Lect2 Casting

Metal-Casting Processes and
Equipment
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
© 2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Solidification Processes
Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a
highly plastic condition, and a part is created
through solidification of the material
• Solidification processes can be classified
according to engineering material processed:
• Metals
• Ceramics, specifically glasses
• Polymers and polymer matrix composites
(PMCs)
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Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in the
process
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
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Capabilities and Advantages of
Casting
• Can create complex part geometries

• Can create both external and internal
shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape;
others are near net shape
• Can produce very large parts
• Some casting methods are suited to mass
production
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Disadvantages of Casting
• Different disadvantages for different casting
processes:
• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot
molten metals
• Environmental problems
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Parts Made by Casting
• Big parts: engine blocks and heads for

automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves,
machine frames, railway wheels, pipes,
church bells, big statues, and pump
housings
• Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small
statues, and frying pans
• All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous
and nonferrous
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Typical Cast Parts
(c)
(a)
(b) (d)
(a) Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including the transmission valve body
(left) and the hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front). Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General Motors Corporation. (b) A cast transmission housing. (c) The
Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ191D die-cast high-purity magnesium case. (d)
A two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die-casting process. Source:
Courtesy
Manufacturing of Polaroid
Processes Corporation
for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
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The Mold in Casting
• Contains cavity whose geometry determines

part shape
• Actual size and shape of cavity must be
slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal during solidification and cooling
• Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and
metal
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Temperature & Density for Castings
FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

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Two-Phased Alloys
FIGURE 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a
two-phase system, such as lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution of copper, and the particles are
lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system, consisting of two sets of grains: dark and
light. Dark and light grains have their own compositions and properties.

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Phase Diagram for Nickel-Copper
FIGURE 5.3 Phase diagram for nickel-copper alloy system obtained by a low rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel
and pure copper each have one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of
crystals; the second circle shows the formation of dendrites; and the bottom circle shows the solidified alloy with grain
boundaries.

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Irn-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
FIGURE 5.4 (a) The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. (b) Detailed view of the microstructures above and below the
eutectoid temperature of 727°C (1341°F). Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram
is one of the most important phase diagrams.

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Texture in Castings
FIGURE 5.5 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure
metals, with preferred texture at the cool mold wall. Note in the middle of the figure that only favorable
oriented grains grow away from the mold surface; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by
heterogeneous nucleation of grains.

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Alloy Solidification & Temperature
FIGURE 5.6 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal.
Note the formation of dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.

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Solidification Patterns for Gray Cast
Iron
FIGURE 5.7 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b)
equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: After D. Apelian.

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Cast Structures
FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three

basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar
dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c)
equiaxed nondendritic. Source: After D.
Apelian.
FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane

front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: After D.
Apelian.

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Mold Features
FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold showing various features.

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Temperature Distribution
FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during solidification of metals in casting

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Skin on Casting
Chvorinov’s Rule:
FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the

remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated
in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are
made by a process called slush casting, which is based on
this principle. Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M.C.
Flemings.

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Shrinkage
TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or

expansion for various cast metals.

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Cast Material
Properties
FIGURE 5.13 Mechanical properties for

various groups of cast alloys. Compare with
various tables of properties in Chapter 3.
Source: Courtesy of Steel Founders' Society
of America.

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General Characteristics of Casting
TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.

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Typical Applications & Characteristics
TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting

characteristics.

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Properties & Applications of Cast Iron
TABLE 5.4 Properties and typical applications of cast

irons.

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Nonferrous Alloys
TABLE 5.5 Typical properties of nonferrous casting alloys.

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Microstructure for Cast Irons
FIGURE 5.14 Microstructure for cast irons. (a) ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes; (b) ferritic nodular iron, (ductile
iron) with graphite in nodular form; and (c) ferritic malleable iron. This cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the
carbon present as cementite (Fe3C), and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.

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Continuous-Casting
FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-

casting process for steel. Note that the
platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above
ground level. Source: American
Foundrymen's Society. (b) Continuous
strip casting of nonferrous metal strip.
Source: Courtesy of Hazelett Strip-
Casting Corp.

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Production Steps in Sand-Casting
Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

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Sand Mold
Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

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Pattern Plate
A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.

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Design for Ease of Removal from
Mold
Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold

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Sand Cores
Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.

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Vertical Flaskless Molding
(c)
Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of

the pattern. (b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for
pouring. (c) A photograph of a vertical flaskless molding line. Source:
Courtesy of American Foundry Society.
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Sand
Casting
FIGURE 5.16 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations in sand casting. (a) A mechanical drawing of the
part, used to create patterns. (b-c) Patterns mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of
core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The
cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by
securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (g) The
flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner. (j)
The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and
securing the assembly with pins. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and
risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary). Source:
Courtesy of Steel Founders' Society of America.
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Shell-Molding Process
FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process, also called the dump-box technique.

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Caramic Mold Manufacture
FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

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Vacuum-Casting Process
FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: After R.
Blackburn.

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Evaporative Pattern Casting
FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process, also known as
lost-foam or evaporative-pattern casting.

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Investment Casting
FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this
method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders'
Society of America.

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Automated Shell
Production
A robot generates a ceramic shell

on wax patterns (trees) for
investment casting. The robot is
programmed to dip the trees and
then place them in an automated
drying system. With many layers,
a thick ceramic shell suitable for
investment casting is formed.
Source: Courtesy of Wisconsin
Precision Casting Corporation

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Integrally Cast Rotor for a Gas
Turbine
Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax
pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted
out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum, with molten superalloy. (d) The
cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Courtesy of Howmet
Corporation.
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Rotor Microstructure
FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment cast (top) and
conventionally cast (bottom). Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, October
1990, p. 25. ASM International.

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Pressure & Hot-Chamber Die Casting
FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-
process, utilizing graphite molds for the chamber die-casting process.
production of steel railroad wheels.
Source: Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted
Industries Incorporated.

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting
FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-

chamber die-casting process. These machines are
large compared to the size of the casting, because
high forces are required to keep the two halves of
the die closed under pressure.

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Properties of Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting

alloys.

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Types of Cavities in Die-Casting Die
Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source:

Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute.

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Centrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners,
and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.

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Semicentrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the
periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.

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Squeeze-Casting
FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines
the advantages of casting and forging.

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Turbine Blade Casting
FIGURE 5.29 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to
produce a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still
attached. Source: (a) and (b) After B.H. Kear, (c) Courtesy of ASM International.

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Crystal Growing
FIGURE 5.30 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling (Czochralski process) and (b) floating-
zone method. Crystal growing is especially important in the semiconductor industry. (c) A single-crystal
silicon ingot produced by the Czochralski process. Source: Courtesy of Intel Corp.

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Melt-Spinning Process
FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the melt-spinning process to produce thin strips of
amorphous metal. (b) Photograph of nickel-alloy production through melt-spinning. Source:
Courtesy of Siemens AG.

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Types of Melting Furnaces
Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible,

and (b) cupola.
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Austenite-Pearlite Transformation
FIGURE 5.32 (a) Austenite to pearlite

transformation of iron-carbon alloys as a
function of time and temperature. (b) Isothermal
transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a
transformation temperature of 675°C (1247°F).
(c) Microstructures obtained for a eutectoid
iron-carbon alloy as a function of cooling rate.
Source: Courtest of ASM International.

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Phase Diagram for Aluminum-Copper
FIGURE 5.33 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various
microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process.

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Outline of Heat Treating
TABLE 5.7 Outline of heat

treatment processes for
surface hardening.

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Heat Treatment Temperature Ranges
FIGURE 5.34 Temperature ranges for heat treating plain-carbon steels, as

indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.

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Casting Processes Comparison
TABLE 5.8 Casting Processes, and their Advantages and Limitations.

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Chills
FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger
volume of metal, as shown in (c).

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Hydrogen Solubility in Aluminum
FIGURE 5.36 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidi

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Elimination of Porosity in Castings
FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners
are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of
maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.

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Design Modifications
FIGURE 5.38 Suggested

design modifications to avoid
defects in castings. Source:
Courtesy of The North
American Die Casting
Association.

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Economics of Casting
FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because of the high
cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs. Source: The North American Die Casting
Association.

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Lost-Foam Casting of Engine Blocks
FIGURE 5.40 (a) An engine block for a 60-hp 3-cylinder marine engine, produced by the lost-foam
casting process; (b) a robot pouring molten aluminum into a flask containing a polystyrene pattern. In
the pressurized lost-foam process, the flask is then pressurized to 150 psi (1000 kPa). Source:
Courtesy of Mercury Marine

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

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Metal-Casting Processes and

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

• Can create complex part geometries

• Big parts: engine blocks and heads for

• Contains cavity whose geometry determines

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three

FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.13 Mechanical properties for

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.4 Properties and typical applications of cast

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.5 Typical properties of nonferrous casting alloys.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

A robot generates a ceramic shell

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source:

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.