Gravity Anomalies and Deep Structure of the Andaman Arc
MANOJ MUKHOPADHYAY
Department of Geophysics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad-826004, India
(Received January 1986; revised 24 November, 1987)
Keywords: plate subduction, gravity field, deep structure, sediment
distribution, mafic mass within sediments, low density zone below
the volcanic axis, and crustal transition.
Abstract. The Andaman arc is associated with a major Free-air
anomaly pair of mean amplitude 180 mgal. Two-dimensionalgrav-
ity interpretation suggests significant mass anomalies below the arc
that presumably have resulted due to subduction of the Indian plate
below the Burma plate. It is inferred that the Andaman trench is of
asymmetric V-shape containing about 7 km sediments. An outer
bathymetric rise seaward of the trench possibly corresponds to a
lithospheric flexure by 500 m. The Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments
constituting the Andaman sedimentary arc attain their maximum
thickness of about 13 km under the Nicobar Deep at the subduc-
tion zone. At this location a mafic mass is emplaced within the
sedimentary section. The underlying oceanic crust apparently ex-
periences phase transition at about 27 km depth in a Benioffzone
environment. The Andaman volcanic arc underlies a low density
zone that is at least 60 km wide. Along the east margin of the
Andaman Sea, crustal transition presumably occurs below the Mer-
gui Terrace at the Malayan coast.
Introduction
The A n d a m a n arc in the N E Indian Ocean together
with the Burmese arc further north define a nearly
2100-km-long margin of the underthrusting Indian
plate with the Burma plate (cf. Fitch, 1970; Curray et
al., 1979). The two arc systems provide an important
tectonic link between the Himalayan collision zone
and a major island arc-trench system of south Asia,
the Indonesian arc (Figure 1). The A n d a m a n arc is of
particular interest for its Neogene back-arc spreading;
this activity is presumably related to leaky transform
tectonics (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979).
A major Free-air anomaly pair of average ampli-
tude 180 mgal coincides with the A n d a m a n arc over a
distance of 1100 km in north-south direction (Peter et
al., 1966). The zone of minimum gravity corresponds
to the trench and sedimentary islands whereas the
Marine Geophysical Researches 9 (1988) 197 210.
9 1988 by Kluwer Academic Publishers.
zone of m a x i m u m gravity generally outlines the vol-
canic arc located further east within the overriding
Burma plate. A similar disposition of gravity anoma-
lies is known for the Burmese arc (cf. Evans and
Crompton, 1946). Peter et al. (ibid.) interpreted the
A n d a m a n gravity low in terms of excess crustal thick-
ness underlying the A n d a m a n - N i c o b a r sedimentary
islands (called the A n d a m a n - N i c o b a r Ridge, ANR).
Here we interpret the gravity anomaly pair in terms of
subduction of the Indian plate on the basis of avail-
able geologic data, seismic control and seismologic
data. Our main conclusions are that the descending
lithospheric slab below the A n d a m a n arc is a zone of
mass excess, two prominent areas of mass deficiency
underlie the subduction zone and volcanic axis respec-
tively, and ocean-continent crustal transition appears
to occur under the Mergui terrace at the Malayan
continental margin.
Regional Geology and Tectonic Setting
The A N R is believed to have formed in Oligo-
Miocene times due to east-west compression of sedi-
ments derived from the Malayan shelf (Rodolfo,
1969a). Its chief constituent rocks are: Cretaceous ser-
pentinites, ophiolites with radiolarian cherts, Creta-
ceous to Eocene cherty pelagic limestone, grit,
conglomerate, and a thick section of Eo-Oligocene
flysch overlain by Neogene shallow water sediments
(Table I).
Results of seismic surveys (Curray et al., 1979) sug-
gest that the surface trace of subduction below the
A n d a m a n arc lies at the western base of the A N R
where the trench is filled with sediments of the Bengal
Fan (Figures 2 and 3). The process of subduction and
offscraping of ocean-floor sediments continues today
198 MANOJ MUKHOPADHYAY

91 ~ 95 ~ 99 ~

O
25

20*

15"

~0.

Thrust Fault
s Eastern
Boundary Thrust
~ , Active fault
- - - Inactive fault
AA Volcanic axis
Spreading
Ridge
Edge Of
_~--"~ Cant inenta|
Crust

Fig. 1. Generalized tectonic map for the Andaman arc and adjoining Burmese and Indonesian arcs (redrawn after Curray et al., 1979). The
Indian plate underthrusts the Burma plate eastward below both the Andaman and Burmese arcs.
 GRAVITY ANOMALIES AND DEEP S T R U C T U R E OF THE A N D A M A N ARC 199

TABLE I
Generalizedstratigraphic sequenceand sedimentcharacter for the Andaman Islands region (data source: Chatterjee,
1967; Eremenko and Sastri, 1977; and Roy, 1983)
Age Formation Generalized
lithology Max. thickness
(m)
Recent- Beach and tidal deposits
Pleistocene coral reef, raised beaches
unconformity
Pliocene- Long Foraminiferal clay, thin 60
Miocene bands of silt
Guitar Foraminiferal limestone, 450
calcareous sandstone and
siltstone
unconformity
Round Chalk, sandstone, siltstone 520
Strait Sandstone, grit, conglome- 500
rate, marl and siltstone
unconformity
Oligocene- Port Blair Thick to massive sandstone, 750
Late Eocene shale, siltstone
unconformity
Paleocene- Baratang Shale, associated grey- 1370
Late Cret. wackes, limestone
unconformity
Cretaceous Port Meadow Radiolarian chert, jaspers, 500 +
quartzite, limestone, marble.
Oceanic basement/ophiolite
suite

as evidenced by deformation of the Pleistocene sedi-
ments near the base of the landward wall of the filled
trench, and also by current seismicity (see below). The
structure in the A N R is dominated by east-dipping
nappes having gentler folding in the north part of the
arc as compared to tighter folding and more intense
deformation within the nappes further south off
Sumatra (Weeks et al., 1967; Moore and Curray,
1980). Also the structures in the Cretaceous-
Oligocene sequences are generally more deformed
than those developed in younger sequences (Ere-
menko and Sastri, 1977). Several north-south faults
and thrusts within the A N R and offshore areas are
known from surface mapping and seismic surveys; the
most extensive of them is the Jarwa thrust developed
in the main Andaman Islands (Roy, 1983). Curray et
al. (1979) describe a set of north-south faults slicing
the sea floor along the eastern edge of the A N R in the
Nicobar deep and under the western part of the An-
daman Sea, most significant of them being the West
Andaman fault (Figures 1 and 2). Some of these
faults/thrusts are also seismically active (Mukhopad-
hyay, 1984).
The eastern edge of the A N R gently slopes down
eastward to the floor of the Andaman basin whose
deepest portions are located in the 100-200 km wide
central Andaman trough. The depth of the trough
varies from 2 km below sea level at its northern end to
beyond 3 km midway along its 750 km length. The
northwestern margin of the trough is marked by a
mosaic of steep and elongate seavalleys and seamounts
such as the Nicobar Deep, Barren-Narcondam vol-
canic islands, Invisible Bank, Alcock and Sewell
seamounts (Rodolfo, 1969a, b) (Figure 2). The Nar-
condam is now an extinct volcano but the Barren last
erupted in 1832. All the seamounts which together
form the Andaman volcanic arc possibly share a com-
mon origin; their principal rock constituents are:
basalt, augite basalt or andesite (Rodolfo, 1969a). The
central trough is bisected by the Andaman back-arc
spreading ridge that has produced nearly symmetric
spreading for the last 11 m.y. with a half-spreading
rate of 1.86 cm yr -1 (Curray et al., 1979). The An-
daman basin contains an average sediment thickness
of 4 km, but it is delimited eastward by the Mergui
Terrace at the Malayan continental margin.
 t~

91 ~ 93* 95 ~ 97 ~ 99*
yjl~ Andaman "-I "I"7" . _
Trench 1 1 Fautt
Spreding R)dge
,
(partly active)
~'~ Seamount B ~=
o . - - - . ~~'
c ~ .- . . . . . . ".-, 2 - 2 - . 7 : o -
( B a s a l t / A ride s~te ) = ~ - ^ ^^\^, - = -----=-E<:
Edge of continental . . . . . i --_-'- -" :
crust
5ravity station
location '-~ ^~" i- ~=:~qz.
I 120 Km I i ' A A . . . . . . ~ --

o k,C e n trial " "1

'
L =
I ~ ctm ctn ~i
I " _-
Boy
of "--- O - I . . . . .
U
m C
Benga I '

II z . . . .

E:_- --'-_g ~ ~
O .... ~ ~ ~ 9
E
o

89 ~ o
91" 93 ~ 95* 97* 99 ~

Fig. 2. Tectonic details o f the A n d a m a n arc and the A n d a m a n marginal sea (source: Rodolfo, 1969a, b and Curray et al., 1979). A A ' is the
interpreted gravity profile; small circles are gravity station locations. BB' through D D ' are seismic profiles (after Curray et al., 1979) whose
underlying structures are depicted on Figure 3. EE' is a seismologic section (redrawn after Mukhopadhyay, 1984) also illustrated on Figure 3.
 G R A V I T Y A N O M A L I E S A N D DEEP S T R U C T U R E OF T H E A N D A M A N ARC 201

Plate Setting Indian plate corresponding to an east-west section,

EE', in the central portion of the Andaman arc is
The Andaman arc is an area of high seismicity where shown on Figure 3 (redrawn after Mukhopadhyay,
focal depths of earthquakes extend down to 150 km. 1984). In preparing the section all hypocenters located
The Benioff zone configuration for the descending within a distance of 200 km of the section line were

Middle Andaman Narcondam

B Island Smf. Atcock /
VE =7.2 X WAF
~,
Smt. Spreading
B-0
Bengal ~ ~
I.I

v1

Andaman-Nicobar Invisible
C Ri_dge Bank Mergui r~
.I/WAF Terrace ~0
V E = 2 2 X ~ ~,._.~ /~J Barren Smt .
Benga I~'~v~.~. -" ".'-~" ~ .~,~\ _ _ "Spreading /~'~'~/~" I--2
I.I
Fan QI

North "6
O Andaman-Nicobar Sevet[ Mergui Sumatra O/
VE-22X Ridge
WAF Smf. Ridge Basin rO
Bengal ~,, A Spreading _ ~ ~
I.I

Sediment s t r a t a s
Volcanics SCALE
WAF West Andaman Fault I I
200 Km

Andaman
Trench
. . Nicobar ~ Andaman sea . - - - - - ~ c /
E AXiS ~ Ridge ~ Volcan!c arc
West i, 9. .. . . 9 .9 ~ East

"
SO~" Indian plate : **"
e*
"*"?;~""" -',~": B u r m a~ ~; tat
eex 9 9 ee
e~
~. 1001- Central Andaman ~ * ~ -'i
" I Sea Earthquakes " ~ "? I
140 L_ (period 1916-1975) ~ I'~ J

Fig. 3. Structures present under the seismic profiles BB' through DD' crossing the Andaman arc, and the Benioff zone configuration below
the section EE'. For bottom figure: A.B Aseismic Belt; EFZ Earthquake Free Zone.
202 MANOJ M U K H O P A D H Y A Y
projected onto a vertical plane. The horizontal lower
boundary of the Indian Ocean lithosphere is placed
immediately below the lowest foci at a depth of
75 km; traced eastward this boundary dips at about
30~ under the arc and plunges to nearly 150 km depth
below the Andaman Sea. The upper boundary for the
inclined lithosphere is rather difficult to locate unless
a basic assumption is made that it lies in the western
vicinity of the ANR where a megathrust is already
proposed by Fitch (1970). By definition, this zone of
megashear therefore outlines the surface trace of the
boundary between the descending Indian plate and
the overriding Burma plate. Further east of the Be-
nioff zone two shallower seismic zones are located
within the Burma plate (Figure 3). Following Sacks et
al. (1978) and Yamashina et al. (1978), we designate
this as the 'seismic slab' of the overriding plate. The
relatively shallow seismic zone closest to the Benioff
zone occurs below the western part of the Andaman
Sea near the frontal arc (ANR); whereas the crustal
seismic zone east of the volcanic arc corresponds to
back-arc activity. It also appears from section EE'
that the fore-arc and back-arc seismic zones are dis-
tinguished by an earthquake free zone between them.
A triangular 'asesimic belt' occurs at shallower depths
defined by the upper surfaces of the Benioff zone and
the 'seismic slab' of the overriding plate; the apex of
the aseismic belt is deflected downward - concordant
with the dip direction of the Benioff zone, particularly
under the east flank of the ANR and the Nicobar
Deep. This bending of the 'Burma plate seismic slab'
is presumably a consequence of downward drag expe-
rienced by the overriding plate near the subduction
zone.
According to Curray et al. (1979) the Burma plate
is of elongated shape in north-south direction; it en-
compasses the Andaman basin underlying the An-
daman Sea and also a substantial part of inland
Burma. The east margin of the Burma plate with the
Asian plate is marked by the Sagaing fault - a major
transform extending through Burma toward the
Himalayan collision zone (Figure 1).
It is suggested that extensional stress dominates the
landward wall of the Andaman trench whereas com-
pressive stress prevails within the overriding Burma
plate (Mukhopadhyay, 1984). This, however, gives
way to deviatoric tensional stress near the Andaman
back-arc spreading ridge in the interior of the Burma
plate. Note that the back-arc spreading ridge bisects
the Andaman volcanic arc in the central Andaman
Sea as it passes between the Barren and Sewell
seamounts (Figure 2).
Gravity Anomalies
The gravity field for the Andaman arc, first described
by Peter et al. (1966), is clearly bipolar in nature, and
is quite similar to that for the Western Pacific arcs. A
revised Free-air anomaly map for the region is given
on Figure 4. The most significant feature present on
the Free-air map is a gravity anomaly pair of average
amplitude 180 mgal coinciding with the Andaman
arc. The maximum anomaly, however, locally varies
up to 300 mgal (peak to trough) near the Invisible
Bank in the north Andaman Sea. The general charac-
ter of the anomaly shows a gravity low over the
island-arc and trench area and a gravity high over the
volcanic arc. In the north part of the Andaman arc
_the axis of the gravity minimum shifts its position to
a more easterly location to follow the Nicobar deep
along the eastern edge of the ANR (Figure 4). The
gravity minimum is seen to shift again to its suppos-
edly initial location only to the north of the Preparis
Channel close to the Burmese coast. Peter et al. (ibid.)
have interpreted the low gravity in terms of excess
crustal thickness reaching up to 40 km underlying the
ANR.
Further east, the Andaman basin underlying the
Andaman Sea is associated with Free-air anomalies
varying up to _+ 50 mgal. Mild positive anomalies are
also observed over a bathymetric swell to the immedi-
ate west of the Andaman trench as well as over the
Ninety East Ridge. The Ninety East Ridge strikes
nearly subparallel to the Andaman arc in this region.
The gravity anomaly variation along a 980-km-
long profile, AA', taken across the central portion of
the Andaman arc (Figure 2 for profile location) is
illustrated on Figure 5. Major tectonic features tra-
versed by the profile from west to east are: Bengal
Fan, Ninety East Ridge, Andaman trench, ANR,
Nir Deep, volcanic arc and back-arc spreading
ridge in the region of the Sewell seamount, Andaman
basin, and finally the Mergui terrace at the Malayan
continental margin. Gravity and bathymetric point
values plotted on Figure 5 follow a ship's track along
the Ten Degree Channel (data source: Defense Map-
ping Agency, U.S.A.). Free-air values at both ends
of the profile are within 0 to - 2 0 mgal, suggesting
isostatic compensation for the Indian Ocean litho-
sphere below the Bengal Fan on the west as well as for
 G R A V I T Y A N O M A L I E S A N D D E E P S T R U C T U R E OF T H E A N D A M A N A RC 203

900 91~ 92" 93 ~ 9/,0 9S ~

[ I
Scale

r"80 Km o 7"

"v 0
P r e p a r i s South
Channel

1/,
B e n g a l Fan
0coTI-I1[]/*"
N2
rth . . ' G r a v i t y
=da- Station
nan ^ Free a i r
13
contour
interval

12
If -':"
~ ~176
varinble
H/L f i r a v i t y
high or
low
...Trench
axis

A
o
IC

9~

ol
8

"~ = a~ o '~ ~ Little Nicobar

0
t

g~a

88 ~ 890 90 ~ 91 ~ 9Z ~ 93 ~ 9/*~ 950

Fig. 4. Free-air gravity anomaly map for the Andaman arc-trench region, and generalized geology for the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. Data
sources are cited in text. Note the north-south linearity of the positive anomaly zone over the 'outer high' and Ninety East Ridge, negative
anomaly over the Andaman trench, and positive anomalies further east over the Andaman volcanic arc. The volcanic arc gravity contours
are adopted from Peter et al. (1966). The axis of the gravity minimum, however, shifts its position eastward to follow the Nicobar Deep in
the north part of the arc as compared to more southern areas. Legend: 1, Unmapped; 2, Laterite; 3, Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments; 4,
Ophiolite. AA' is the gravity profile (also see Figure 2) interpreted in Figure 5.
204 MANOJ M U K H O P A D H Y A Y

/,Or" -~o

-- AA A A

0 9 AA A
AA A A

-z,,0

-80 - -80

-120F- -12(
Observed
-" .~ -'- Computed
-160t- -16(
4

A
-200 0
~. 100 200 300 zOO 500 600 700 800
Km
900
~-
980- -20q
| I t I I I
WRst' e e , t Enst
O.B.H &
B. F._-,~-90eost Ridge . - ~ T~A~- A.N.R NO. A.S. M.T,
0
10

20
30

5O

l
E
70

90

11C

13t

151

Fig. 5. Two-dimensional interpretation of the gravity field along profile AA' in the central Andaman arc (see Figures 2 and 4 for profile
location). Inset shows computed gravity effect due to the descending Indian lithosphere below 75 km depth. See text for discussion on
interpreted model. B.F., Bengal Fan; O.B.H., Outer Bathymetric High; T.A., Trench Axis; N.D., Nicobar Deep; V.A., Volcanic Arc; A.S.,
Andaman Sea; M.T., Mergui Terrace. Digits refer to density values in g cm 3.
 G R A V I T Y A N O M A L I E S A N D D E E P S T R U C T U R E O F T H E A N D A M A N ARC
the Malayan continental margin on the extreme east.
The Bengal Fan gravity field changes over the Ninety
East Ridge and its adjoining area to the immediate
west of the Andaman trench to describe a relative
gravity high of about 30 mgal. This change in gravity
corresponds to a bathymetric swell of more than
350 m over a horizontal span of about 150 km (also
see Figure 4). Obviously these bathymetric and grav-
ity changes are related in part to both the Ninety East
Ridge and lithospheric flexuring in the form of an
'Outer High' to the immediate west of the Andaman
trench. Watts and Talwani (1974) have already noted
that the outer high in the present region is less promi-
nent as compared to that in the Indonesian arc further
south. However, bathymetric relief for the Ninety
East Ridge is also much subdued in the Andaman
region compared to more southern areas; the ridge is
practically buried at this latitude (cf. Curray et al.,
1982). Observed Free-air values are close to
- 50 mgal over the Andaman trench, but they fall off
rapidly to - 1 9 2 regal over the Nicobar Deep across
the ANR, thence rise to about 12 mgal over the vol-
canic arc toward the east. Further east the anomaly
values are of the order of - 2 5 mgal over the An-
daman basin before attaining mild positive values
again over the Mergui Terrace at the Malayan coast.
This anomaly variation along the Ten Degree Chan-
nel and across the Andaman Sea is interpreted here in
terms of a subduction zone model.
Deep Structure
For purposes of gravity interpretation for profile
AA', we use some guidelines on velocity and depth
distribution for near surface geologic layers underly-
ing the Andaman arc as known from previous studies.
They include: an interpreted section for a sub-bottom
profile along the Ten Degree Channel (after Weeks et
al., 1967), results of wide-angle seismic reflection and
refraction study on crustal layers under the Ganges
Cone (after Naini and Leyden, 1973), information
from DSDP leg 217 located on north part of the
Ninety East Ridge, sediment velocities from
sonobuoys from Bengal and Nicobar Fans and An-
daman basin (Hamilton et al., 1977), and information
from three seismic profiles, BB' through DD', across
the Andaman arc (after Curray et al., 1979) (Figures
2 and 3). Structural interpretation for these seismic
sections as given by Curray et al. clearly demonstrates
205
that major geologic structures underlying the An-
daman arc are grossly similar in the north-south di-
rection. The present gravity profile AA' and aforesaid
seismologic section EE' are located in the close vicin-
ity of these seismic profiles.
The gravity anomaly variation for many island arc-
trench areas has been explained in the framework of
sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics. Such gravity
model studies commonly infer that the descending
lithosphere under island-arc/trench areas produces a
considerable gravity effect on the surface (cf. Grow,
1973; Grow and Bowin, 1975). This is possibly a con-
sequence of thermal effects of cold oceanic lithosphere
along Benioff zones (Minear and Toksoz, 1970) that
predict long wavelength gravity anomalies of ampli-
tudes of 50-100 mgal due to thermal perturbations in
the upper mantle. The gravity effect produced by the
descending Indian Ocean lithosphere at the location
of the present gravity profile has been computed using
the configuration shown by section EE' (Figure 3)
where we assume the lithosphere to asthenosphere
density contrast to be 0.05 g cm -3. A similar density
value was assumed by Grow (ibid.) for the Aleutian
arc. Grow and Bowin (ibid.) consider a more complex
density distribution for the descending lithosphere un-
der the Chilean trench. However, in the present case
since no other geophysical data support is available
we have used the lithospheric configuration shown in
Figure 3, and a uniform density distribution for the
lithosphere and the surrounding asthenosphere. For
two-dimensional computation of gravity effects we
use the polygonal method of Talwani et al. (1959).
As can be seen on Figure 5, the computed gravity
effect due to the subducting lithosphere under the An-
daman arc has a maximum value of 68 mgal which
tails off quite symmetrically from the peak value, and
diminishes to less than 5 mgal within a distance of
500 km from the deepest part of the subduction zone.
The positive gravity effect due to the descending litho-
sphere is 20 mgal at the trench axis and 35-40 mgal
over the volcanic arc. The observed anomaly along
profile AA' is supposedly a combination of this deep
gravity effect plus the effect due to the overlying lay-
ers. Hence the positive effect due to the descending
lithospheric slab (below 75 km) must be compensated
by a low density zone overlying it at the location of
the volcanic arc in the vicinity of the Sewell seamount.
For achieving this a low density zone is envisaged
in terms of a less dense (by an estimated value of
206 MANOJ M U K H O P A D H Y A Y
-0.01 g cm -3 with respect to the surrounding litho-
sphere) vertical rock column, at least 60 km wide,
penetrating the lithosphere under the volcanic arc.
Construction of the geometry for the low density zone
is purely arbitrary at this stage; the model is assumed
to merely fit the observed gravity anomalies. Alter-
nately, the positive gravity effect in question may be
balanced by asthenospheric shallowing to the base of
the crust beneath the volcanic arc at the location of
the earthquake free zone (shown in Figure 3) or by
some form of mass anomalies arising out of mantle
flow at the Andaman back-arc region as the astheno-
sphere tends to pull the overriding Burma plate west-
ward in the direction of the Andaman trench. Any
such mantle flow, if operative, will have to be related
to the dynamics of lithospheric subduction. Such a
process of mantle flow is believed to be a dominant
mechanism for several active back-arc regions of the
world (cf. Hager et al., 1983). However, at present we
have very little to choose from these various alterna-
tive explanations.
It has been argued (cf. Minear and Toksoz, 1970)
that heating due to friction between the underthrust
and overriding plates may produce a high-tempera-
ture, low-density zone generally below the volcanic
arc, where seismic waves are also known to attenuate.
No such elaborate seismic velocity model is however
available for the Andaman arc. It is likely that the
presence of volcanoes themselves requires a higher
temperature (low-density) source at depth below
them as already noted by Grow (1973). The An-
daman volcanic arc is intriguingly split by the back-
arc spreading ridge at the location of the present
gravity profile. Published values for heat-flow mea-
surements so far made in the region of the volcanic
arc indicate appreciably high values such as 5.27 hfu
(Burns, 1964), 5.9 and 3.3 hfu (Curray et al., 1979).
Also the heat-flow values fall off linearly with distance
away from the axis of the volcanic arc. This, in a way,
tends to support the presence of a high-temperature,
low-density zone under the volcanic arc.
Crustal Configuration for the Bengal Fan Model
Another distinct source of density anomaly lies in the
upper part of the lithosphere at the subduction zone.
This is produced by the Indian Ocean crust at the
Andaman island arc-trench area where the crustal
layer gets highly deformed as it is carried with the
subducting plate. For the purpose of gravity modeling
we assume a simplified two-layer ocean crust that con-
sists of a sediment layer of mean density 2.5 gcm -3
overlying a basal part (corresponding to oceanic layers
2 and 3) of mean density 2.9 g cm -3. These density
values are estimated on the basis of observed seismic
velocities under the Ganges Cone and Andaman arc-
trench areas as given by Naini and Leyden (1973),
Hamilton et al. (1977) and Curray et al. (1979, 1982)
using the Nafe-Drake velocity-density relationship.
We further assume that the oceanic Moho under the
Ganges Cone in the north part of the Indian Ocean
basin lies at a depth of 14 km below sea-level where the
average water depth is 3.5 km. This ocean basin crust
is supposedly in isostatic equilibrium according to the
Airy scheme as suggested by near-zero Free-air
anomalies under the western part of profile AA'. That
isostatic equilibrium prevails on a regional scale in
most parts of the northern Indian Ocean is also exem-
plified by averaged Free-air anomalies over 1~ • 1~
areas (cf. Kahle and Talwani, 1973); such anomalies
are however, superposed on a much longer wavelength
gravity low due to deeper sources and a geoidal
anomaly centered south of Ceylon in the north Indian
Ocean (cf. Watts and Daly, 1981).
The sediment layer underlying this part of the Ben-
gal Fan corresponding to the western flank of profile
AA' is considered to be 4.5 km thick; the sediments
range in age from Campanian to Holocene. Note that
sediment thickness in the Bengal Fan is quite variable
and may attain a high figure (cf. Curray and Moore,
1974). Curray et al. (1982) suggest that the sediment
thickness possibly exceeds 5 km in the present area.
Seismic reflection and refraction spot surveys reported
by Naini and Leyden (1973) in the vicinity of the
present gravity profile indicate that sediments are, in
general, 4-5 km thick and they directly overlie the
oceanic basement of distinct higher velocity of
6.22 km sec -~. Therefore, the 4.5 km sediment thick-
ness considered here for gravity modeling purposes is
perhaps a minimum estimate. A time section con-
structed by Curray et al. (ibid.) from seismic reflection
records with averaged velocities from results of wide-
angle reflection and refraction measurements along
the Ten Degree Channel basin clearly demonstrates
that almost flat-lying sediments of the Bengal Fan
thin out eastward over the Ninety East Ridge but
thicken again with eastward dip upon approaching
the Andaman trench located some 70 km further east.
 G R A V I T Y A N O M A L I E S A N D D E E P S T R U C T U R E O F T H E A N D A M A N ARC
This simplified crustal model for northern Indian
Ocean crust is quite comparable to an average oceanic
crustal model (for layers 2 and 3) as reported by
Christensen and Salisbury (1975) who propose layer 2
and 3 thicknesses of 1.39 __+0.50 and 4.97 + 1.25 km,
having respective compressional wave velocities of
5.04 ___0.69 and 6.73 ___0.19 km s 1. They further con-
clude that there is little change in thickness for layers
2 and 3 if the ocean basin is any older than 40 m.y. As
the crust underlying the northern Indian Ocean near
the Ninety East Ridge is definitely much older than
this (cf. Luyendyk and Rennick, 1977 for magnetic
anomaly ages and DSDP results on the area), we be-
lieve that the simplified oceanic crustal model consid-
ered here for gravity modeling may not be far from
the real picture. This Bengal Fan crust is carried down
the Andaman trench with the descending Indian
plate.
While some of the foregoing assumptions about the
normal crustal configuration under the NE Indian
Ocean are bound to remain ambiguous until deep
crustal seismic control and crustal drilling data be-
come available, certain important inferences can be
made on the approximate configuration of the trench-
arc geometry, sedimentary and crustal layers below
the ANR, and about the subduction zone, which sat-
isfy the gravity data.
Trench and Outer Bathymetric Rise Geometry
Along the western flank of the ANR, the Andaman
trench is clearly demarcated by a continuous gravity
low of amplitude - 48 mgal, although the bathymet-
ric expression for the trench is much less clear (also
see Figure 4). At the Ten Degree Channel the gravity
gradients across the outer and inner walls of the
trench are -0.63 mgal km 1 and 1.90 mgal km i re-
spectively. The positive gravity effect due to the de-
scending Indian lithosphere at the trench axis is
20 mgal. For gravity model calculations we have con-
sidered density contrasts between sediments and
oceanic crust and the latter versus the lithosphere as
uniform throughout ( = - 0 . 5 g e m - 3 ) . The model
shows that the Andaman trench has an asymmetric
V-shape; the apex of the trench axis is filled with sed-
inaents and the maximum sediment thickness is 7 km
under the area (Figure 5). In other words, the trench
contains an excess of 2.5 km of sediments as com-
pared to the Bengal Fan crust to its immediate west.
207
There is a corresponding downbulge of oceanic layers
2 and 3 into the lithosphere.
Seaward of the trench, in the region of a bathymet-
ric swell of more than 350 m, the gravity model shows
a lithospheric flexuring by 500 m to account for a
gravity high of 30 mgal. For constructing the swell
geometry, we use a similar density distribution as be-
fore, and assume the crustal thickness as constant fol-
lowing Watts and Talwani (1974). Such a lithospheric
swell seaward of the Andaman trench occurs over a
horizontal distance of about 150 km. Obviously the
swell is related in part to the buried topography of the
90 East Ridge as well as that due to the 'outer high'
typical of western Pacific arcs. Continuation of the
outer gravity high parallelling the Andaman trench in
the north-south direction clearly suggests that litho-
spheric flexuring associated with the Andaman sub-
duction zone occurs on a regional scale, and that the
outer gravity and bathymetric rises are not entirely
due to the 90 East Ridge. The ridge is practically
buried at this latitude; further north it may die out
altogether.
Crustal Configuration below ANR and
Subduetion Zone
The gravity model (Figure 5) shows that the sediment
thickness for the Cretaceous-Tertiary section reaches
an average value of 5~5 km under the ANR, but
down the subduction zone eastward, sediment thick-
ness may increase to 13 km. The stratigraphic esti-
mate for the Andaman flysch of mid-Eocene to
Oligocene age under the ANR is 3 km; and the gross
sediment thickness for Upper Cretaceous to Recent
sediments, excluding older sediments, is about 4.2 km
(Table I).
Grow (1973) and Grow and Bowin (1975) have
discussed the effect on density as the oceanic crust
experiences transition from lower to higher pressure
assemblages (basalt to eclogite) at pressures between
10 and 20 kb (30 to 60 km depth) in a Benioff zone
environment. This process is grossly generalized here
by a simple density change of the oceanic crust from
2.9 to 3.4 g cm -3 at about 27-28 km depth. The grav-
ity model shows that both sedimentary and deeper
crustal layers are depressed into their respective sub-
strata over a distance of 200 km below the ANR and
at the subduction zone. It is envisaged that sediments
and the underlying crust of the Burma plate are thrust
over the layers of the descending Indian plate through
208 MANOJ M U K H O P A D H Y A Y
an efficient decoupling marked by a great decolle-
ment, in particular under the Nicobar Deep along the
eastern flank of the ANR. This location is marked by
a prominent boundary thrust along the east edge of
the ANR (Mukhopadhyay, 1984). It is noted above
that the A N R is sliced by several north-striking sub-
parallel faults and thrusts including the most exten-
sive Jarwa thrust. Quite a few of these faults are
seismically active at depth. The faults and thrusts un-
der the ANR produce a pattern of east-dipping thrust
sheets and nappes (Curray et al., 1979).
Mafic Mass in ANR
Several mafic/ultramafic bodies including a few ophi-
olites are known from the Andaman-Nicobar Islands
(see Figure 4), although very little is known about
their nature, origin and their relationship with ANR
sediments. Two such relatively large-sized bodies are
known from the Car Nicobar and Teressa Islands
near the Ten Degree Channel where gravity profile
AA' is located. The profile shows a relative gravity
high about 50 km wide having an amplitude of
44 mgal along the east edge of the A N R in the vicinity
of the subduction zone (Figure 5). The gravity high is
located offshore north of the Car Nicobar island. The
shape and gradient of the anomaly suggest a shallow
causative mass. To explain the anomaly we infer a
mafic/ultramafic mass of assumed density 3.0 gcm -3
surrounded by sediments of the ANR. The gravity
model for the causative mass requires it to be nearly
3 km thick having subparallel dip to the sense of sub-
duction below the Andaman arc. Although the nature
and origin of the causative mass are not known, cer-
tain inferences on them can be made on the basis of
the model of Figure 5. For this, three widely believed
hypotheses regarding the obduction of ophiolites and
emplacement of other mafic/ultramafic rocks may be
cited here: (a) obduction of oceanic crust/ophiolites
along faults that dip opposite to the direction of sub-
duction (cf. Coleman, 1971; Christensen and Salis-
bury, 1975); (b) slicing off wedges of ocean crust
during subduction along faults which are subparallel
to the sense of subduction (cf. Dewey and Bird,
1971); (c) emplacement of a mafic/ultramafic mass
related to changing motion along tansform faults (see
Silver et al., 1978). Of these, a process of ophiolite
obduction is clearly not favoured by the present grav-
ity model. Also, we are not aware of any transform
fault activity affecting the A N R near the Ten Degree
Channel. Rather, slicing off wedges of ocean crust
during subduction of the Indian plate seems to be
supported by the eastward thickening of the marie/
ultramafic mass and its concordant dip with eastward
subduction of the Indian plate. Welland and Mitchell
(1977) also note that tectonic slices of marie and ultra-
marie rocks occur within or on the landward margin
of the Andaman flysch belt.
Crustal Transition at the Malayan Continental
Margin
The opposite, eastern boundary of the Andaman Sea
is formed by the Malay peninsula, its continental
shelf, and the Mergui Terrace (Figure 2). The bathy-
metric pattern present along the western flank of the
Mergui Terrace (Figure 5) is clearly representative of
continental shelf and slope geometry, where the ob-
served Free-air anomaly varies from - 2 4 regal over
the eastern Andaman Sea to 12 regal over the Mergui
Terrace landward. Curray et al. (1979) suggest that
the Mergui-North Sumatra basin is underlain by
thinned continental crust; and the north-south block
faulting pattern in the area is similar to tensional
faulting - typical of rifting young continental mar-
gins. This interpretation implies that the crustal tran-
sition possibly occurs below the Mergui Terrace. The
observed Free-air anomaly is similar in nature to that
observed for typical transitional crust underlying At-
lantic-type continental margins (cf. Dehlinger, 1978,
pp. 230-232). Negative anomalies over the eastern
Andaman Sea, that corresponds to the seaward side
of the continental slope, are however somewhat sub-
dued in the present case. This evidently results from
the positive gravity effect of the descending Indian
lithosphere whose effect is nearly 15 mgal here (inset
in Figure 5).
Assuming Airy compensation as valid for the
Malayan continental margin, the observed anomalies
are interpreted in terms of a thicker oceanic crust
under the Andaman Sea, and by a transitional crust,
of assumed average density 2.84 gcm -3, underlying
the Mergui Terrace and Mergui-North Sumatra
basin. The oceanic Moho in our model deepens from
17 km under the eastern Andaman Sea to 19 km be-
low the latter areas; the Moho dip is 16~ eastward.
This east-west crustal transitional zone under the
Mergui Terrace evidently marks the eastern limit of
 GRAVITYANOMALIESAND DEEP STRUCTUREOF THE ANDAMANARC
thick sediment accumulation and thicker oceanic
crust underlying the Andaman Sea.
Summary
Active subduction of the Indian plate is currently oc-
curring beneath the Andaman arc along an east dip-
ping Benioff zone that extends to a depth of about
150 kin; the deepest part of the Benioff zone is at-
tained below the Andaman volcanic arc. The overrid-
ing Burma plate is, in part, defined by an active
seismic slab at least 50 km thick. This lithospheric
slab is deflected downwards in the vicinity of the
Benioff zone. There, a triangular aseismic wedge in
the top part of the Burma plate is generally outlined
beneath the east edge of the ANR as well as the Nico-
bar Deep. A revised Free-air anomaly map for t h e
Andaman arc and its immediate environs shows that
the arc is associated with a major gravity anomaly
pair of amplitude 180 regal extending over a distance
of about l l 0 0 k m in a north-south direction. The
gravity anomaly variation along a profile in the cen-
tral Andaman Sea is interpreted here in terms of plate
subduction following the general pattern of plate
configuration as given by the seismicity data. This
suggests that sediments below the Andaman arc in-
crease from about 7 km to as much as 13 km at the
mouth of the subduction zone underlying the east
flank of the ANR and the Nicobar Deep. At this
location a mafic mass is emplaced within the sedimen-
tary section. The underlying oceanic crust apparently
experiences phase transition at about 27 km in a
Benioff zone environment. The Andaman volcanic arc
is intriguingly split by the Andaman back-arc spread-
ing ridge which has remained active since at least
11 m.y.b.p. At the location of the present gravity
profile, a low density zone of nearly 60 km width un-
derlies the volcanic axis within the overriding plate.
Farther east, crustal transition presumably occurs be-
low the Mergui Terrace at the Malayan coast where
the crust is about 19 km thick with a gentle Moho-dip
eastward.
Acknowledgment
Gravity data used in this article were supplied by the
Defense Mapping Agency, St. Louis, U.S.A. This
study was partly supported by a project grant No. 154
of the Indian School of Mines.
209
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