where copies of all programs are stored. All the
programs shot in the camera are simultaneously recorded in the VTR. Also the VTR
plays back all the videos as and when required. Videos of prerecorded events are
queued up in the VTR and are played back without a break. Videos of famous people
and important events are stored in the central film pool.

The MSR stores all the circuitry of the DD. All the camera base units, all the
vision mixer base units and all the audio processor base units are kept in MSR. The
audio chain and video chain of MSR is explained in detail. The monitoring and
control of all activities takes place in MSR. It is the MSR which decides what is to go
in air. The MSR also performs some additional functions like logo addition etc. The
next station is the earth station which has an uplink chain, simulcast transmitters,
audio processors video processors, up converters, modulators etc. The earth station is
in fully digital domain. The last stage is the transmitter which has the antenna and
facilities for terrestrial transmission.
FUNDAMENTAL OF MONOCHROME AND
COLOUR TV SYSTEM
Picture formation

A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of

light or shade which are called PICTUREELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the
visual image of the scene.

In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photosensitive surface

of pick up device and a optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the
pickup device convert the optical image to a electric charge image depending on the
light and shade of the scene (picture elements). Now it is necessary to pick up this
information and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is employed. Electron beam
scans the charge image and produces optical image. The electron beam scans the
image line by line and field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order.

The scanning is both in horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously.

The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hertz.

The vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz.

The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and then the even
lines. The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since the frame is divided into 2 fields
the flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 Hertz. The frame rate is 25 Hertz (Field rate is
the same as power supply frequency).
Number of TV Lines per Frame

If the number of TV lines is high larger bandwidth of video and hence larger
R.F. channel width is required. If we go for larger RF channel width the number of
channels in the R.F. spectrum will be reduced. However, with more no. of TV lines on
the screen the clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. With lesser number of TV
lines per frame the clarity (quality) is poor.

The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements along
scanning lines determines the horizontal resolution. It means how many alternate
black and white elements can be there in a line. Let us also take another factor. It is
realistic to aim at equal vertical and horizontal resolution. Therefore, the number of
alternate black and white dots on linecan be 575 x 0.69 x 4/3 which is equal to 528.

It means there are 528 divided by 2 cyclic changes i.e. 264 cycles. These 264 cycles
are there during 52 micro seconds.
Hence the highest frequency is 5 MHz.

Therefore the horizontal resolution of the system is 5 MHz. A similar calculation for
525 lines system limits the highest frequency to 4 MHz and hence the horizontal
resolution of same value.
In view of the above the horizontal bandwidth of signal in 625
lines system is 5 MHz.

Picture Basics
A television creates a continuous series of moving pictures on the screen.This
section will describe in detail how pictures are created in a television. Acamera works
exactly on the same principle applied the other way round.

A picture is "drawn" on a television or computer display screen by sweepingan

electrical signal horizontally across the display one line at a time. The amplitude of
this signal versus time represents the instantaneous brightnessat that physical point on
the display.
At the end of each line, there is a portion of the waveform (horizontal blanking
interval) that tells the scanning circuit in the display to retrace to the left edge of the
display and then start scanning the next line. Starting at the top, all of the lines on the
display are scanned in this way. One complete set of lines makes a picture. This is
called a frame. Once the first complete picture is scanned, there is another portion of
the waveform (vertical blanking interval, not shown) that tells the scanning circuit to
retrace to the top of the display and start scanning the next frame, or picture. This
sequence is repeated at a fast enough rate so that the displayed images are perceived
to have continuous motion. This is the same principle as that behind the "flip books"
that you rapidly flip through to see a moving picture or cartoons that are drawn and
rapidly displayed one picture at a time.
Interlaced versus Progressive Scans
These are two different types of scanning systems. They differ in the technique
used to cover the area of the screen. Television signals and compatible displays are
typically interlaced, and computer signals and compatible displays are typically
progressive (non-interlaced). These two formats are incompatible with each other; one
would need to be converted to the other before any common processing could be
done. Interlaced scanning is where each picture, referred to as a frame, is divided into
two separate sub-pictures, and referred to as fields. Two fields make up a frame.
Aninterlaced picture is painted on the screen in two passes, by first scanning the
horizontal lines of the first field and then retracing to the top of the screen and then
scanning the horizontal lines for the second field in-between the first set. Field 1
consists of lines 1 through 262 1/2, and field 2 consists of lines 262 1/2 through 525.
The interlaced principle is illustrated in Figure 2. Only a few lines at the top and the
bottom of each field are shown.

There are many different kinds of video signals, which can be divided into
either television or computer types. The format of television signals varies from
country to country. In the United States and Japan, the NTSC format is used. NTSC
stands for National Television Systems Committee, which is the name of the
organization that developed the standard. In Europe, the PAL format is common. PAL
(phase alternating line), developed after NTSC, is an improvement over NTSC.
SECAM is used in France and stands for sequential coleur avec memoire (with
memory). It should be noted that there is a total of about 15 different sub-formats
contained within these three general formats. Each of the formats is generally not
compatible with the others. Although they all utilize the same basic scanning system
and represent color with a type of phase modulation, they differ in specific scanning
frequencies, number of scan lines, and color modulation techniques, among others.
The various computer formats (such as VGA, XGA, and UXGA) also differ
substantially, with the primary difference in the scan frequencies. These differences
do not cause as much concern,because most computer equipment is now designed to
handle variable scan rates. This compatibility is a major advantage for computer
formats in that media, and content can be interchanged on a global basis. In India we
use the PAL system. It has 625 lines in each frame and uses interlaced scanning.

There are many different kinds of video signals, which can be divided into
either television or computer types. The format of television signals varies from
country to country. In the United States and Japan, the NTSC format is used. NTSC
stands for National Television Systems Committee, which is the name of the
organization that developed the standard. In Europe, the PAL format is common. PAL
(phase alternating line), developed after NTSC, is an improvement over NTSC.
SECAM is used in France and stands for sequential coleur avec memoire (with
memory). It should be noted that there is a total of about 15 different sub-formats
contained within these three general formats. Each of the formats is generally not
compatible with the others. Although they all utilize the same basic scanning system
and represent color with a type of phase modulation, they differ in specific scanning
frequencies, number of scan lines, and color modulation techniques, among others.
The various computer formats (such as VGA, XGA, and UXGA) also differ
substantially, with the primary difference in the scan frequencies. These differences
do not cause as much concern, because most computer equipment is now designed to
handle variable scan rates. This compatibility is a major advantage for computer
formats in that media, and content can be interchanged on a global basis. In India we
use the PAL system. It has 625 lines in each frame and uses interlaced scanning.
Typical Frequencies for Common TV and Computer Video Formats

There are three basic levels of baseband signal interfaces. In order of

increasing quality, they are composite (or CVBS), which uses one wire pair;Y/C (or
S-video), which uses two wire pairs; and component, which uses three wire pairs.
Each wire pair consists of a signal and a ground. These three interfaces differ in their
level of information combination (or encoding). More encoding typically degrades the
quality but allows the signal to be carried on fewer wires. Component has the least
amount of encoding, and composite the most.

Composite/CVBS Interface

Composite signals are the most commonly used analog video interface.
Composite video is also referred to as CVBS, which stands for color, video, blanking,
and sync, or composite video baseband signal. It combines the brightness information
(luma), the color information (chroma), and the synchronizing signals on just one
cable. The connector is typically an RCA jack. This is the same connector as that used
for standard line level audio connections. A typical waveform of an all-white NTSC
composite video signal is shown in Figure.

This figure depicts the portion of the signal that represents one horizontal scan
line. Each line is made up of the active video portion and the horizontal blanking
portion. The active video portion contains the picture brightness (luma) and color
(chroma) information. The brightness information is the instantaneous amplitude at
any point in time. From the figure, it can be see that the voltage during the active
video portion would yield a brightwhite picture for this horizontal scan line, whereas
the horizontal blanking portion would be displayed as black and therefore not beseen
on the screen. Color information is added on top of the luma signal and is a sine wave
with the colors identified by a specific phase difference between it and the colorburst
reference phase.

The amplitude of the modulation is proportional to the amount of color (or

saturation), and the phase information denotes the tint (or hue) of the color. The
horizontal blanking portion contains the horizontal synchronizing pulse (sync pulse)
as well as the color reference (color burst) located just after the rising edge of the sync
pulse (called the "back porch"). It is important to note here that the horizontal
blanking portion of the signal is positioned in time such that it is not visible on the
display screen.

Y/C Interfaces

The Y/C signal is a video signal with less encoding. Brightness (luma),
which is the Y signal, and the color (chroma), the C signal, are carried on
two separate sets of wires.

Component Interfaces

Component signal interfaces are the highest performance, because they have
the least encoding. The signals exist in a nearly native format. They always utilize
three pairs of wires that are typically in either a luma (Y) and twocolor-difference-
signals format or a red, green, blue (RGB) format. RGB formats are almost always
used in computer applications, whereas colordifference formats are generally used in
television applications. The Y signal contains the brightness (luma) and synchronizing
information, and the colordifferencesignals contain the red (R) minus the Y signal and
the blue (B) minus the Y signal. The theory behind this combination is that each of the
base R, G, and B components can be derived from these difference signals.Common
variations of these signals are as follows:

Y, B-Y, R-Y: Luma and color-difference signals.

Y, Pr, Pb: Pr and Pb are scaled versions of B-Y and R-Y. Commonly found in
high-end consumer equipment.

Y, Cr, Cb: Digital-signal equivalent to Y, Pr, Pb. Sometimes incorrectly used

in place of Y, Pr, Pb.

Y, U, V: Not an interface standard. These are intermediate, quadrature signals

used in the formation of composite and Y/C signals. Sometimes incorrectly
referred to as a "component interface." Some important terms and their
meanings in this context are listed below

Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the visible-picture width to the height. Standard
television and computers have an aspect ratio of 4:3(1.33). HDTV has aspects ratios
of either 4:3 or 16:9(1.78). Additional aspect ratios like 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 are used in
cinema
.
Blanking Interval

There are horizontal and vertical blanking intervals. Horizontal blanking

interval is the time period allocated for retrace of the signal from the right edge of the
display back to the left edge to start another scan line. Vertical blanking interval is the
time period allocated for retrace of the signal from the bottom back to the top to start
another field or frame. Synchronizing signals occupy a portion of the blanking
interval.

Blanking Level

Used to describe a voltage level (blanking level). The blanking level is the
nominal voltage of a video waveform during the horizontal and vertical periods,
excluding the more negative voltage sync tips.
Chroma

The color portion of a video signal. This term is sometimes incorrectly

referred to as "chrominance," which is the actual displayed color information.

Color Burst

The color burst, also commonly called the "color subcarrier," is 8 to 10 cycles
of the color reference frequency. It is positioned between the rising edge of sync and
the start of active video for a composite video signal.

Fields and Frames

A frame is one complete scan of a picture. In NTSC it consists of 525

horizontal scan lines. In interlaced scanning systems, a field is half of a frame; thus,
two fields make a frame.
Luma

The monochrome or black-and-white portion of a video signal. This term is

sometimes incorrectly called "luminance," which refers to the actual displayed
brightness.
Monochrome

The luma (brightness) portion of a video signal without the color information.
Monochrome, commonly known as black-and-white, predates current color television.

PAL

Phase alternate line. PAL is used to refer to systems and signals that are
compatible with this specific modulation technique. Similar to NTSC but uses
subcarrier phase alternation to reduce the sensitivity to phase errors that would be
displayed as color errors. Commonly used with 626-line, 50Hz scanning systems with
a subcarrier frequency of 4.43362MHz.

Pixel
 Picture element. A pixel is the smallest piece of display detail that has a unique
brightness and color. In a digital image, a pixel is an individual point in the image,
represented by a certain number of bits to indicate the brightness.

RGB

Stands for red, green, and blue. It is a component interface typically used in
computer graphics systems.

Sync Signals/Pulses

Sync signals, also known as sync pulses, are negative-going timing pulses in
video signals that are used by video-processing or display devices to synchronize the
horizontal and vertical portions of the display.

Y Cr Cb

A digital component video interface. Y is the luma (brightness) portion, and

Cr and Cb are the color-difference portions of the signal.

Y/C

An analog video interface in which the chroma (color) information is carried

separately from the luma (brightness) and sync information. Two wire pairs
are used, denoted Y and C or Y/C. Often incorrectly referred to as "S-video."
Earth station
Earth station is a main part which communicate with satellite in which up
linking the signal in to /from the satellite
Earth station is a purely digital version
In MSR [ master switching room] whatever the signal it is in analog form
which is converted into digital version
Digital version of audio and video are standard form which is known as
SDI - serial digital interface for video
AES -audio engineering society for audio

Signal from MSR

In MSR whatever the signals are converted into digital form video in SDI and
aural in AES form. SDI and AES is embedded in MSR and converted into SDI
embedded signal in which the audio is inserted in the video signal
In earth station all signals are in digital form which require high data rate. So
For the up linking it required compression of the signals. Doordarshan uses 12
frame GOP. MPEG-2 format with sampling parameter of 4:2:0 with 10 bit
quantization and the bit rate is 4.5 Mbps for transmission over digitally modulation
technique used is QPSK ( quadrature phase shift keying ). Earth station of the
doordarshan uplinks the digital signal of channel towards satellite and the people
using DTH can directly receive signals from satellite. Many HPTs and LPTs spread
over to cover the large guiarate for terrestrial transmission also uses downlink from
satellite and after converting it to analog they transmits terrestrially

Specifications of doordarshan earth station

• Up link frequency - 5974.5MHz

• Down link frequency - 3749.5 MHz

• Symbol rate - 6.25MBPS

• Uplink polarization - horizontal

• Downlink polarization - vertical

• Satellite - insat-3A in geosynchronous orbit

• FEC -¾

• Compression format - 4:2:2

• Coded standard - MPEG2

HIGH POWER TV TRANSMITTER
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter
followed by power amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level.

EXCITER

The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-

corrector units both at base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through
all subsequent transmitter stages, an acceptable signal is available. Since the number
and type of amplifier stages, may differ according to the required output power, the
characteristics of the pre-correction circuits can be varied over a wide range.

Exciter is said to be the heart of the transmission section. It consists of

different sections. They are:

• AD & DA convertor
• Digital video compensator
• Visual modulator
• Aural modulator
• Visual mixer
• Aural mixer
• Synthesizer
• IF corrector
• IM corrector

AURAL MODULATOR
The HBP-3101 aural modulator unit generates a frequency modulated aural if
signal by modulating a voltage controlled oscillator with an audio input. Two sets
of audio inputs are provided: one for 600 ohms balanced line and the other for 75
ohms unbalanced line used for sound multiplex broadcasting. For 600 ohms balanced
line, pre-emphasis of either 50 microseconds or 75 microseconds can be selected. To
fix the average frequency of the average frequency of the oscillator at the reference
input, the automatic phase control (APC) circuit is provided.
The unit fault status is displayed with a light emitting diode when a unit output
fault or an APC fault has occurred.
 Auxiliary circuits are provided for the monitoring the output signal, for
measuring the peak value of the output signal, and for measuring the frequency
deviation.
The output is applied to a VHF mixer unit.

IM CORRECTOR
The HPB-3112 IM CORR (DS) UNIT is used for dual sound having 2 carriers.
In which some corrections of IM due to the non-linearity of the PA stage can be
carried out.
This unit contains a low level and high level correction circuit each having
correction for amplitude and phase. In the low level circuit, correction can be
performed by combining a non-linear signal generated by a class B amplifier with the
linear signal, as the result the phase combining of the linear signal with the non-linear
signal produces amplitude correction.
High level correction of amplitude is performed by the use of a saturated class
A transistor amplifier. High level correction of phase is performed by the use of a
class C transistor amplifier.

AD-DA (A/D Convertor D/A convertor)

The HPB-30102A AD-DA unit has functions that convert the video input
signal applied to the exciter into a PCM signal and sends the PCM signal into a unit
for digital correction (HPB-3103 DVC unit) and which converts the video PCM
signal after the digital correction into analog video signal and supplied the analog
video signal to a visual modulator unit (HPB-3101V.MOD unit).
Furthermore, this unit also supplies the 4fsc clock signals, SC signal and V
pulse signal that the DVC unit need.
The functions exercised by the AD-DA unit are as follows:

• Allows switching between input video signal from the main line and that from
a feedback line.

• Converts the analog signal fed to the exciter into a 10 bit PDM signal (referred
to as video data in this manual) and supplies the video data to the DVC unit at
the next stage.

• Converts the 12 bit video data from the DVC unit into an analog video signal
and supplies the signal to V.MOD unit.

• Clamps the pedestal potential of the video signal.

 • Carries out synchronous of the main input video signal, the feedback input
video signal and that of input synchronous signal when scrambling is used.

• Generates 4fsc clocks locked to the input video signal or F/B video signal
(BCO circuit).

• Reconstruct the sync pulses of the main input video signal (sync reform
function).

• Changes the clamp potential in the visual blanking period corresponding to

video-level in version scramble, similarly for the visual period.

DVC (Digital Video Compensator)

The HPB-30103 DVC unit compensates by the use of digital signal processing
technology, distortion of input video signals and different types of distortions (linear
and non-linear distortion) produced in a transmitter and receiver.
This unit composed of a non-linear compensating circuit, linear distortion
compensating circuit, control circuit etc., receives the demodulated output signal of
the transmitter and automatically compensates for the distortion in the output signal.
The non-linear distortion components circuit compensates as an auxiliary
circuit to the IF corrector, the non-linear distortion caused by the power amplifier of
the transmitter. Furthermore, this circuit is an APL follow- up type that can
compensate for variations in the characteristics of the power amplifier by APL.
The linear distortion compensating circuit performs high accuracy
compensation by using a 128 tap digital filter.
The non-linear and linear distortion compensating circuit respectively can be
by-passed.
The control signal is provided with a digital signal processor that analyzes the
demodulation output of the transmitter and automatically compensation values.
This compensation unit has the following functions:

• Automatic compensation of the non linear distortions (DG, DP and luminance

linearity).

• Automatic compensation of the graph delay characteristics.

• Automatic compensation of the frequency characteristics.

• White clip (manual).

• Pre-compensation of the graph delay characteristics of the receiver

(fixed/manual).
 • Synchronous expansion (manual/auto).

• Manual adjustment of the distortion compensation.

• Automatic fault detection by means of self check.

Visual Modulator
The HPB-3104 visual modulator is intended to convert a baseband video
signal into a modulated IF signal with ring modulator and the IF carrier is also phase
modulated by a processed video signal to pre-correct the incidental carrier phase
modulation.
The video signal for the IF modulation is arbitrarily sliced into three regions of
sync, black and white in which each signal amplitude is individually expanded or
compressed, then summed into the video signal by which the carrier for the ring
modulator is phase modulated.
The ring modulator is followed by a pin diode circuitry via the harmonic filter,
and then the signal passes through the vestigial sideband filter (VSBF) which uses a
surface acoustic wave (saw) filter to achieve the Nyquist shaping.
The HPB-3104 visual modulator performs three functions: to modulate the IF
carrier with the ring modulator, to remove one side band with the VSBF and to pre-
correct the ICPM with the IF phases modulator.

IF CORRECTOR
This IF corrector unit generally used for the correction of non linear distortion
generated in the PA stage, enables correction of DG and DP characteristics of visual
signal. This unit also contains a means to combine two modulated IF carriers of the
visual and aural allowing multiplex operation of the transmitter.

VHF Mixer
In this unit, the IF signal applied at the input is converted to an RF signal by a
DBM and the RF signal is passed through filters (BPF and BEF) to separate out only
the specified band and amplified to obtain an RF signal of +20 dBm. By applying
AGC to the IF signal, the output power of the transmitter is maintained at a constant
level.
The BPF and BEF are all installed for adjustment from the front side.

SYNTHESIZER
Synthesizer is a device which generates the intermediate frequency for audio
and video modulation (for aural mixer and visual mixer). Synthesizer changes from
exciter to exciter. It depends on the channel frequencies allocated by the F.C.C.
TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna,
propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other
telecommunications. In other applications signals can also be transmitted using an
analog 0/4-20 mA current loop signal.
In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply,
an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio frequency (AF) and radio
frequency (RF). The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the
signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast. Sometimes a
device (for example, a cell phone) contains both a transmitter and radio receiver, with
the combined unit referred to as a transceiver. A common consumer electronics device
is a Personal FM transmitter, a very low power transmitter generally designed to take
a simple audio source like an iPod, CD player, etc. and transmit it a few feet to
standard radio receiver. In the USA, most personal FM transmitters fall under part
15% of the FCC regulations to avoid any user licensing requirements.
In amateur radio, a transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic gear or a
set of a transceiver, and often referred to using an abbreviated form: “XMTR”.
In industrial process control, a “transmitter” is any device which converts
measurements from a sensor into a signal to be received, usually sent via wires, by
some display or control device located a distance away.
Typically in process control applications the “transmitter” will output an
analog 4-20 mA current loop or digital protocol to represent a measured variable
within a range. For example, a pressure transmitter might use 4 mA as a
representation for 50 psig of pressure and 20 mA as 1000 psig of pressure and any
value in between proportionally ranged between 3 to 15 psig to represent a process
variable.
Generally and in communication and information processing, a transmitter is
any object which sends information to an observer. When used in this more general
sense, vocal cords may also be considered as example of a transmitter.
 History in the early days of radio engineering, radio frequency was generated
using arcs known as Alexranderson alternator or mechanic alternates (of which a rare
example survives at the SAQ transmitter in Grineton, Sweden). In the 1920s
electronic transmitters, based on vaccum tubes, began to be used.

Power Output
In broadcasting, and telecommunication, the part which contains the oscillator,
modulator and sometimes audio processor, is called the exciter. Confusingly, the high-
power amplifier which
The exciter then feeds into is often called the “transmitter” y broadcast
engineers. The final output is given as transmitter power output (TPO), although this
is not what most stations are rated by.
Effective radiated power (ERP) is used when calculating station coverage,
even for mot non-broadcast stations. It is the TPO, minus any attenuation or radiated
loss in the line to the antenna, multiplied by the gain (magnification) which the
antenna provides toward the horizon. This is important, because the electric utility bill
for the transmitter would be enormous otherwise, as would the cost of a transmitter.
For most large stations in the VHF and UHF-range, the transmitter power is no more
than 20% of the ERP.
For VLF, LF, MF and HF the ERP is typically not determined separately. In
most cases the transmission power found in lists of transmitters is the value for the
output of the transmitter. This is the only correct for Omni directional aerials with a
length of a quarter wavelengths or shorter.
For other aerial types there are gain factors, which can reach values until 50
for shortwave directional beams in the direction of maximum earn intensity.
Since some authors take account of gain factors of aerials of transmitters for
frequencies below 30 MHz and others not, there are often discrepancies of the values
of transmitted powers.

Power Supply
Transmitters are sometimes fed from a higher voltage level of the power
supply grid than necessary in order to improve security of supply. For example, the
Alouis, Konstantynow and Roumoules transmitters are fed from the high-voltage
network (110 kV in Alouis and Konstantynow, 150 kV in Roumoules) even though a
power supply from the medium-voltage level of the power grid (about 20 kV) would
be able to deliver enough energy.

Cooling of final stages

Low-power transmitters do not require special cooling equipment. Modern
transmitters can be incredibly efficient, with efficiencies exceeding 98 percent.
However, a broadcast transmitter with a megawatt power stage transferring 98% of
that into the antenna can also be viewed as a 20 kilowatt electric heater.
For medium-power transmitter, up to a few hundred watts, air cooling with
fans is used. At power levels over a few kilowatts, the output stage is cooled by a
forced liquid cooling system analogous to an automobile cooling system. Since the
coolant directly touches the high-voltage anodes of the tubes, only distilled, deionised
water or a special dielectric coolant can also be used in the cooling circuit. This high
purity coolant is in turn cooled by a heat exchanger, where the second cooling circuit
can use water of ordinary quality because it not in contact with energized parts. Very
high power tubes of small physical size may use evaporative cooling by water in
contact with anode. The production of steam allows a high heat flow in a small space.

Protection equipment
The high voltages required used in high power transmitters (up to 40 kV)
require extensive equipment. Also, transmitters are exposed to damage from
lightening. Transmitters may be damaged if operated without an antenna, so
protection circuits must detect the loss of the antenna and switch off the transmitter
immediately. Tube based transmitters must have power applied the proper sequence,
with the filament voltage applied before the anode voltage; otherwise the tubes can be
damaged. The output stage must be monitored for standing waves, which indicate that
generated power is not being radiated but reflected back into transmitter.
Lightning protection is required between the transmitter and antenna. This
consists of spark gaps and gas-filled surge arresters to limit the voltage that appears
on the transmitter terminals. The control instrument that measures the voltage
standing wave ratio switches the transmitter of briefly if a higher voltage standing
wave ratio is detected after lightning strikes, as the reflections are probably due to
lightning damage. If this does not succeed after several attempts, the antenna may be
damaged and the transmitter should remain switched off. In some transmitting plants
UV detectors are fitted in critical places, frequency and other transmitter parameters
are monitored for protection and diagnostic purposes, and may be displayed locally
and/or at a remote control room.

Building
A commercial transmitter site will usually have a control building to shelter
the transmitter components and control devices. This is usually a purely functional
building, which may constant apparatus for both radio and television transmitters. To
reduce transmission line loss the transmitter building is usually immediately adjacent
to the antenna for VHF and UHF sites, but for lowest frequencies it may be desirable
to have a distance of a few score or several hundred meters between building and the
antenna. Some transmitting towers have enclosures built into the tower to house radio
relay link transmitters or other, relatively low-power transmitters.

Legal and regulatory aspects

Since radio waves go over borders, international agreements control radio
transmissions. In European countries like Germany often the national Post Offices is
the regulating authority. In the United States broadcast and industrial transmitters are
regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) helps managing the radio frequency spectrum
internationally.

Main and relay (repeater) transmitters

 Transmitting stations are usually either classified as main stations or relay
stations (also known as repeaters or translators).
Main stations are defined as those that generate their own modulated output
signal from a baseband (unmodulated) input. Usually main stations operate at high
power and large areas.
Relay stations take an already modulated input signal usually by direct
reception of a parent station (off-air) and simply shift (translate) its frequency before
rebroadcasting. Usually relay stations operate at medium or low power, and are used
to fill in pockets of poor reception within, or at the fringe of, the service area of a
parent main station.
Note that a main station may also take its input signal directly off-air from
another station, however this signal would be fully demodulated to baseband first,
processed, and then remodulated for transmission.