Professional Documents
Culture Documents
POULTRY
JANUARY 2007
FOREWORD
The delivery of meat hygiene services in South Africa has gone through various phases of change
since the function was officially made the responsibility of the Department of Agriculture in the early
1960’s. Little did we realise when the first Animal Slaughter, Meat and Animal Products Act, 1967 (Act
No. 87 of 1967) was published in 1967, what challenges would lie ahead 40 years later. We have
seen the third Act related to the delivery of meat hygiene services promulgated by Parliament. The
Meat Safety Act 2000 (Act 40 of 2000), has replaced the Abattoir Hygiene Act (Act 121 of 1992)
signifying, not only by the change in names of the relevant Acts since 1967 but also in the objectives
of the Act, the obligation of Government to react to the needs of its clientele and to address the
concerns of consumers.
The emphasis on the delivery of services as reflected in consecutive legislation since 1967, has
changed gradually from a structural and process-control approach of service delivery, to a holistic
approach with the focus on food safety. Growing international concern that the State should be the
custodian on all matters related to food safety and provides the sanitary guarantees required by
consumers and our trade partners, necessitated a change of focus on the delivery of these services.
We are confident that these manuals will guide and enable all those responsible for the delivery of a
meat safety service, to focus on the new challenges and to claim ownership of the initiative to
establish a culture of hygiene awareness.
Over the last 40 years many teams and co-workers collected and collated material for training future
meat inspection staff. This was made available to all tertiary training institutions free of charge in order
to ensure that the minimum standards proposed by this Directorate would be known to all. During
2006 the task of updating, co-ordinating and maintaining this intellectual property of the Department of
Agriculture, was given to Dr. T. Bergh from the Limpopo Province. All the persons involved in this
work, are congratulated with what eventually emerged after many months of hard and dedicated work.
There is no doubt that this manual, being dynamic and reflecting change, will serve as a benchmark
for the future to enable the delivery of meat safety services to be accessible and affordable for all.
The Directorate Veterinary Services of the National Department of Agriculture was constitutionally
tasked ensure that norms and standards concerning abattoir hygiene be implemented uniformly on a
national basis.
Since the Department is the custodian of the “Meat Safety Act” (Act 40 of 2000) it is fitting that the
Department set the standards required for meat inspection personnel.
It was decided to write a manual containing a minimum norm of required knowledge for all persons
involved with meat hygiene in abattoirs as well as doing meat inspection.
With the necessary adaptation, these manuals can thus be used over a wide spectrum of training
requirements and should be in the possession of all persons involved with meat inspection and
hygiene-control in an abattoir.
The final manuals, after various versions, have now been revised and have been blended in such a
way as to enhance a smooth transition from the basic concepts of food safety management systems,
applicable to all meat disciplines, to a more specific approach for the specific disciplines.
• Abattoir hygiene
This manual highlights the international principles of food safety management systems e.g.
• Basic microbiology
• Building requirements
• Sanitation
• Pest control
• Personnel hygiene
• Waste management & control of condemned material
• Quality control
The follow up manuals in the respective disciplines of red meat, poultry, game, ostrich & crocodile
deals with the requirements specific to the trade e.g.
A special word of thanks to all who helped redrafting these final manuals and all the hours of hard
work put in to have them available for the New Year.
EDITOR:
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE I
INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Specific additional requirements for poultry abattoirs
3. Grades of and requirements for poultry abattoirs
4. Grades of and requirements for cutting and processing plants - Poultry
5. Examples of building plans
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1. Introduction
Over and above the general requirements that are specified in the module “Layout &
Construction”, every specific meat trade has it’s own requirements that enhance the hygienic
production of that specific type of meat. Abattoirs have its own specific design that will enable the
workers to slaughter and dress the carcass hygienically and that will promote easy working
conditions to reduce stressful working conditions that will result in unacceptable practices in the
work place.
Regulations have been promulgated to ensure that the layout of the building will enhance the
easy handling of carcasses and that acceptable practises are adhered to.
This module will guide you through the specific requirements needed for red meat abattoir, its
cutting plants and how the process of slaughter and dressing should be done to ensure a safe
and hygienic product
(k) a storage facility or room for items needed in the daily slaughter process must be
provided;
(l) if an office is required by the owner, a separate room must be provided;
(m) rooms or facilities must be provided for –
(i) storage of cleaning equipment and materials;
(ii) cleaning and sterilization of fixed and movable equipment; and
(iii) sterilization of product crates and storage thereof; and
(xv) meat and red offal are sorted and dispatched and the air temperature in
this area must not be more than 12°C when meat is handled and
dispatched and the dispatching doors must be such that the doors of the
vehicles will only be opened after docking;
(i) separate chillers must be provided, for the daily throughput, for –
(i) chilled or frozen carcasses and poultry meat products as well as red
offal; and
(ii) chilled or frozen rough offal if required;
(j) a personnel entrance to the clean areas of the abattoir must be provided and
must be designed as an ante-chamber for cleaning purposes and must be
provided with hand wash-basins, soap dispensers, hand drying facilities, a boot
wash, apron wash, hooks for aprons and a refuse container and at the discretion
of the provincial executive officer, personnel entrances to other areas of the
abattoir need not be provided with an ante-chamber but must be provided with
conveniently placed boot wash and hand wash facilities at the entrance to such
areas;
(k) change room, shower, toilet as well as hand wash facilities must be provided on
the premises for persons working at the abattoir and separate facilities must be
provided for clean an dirty areas;
(l) dining facilities must be provided separately, for clean and dirty areas, with tables
and chairs or benches and must be situated so that personnel do not sit or lie on
the ground or soil their protective clothing during rest periods;
(m) office accommodation and ablution facilities must be available for meat
inspection personnel;
(n) a store room must be provided for items needed in the daily slaughter process;
(o) office facilities must be separate from bleeding and dressing areas;
(p) suitably equipped rooms and facilities must be provided for sterilization of
movable equipment;
(q) a room or rooms for bulk storage of cleaning equipment and chemicals must be
provided;
(r) separate bulk storage facilities must be provided for wrapping material and
packing material, if both materials are kept;
(s) a storage room for cleaned crates must be provided adjacent to a crate receiving
and cleaning facility and directly interconnected to the rooms and areas where
needed;
(t) a facility where meat transport trucks must be sanitized must be provided; and
(u) access to a laboratory must be possible.
Considering requirements set out in Part II B (1), to be graded as a high throughput cutting
plant –
(a) it must have a maximum throughput which the provincial executive officer may
determine on grounds of the capacity of the holding chillers, hourly throughput
potential relating to available equipment and facilities as well as chiller or freezer
capacity;
(b) the premises must be fenced and provided with a gate to control access of
people and animals;
(c) if meat is intended for sale to the public, separate facilities must be provided as
required by the provincial executive officer.
(d) separate equipped rooms must be provided for –
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Offloading facilities for live birds must include a roofed and well ventilated area for –
(a) trucks waiting to offload; and
(b) crates with birds which have been offloaded and are awaiting slaughter.
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6. Meat inspection
(1) Equipment required for the first meat inspection point must be provided.
(2) At the second inspection point, after evisceration, containers to transport partially
condemned carcasses to the recovery area must be provided
(3) Marked, leak proof and theft proof containers or other means to handle and hold
condemned and inedible material prior to removal must be provided.
(4) Equipment required for the final meat inspection point must be provided.
7. Evisceration
(1) An evisceration line with shackles must be provided to enable evisceration in a
hanging position.
(2) Evisceration trays or a trough or conveyor belt must be provided beneath the
carcass line to receive intestines and be equipped to facilitate continuous rinsing.
(3) Mechanical evisceration equipment must –
(a) be capable of eviscerating carcasses without rupturing the intestines;
(b) be continuously self-cleaning; and
(c) be capable of adjusting to different carcass sizes.
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8. Recovery
Facilities for recovering usable portions from detained carcasses must be provided, if
required, and must include –
(a) hand wash-basins;
(b) sterilizer for equipment;
(c) equipment for cutting and recovery of portions;
(d) equipment for washing with water which may contain a bactericidal substance,
which complies with the requirements of the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and
Disinfectants Act, 1972 (Act No. 54 of 1972) and is approved per protocol by the
provincial executive officer, at levels not harmful or injurious to health or other
approved washing method for recovered portions; and
(e) marked, leak proof and theft proof containers or other means to handle and hold
condemned and inedible material prior to removal.
9. Final Wash
Equipment for the inside and outside wash of the carcasses, after evisceration, which
must be with water which may contain a bactericidal substance, which complies with the
requirements of the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act, 1972 (Act No. 54 of 1972) and
is approved per protocol by the provincial executive officer, at levels not harmful or injurious to
health, must be provided.
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE 2
PROCESSING
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Index
Poultry Processing
1. Introduction
2. Equipment
3. Flow diagram
4. Dirty area operations
5. Clean area operations
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PROCESSING
1. INTRODUCTION
Poultry processing consist of a number of steps. Each step is followed by the next in strict sequence.
Each step entails a specific task, which has to be performed effectively and hygienically. It is essential
to distinguish between hand operated lines and mechanical lines. In low throughput abattoirs (C-grade
and lower) most of the functions are carried out by hand where as the high throughput abattoirs (A &
B-grade), these functions are mechanised.
2. EQUIPMENT
The following table will give a short explanatory description of the different equipment required
EVISCERATION IN –LINE EVISCERATING MACHINE EVISCERATING SPOONS TO LIFT THE ORGANS OUT OF THE
MANUAL CARCASS
CROPPING IN LINE CROPPING MACHINE MANUAL REMOVAL OF CROP TO REMOVE THE CROP AND
USUALLY PRIOR TO OESOPHAGUS
EVISCERATION
CARCASS AND ORGAN EITHER DONE BY HAND OR SEPARATED BY HAND TO SEPARATE THE CARCASS AND
SEPARATION MECHANICALLY THE ORGANS
OFFAL SEPARATION AUTOMATICALLY SEPARATE RED OFFAL SEPARATION DONE BY TO SEPARATE THE RED OFFAL
OFFAL FROM DIRTY OFFAL HAND FROM THE DIRTY OFFAL
GIBLET HARVESTING AUTOMATICALLY SEPARATE THE SEPARATION OF GIZZARDS AND TO SEPARATE THE GIZZARD AND
INTESTINES FROM THE GIZZARD INTESTINES DONE BY HAND INTESTINES PLUS CLEANING OF
AND CLEAN THE GIZZARD MANUAL CLEANING OF GIZZARD GIZZARD
NECK PULLING IN-LINE NECK PULLER NECK CUT OFF WITH KNIFE OR REMOVE NECK FROM CARCASS
SCISSORS
PREPARATION FOR FINAL IN-LINE VACUUM MACHINE HAND HELD VACUUM TUBE SUCKS OUT ALL THE DEBRIS THAT
INSPECTION STAYED BEHIND E.G. LUNGS
SEXUAL ORGANS ETC.
FINAL WASHING INSIDE OUTSIDE WASHER WASH DONE BY HAND OR TO GIVE THE CARCASS A FINAL
SHOWER TYPE SPRAYER WASH
EQUIPMENT: ACTION MECHANICAL HAND OPERATED FUNCTION
LINE LINE
CHILLING SPIN CHILLER/AIR CHILLER COMMERCIAL TYPE FREEZERS TO COOL THE CARCASS DOWN AS
RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE
PORTIONING IN-LINE CUTTING MACHINE ,KFC CUTTING DONE BY HAND TO DIVIDE THE CARCASS INTO
ETC. DIFFERENT PARTS
PACKING AUTOMATIC WEIGHING AND SORTING AND PACKING IS DONE PACKING OF PORTIONS/WHOLE
SORTING SYSTEMS , ALSO DONE BY HAND BIRDS FOR RETAIL PURPOSES
BY HAND
IQF GYRO FREEZER BLAST FREEZER (SELDOM DONE) INDIVIDUALLY QUICK FROZEN
PORTIONS
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INJURED BIRDS
HOLDING BAY OBVIOUS SICK
BIRDS
BLEEDING
REMOVED
SCALDING FACILITY FOR OR
FEATHERS
CONDEMNED
DEFEATHERING
FEET
POST DE-FEATHERING OUTLOADING
WASH INTESTINES
When transferring poultry ready for slaughter from the chicken houses to the abattoir, there are
certain important factors that influence the quality of the product, the mortality rate and the production
cost of such an operation.
Extensive research has proved that a better quality meat with a longer shelf life can be produced if
poultry are handled with greater patience, understanding and humaneness. The poultry meat industry
loses millions of rands annually as a result of bruising and injuries caused by loading, unloading,
rough handling and transport of poultry.
• Catching must be done in accordance with the codes of practice of animal welfare.
• Planning the catching and loading procedure well in advance allowing adequate time for birds to
be handled quietly and humanely in a way that does not cause them injury and stress.
• Birds must receive food during the 24 hours prior to travel.
• Birds must receive water prior to loading.
• Feed must be withdrawn 9 to 12 hours prior to slaughter. Faecal contents of the intestinal tract
becomes less compact and more watery if feed is withdrawn more than 12 hours prior to
slaughter causing contamination during evisceration.
• The withdrawal of coccidiostats according to the manufacturer’s instructions is very important.
• Before collecting poultry, any hindrances from fixtures and fittings, especially sharp edges and
protrusions, must be removed from the cages or transport containers.
• Catchers on the farms must be well trained in the correct method of catching and the humane
handling of the birds.
• Catching of birds must be done as quickly as possible to prevent struggling, which can cause
bruises and fractures.
• Catching and loading with dimmed lighting will help to avoid excitement, which in turn will limit
injuries.
• Good supervision is very important.
4.1.2 Transport
The Driver of a vehicle transporting live birds has the following responsibilities:
2. He must at all times perform his duties in an expert and responsible manner.
3. He must take training courses offered at various centers and the owners of transporting vehicles
must encourage him to do so.
4. He must be in possession of a valid and appropriate driver’s license for the vehicle to be driven by
him and carry it together with emergency telephone numbers and contact numbers of the poultry
owners with him at all times during a journey.
7. Transport vehicles must be constructed to protect poultry against adverse weather conditions.
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8. In the case of a breakdown of a truck without a standby facility and a subsequent increase of
temperature in the load space, he must offload the load if the system permits or space the crates
to accommodate the circumstances where possible.
9. He must ensure that poultry transporting vehicles are always, if possible, parked in the shade and
only for very limited periods in the sun if there is no alternative.
10. He must provide for sufficient shelter and ventilation for birds in transit.
11. He must only stop en route when necessary. When stops are made in hot weather, the vehicle
must be parked in the shade where possible and, if in the sun, for very limited periods only.
12. He may not handle the vehicle in a manner, which will cause the poultry to suffer injury. He may
never ignore or disregard the safety and welfare of the birds.
1. The poultry must be loaded into clean transporting crates or purpose-made wire mesh cages in
trolleys.
2. Different species of poultry should not be loaded into the same crates at the same time.
3. Thorough cleansing of crates and trailers after each delivery at the abattoir must be done to
avoid:
4. The height of the containers must allow poultry to move their heads freely when sitting on the
floor.
6. The containers or crates must be of a correct design that the heads, wings or feet cannot protrude
through the holes.
7. All the containers should have lids that can be secured to prevent the chickens from escaping.
10. The number of birds per container depends on available floor space, the body size of the birds
and prevailing environmental conditions at the time of transport. All birds should be able to rest on
the floor at the same time and remain evenly distributed.
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13. Containers of live birds should be moved in a horizontal position only. If a conveyor is used for
loading crates of live birds, the conveyor angle should prevent the tilting of containers causing
birds to pile up. Containers should not be thrown or dropped. They should be moved smoothly
during loading, transport and unloading.
4.1.4 Receiving
1. Vehicles waiting to off-load live poultry and crates with live poultry after offloading must be parked
or put in a shaded area while maintaining ventilation through crates.
2. Crates with live poultry must be handled in such a manner as to avoid unnecessary suffering,
injury, pain and excitement of birds.
3. Birds in crates must be slaughtered within 8 hours of arrival at the abattoir and must not be kept
overnight.
4. Trucks and crates for the conveyance of live birds to the abattoir must be washed after delivery
and before leaving the premises.
5. An ante mortem inspection must be carried out if possible:
• Consignments must be monitored for birds that are dead on arrival, moribund, injured or unfit
for slaughter.
• Reasons for Dead on Arrivals, sick or injured birds must be determined and the information
transmitted to farm managers or veterinarians through management.
• Moribund (dying) birds must be euthanased and condemned, whilst injured birds fit for
slaughter must be slaughtered as soon as possible.
• Consignments must be monitored for birds that are dead on arrival, moribund, injured or unfit for
slaughter.
• Reasons for Dead On Arrivals, sick or injured birds must be determined and the information
transmitted to farm managers or veterinarians through management.
• Moribund (dying) birds must be euthanased and condemned, whilst injured birds fit for slaughter
must be slaughtered as soon as possible.
The supervisor in the live poultry receiving/ stunning and bleeding area is in control of operations.
Inspection is carried out on the slaughter line.
The workers hanging live poultry on the shackle line assist with this task which includes the following
functions:
• The placing of dead poultry/ DOA’s/ dead on arrivals in suitable containers with tight fitting lids
which are marked with the letter “DOA”, to be destroyed later.
• Ensuring that the birds are handled humanely during off-loading and hanging
• Ensuring that proper stunning and adequate bleeding takes place.
• Ensuring that general hygiene standards are maintained.
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• 90% of all injuries sustained by poultry occurs within 12 hours prior to slaughter
• 35% injuries takes place in the poultry houses
• 40% of injuries are due to handling by the catching crew
• 25% of injuries takes place when birds are placed into or removed from crates, as well as during
the hanging process.
4.2.1 Hanging
4.2.2 Stunning
• An alternating current of 60/ 110 mA are required for small and large chickens respectively, the
current should only go through the head and specifications for the equipment must be followed.
• Line speed must allow for 4 to 7 seconds contact time (dwell time) within the stunning apparatus.
• 11 to 15 seconds is allowed from stunning to throat slitting.
• A saline solution can be used to increase the conductivity of the water and make stunning more
effective (0.1% saline solution).
• Total recovery time after stunning should not exceed 2 minutes.
• Constant maintenance must be done on the equipment.
• Except in the case of Jewish ritual slaughter for which special provisions are made for
(Government notice R537 of 7 April 1977) all birds must be stunned before being bled.
• The ideal voltage for electrical stunning is debatable, but as a guideline, voltages between 50 V
and 70 V should be adequate for wet stunning if the head and neck of a bird is immersed in the
electrified bath.
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Mechanical
• The most common method of stunning is to make use of an electrified water bath deep enough to
cover the head and neck.
• The voltage used for the stunning of poultry depends on the type of stunning apparatus as well as
the type and size of the bird.
• Stable and direct contact between birds and the shackles, which serve as a conductor, are
necessary for effective stunning. In order to obtain this, wet the legs of the poultry with a spray.
Hand
Stunning of poultry in the smaller abattoirs is usually done by hand. This method is also called the dry
method. The stunning apparatus has two electrodes against which the bird’s head is pressed for ± 4
seconds. The electrode must made contact with the bird’s head right between the ears and eyes.
Apart from it being essential from a humane point of view it also has the following advantages:
• causes unconsciousness
• essential for effective bleeding
• facilitates de-feathering
• calms poultry for optimal neck slitting/ cutting (The birds hang almost motionless)
• stabilise the blood pressure, heart beat and respiration
• minimises flightiness
• minimises red wing tips (coagulation of blood in wings)
• neck is curved
• eyes are wide open
• both legs are stretched rigidly
• wings are held very tightly against body
• birds are totally relaxed after 9 to 11 seconds
• Throat slitting (severing the neck arteries) can be done mechanically or by hand.
• Should be done 10 to 15 seconds after stunning
• The lapsed time of 10 – 15 seconds provides for a totally relaxed bird and therefor better
bleeding.
• By hand: The slaughterer /operator severs either the right or left carotid artery at the base of the
scull. The trachea and spinal cord must not be cut. One slaughterer should be able to slaughter
approximately 4 000 birds per hour effectively. By not cutting the trachea and spinal cord, the
birds will continue breathing, the heart will keep on pumping and therefore bleed out more
effectively.
• Mechanically: The birds go through a cutting apparatus with a guide that turns the head in the
right position and a rotating blade on the other side that severs the jugular vein. The basics of the
process is the same as is done by hand with the provision that close attention must be paid not to
crush the bones of the neck vertebrae and skull.
4.3.2 Bleeding
• Poorly bled carcasses are more red in colour than well bled carcasses and are characterised by a
deep dark red neck skin and surrounding areas
• Lungs are contaminated with scalding water
• Heads get lost in plucker machines when incision is made too deep.
• Lacerations on wings and red wingtips occurs
• Live poultry drown in scalding tank – these birds have a uniformly darker red appearance
4.4 Scalding
• Soaking in hot water softens the skin and feathers thus facilitating the de-feathering process.
• Standard “hard” or “hot” scalding is done at ± 54 °C – 60 °C for 2 - 2.5 minutes. The epidermis is
removed providing for a whiter looking carcass.
• Standard “soft” or “cold” scalding is done at ± 50 °C – 53 °C for 3.0 - 3.5 minutes. The epidermis
is not removed providing for a more yellowish looking carcass.
• Birds soaked too long will have a cooked appearance.
• A soaking temperature, which is too high, will damage the epidermis of the skin and give the bird
an overheated and uneven patchy coloured appearance. This will result in the loss of moisture
and a shiny skin with a brownish background.
• The scalding process wets the feathers and warms the skin thus releasing some of the muscle
pressure of the skin holding the feathers.
• The whole poultry carcass must be immersed.
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• A constant inflow of clean water at the right temperature is necessary to keep all carcasses totally
submerged at all times and to control the build-up of micro-organisms.
• When the level is too low the “sock” feathers will not be scalded resulting in incomplete de-
feathering of the hocks.
• Agitation of the scalding water is important in order to cause thorough penetration onto the skin
and also prevent “cold spots” in the scalding tank.
• The soaking time and temperature depends on the desired result. (hot or cold scalding)
• A chlorinated water spray, after hot water immersion and just before de-feathering, is
recommended in order to decrease micro-organisms.
Scalding can be done in a drum like scalding tank that can accommodate 1 - 10 birds at a time with a
capacity of at least 20 liters of hot water. The scalding temperature can be higher than that used in the
mechanised systems but the contact time will be much less e.g. 60 °C – 65 °C for 1 minute.
4.5 De-Feathering
The first inspection point is situated directly after de-feathering. Here the meat examiner will perform
meat inspection on the de-feathered but unopened bird.
(See Part III, Module 1)
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• An automatic head and oesophagus puller removes the head together with the oesophagus. By
pulling the head off, the oesophagus and trachea is pulled out of the neck. During this action the
crop is loosened and this will facilitates the removal of the viscera. The positioning of the head
puller and feet cutter should be so that meat inspection can take place before the heads are
removed.
• The correct setting of the machine ensures an undamaged neck skin as well as a reduction of
contamination by the crop contents.
• When adjusting the hock cutter it is important to cut the feet through the hock joint. The hock joint
must be exposed for meat inspection purposes.
• If the leg bone is cut off too short, (below the joint) birds will fall out of the shackles.
• When the hock is cut off with too much extra bone the height of the cutter should be lowered.
• After the feet have been cut, they must be removed from the shackle line.
Heads and feet are cut off by hand in the lower grade abattoirs.
It is important to do meat inspection on heads and feet because heads and feet are classified as
edible offal for human consumption in the RSA.
A carcass washer, maintained by adding potable water containing bactericidal levels of a chemical
approved for the use on foodstuffs, must be available to wash carcasses before evisceration. If
chlorine is used, the concentration must be 5 p.p.m.
5.1 Evisceration
5.1.1 Transfer
Carcasses are removed from the de-feathering line and passed through a hatch connecting the dirty
area with the clean area. The carcasses are then re-hung on the evisceration line.
Carcass evisceration comprises the separation and removal of the internal organs, neck and crop
from the carcass.
The line speed maintained during the evisceration process is in relation to:
The evisceration process comprises of several tasks, which have to be performed in sequence,
namely –
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• A circular incision is made around the cloaca freeing it from the skin and pelvic tissues
On a mechanical line this is done by an in – line vent cutter. The adjustment and maintenance of this
machine is very important. Poorly adjusted and blunt vent cutters will result in bile and feacal
contamination. In smaller abattoirs this is done with a knife, scissors or with a pneumatic hand held
vent drill.
An incision from the cloaca to the end section of the breast bone is made in the abdominal wall, to
expose the intestines.
In smaller abattoirs the slitting of the abdominal wall is either done with a knife or scissors. Scissors
used must have a blunt point to prevent puncturing of the intestines or gall bladder. The incisions can
be made horizontally or vertically.
Mechanical Line
An in-line-eviscerating spoon lifts the intestines out. Different makes of mechanical machines are
available. Maintenance, adjustment and setting of these machines are vital because the evisceration
process is the main source of faecal and bile contamination.
On the hand operated evisceration line the organ pack is lifted out with an evisceration spoon by
hand. Caution must be exercised not to damage organs like the liver, to tear the intestines and thus
cause bile or faecal contamination. The lungs must be removed. To avoid bile and faecal
contamination, the workers must be properly trained.
The intestines now hang outside the carcass to expose the heart, liver, lungs, gizzard and gut, which
makes it possible to carry out thorough meat inspection.
The second inspection point is situated directly after evisceration. The carcass and organs are still
corresponding with one another. Depending on the type of equipment the organs may still be attached
to the carcass or hang on a separate line. The examiner examines the carcass and organs and
detains suspect carcasses for the recovery area.
(See PART III Module 1)
The carcass and intestines are finally separated from each other, either mechanically or by hand and
the intestines are pumped or manually removed to their various packing points. This is also a place
where major contamination can take place if this operation is not done with the utmost care.
5.4 Cropping
On mechanical lines this is done after evisceration. Cropping is a type of drilling apparatus that
removes the crop and pieces of the trachea. In smaller abattoirs the cropping is done by hand before
evisceration is done.
Neck cracking is done by an in line neck cracker to facilitate the removal of the neck. In the smaller
abattoirs the neck is cut off with scissors after the crop has been removed but prior to evisceration.
5.6 Finishing
A vacuum or final inspection machine vacuums out remaining bits of abdominal contents (also known
as debris) that were left behind in the birds and then the inside and outside of the carcasses are
washed in a final wash.
A final inspection should be done especially on mechanical lines to ensure that cropping and finishing
was done properly.
Problems encountered are commonly conditions like:-
• Bad cropping with retained rectums
• Contamination of the carcass with rectal contents
• Contamination of crop material
• Ineffective vacuuming resulting in retention of lungs.
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On mechanical lines the carcasses goes through an inside/ outside washer with cold water containing
bactericidal levels of a chemical approved for the use on foodstuffs that washes the carcasses
simultaneously under mild pressure on the inside and outside. On manual lines the carcass is usually
washed with a shower type sprayer.
Different methods of chilling for the different grades of abattoirs are used. In the lower grade abattoirs
chest freezers are often used. In the high throughput abattoirs (A- and B- grade) chilling methods like
spin chilling and air chilling are used.
A pre-chiller can precede the spin chiller. The temperature of the water in the pre-chiller or washer
should be 18 °C and the dwell time in the chiller must not exceed 10 - 15 min depending on the size
of the tank.
In the spin chiller there is a continuous cold water inflow through an aerated water bath at not more
than 4 °C. The replacement rate of water at the carcass exit point is 1 litre of water for every bird
entering the system. Water used in the spin chiller must have a chorine concentration of not less than
50 p.p.m. The product moves in-contra flow to the water. The-carcass core temperature entering the
chiller is about 38 °C. The deep bone temperature of carcasses leaving the spin chiller must be less
than 7 °C. The overall dwell time should not exceed 30 minutes.
The spin chiller must be drained and cleaned at the end of each shift, but where 2 shifts are worked
per day, cleaning can take place at the end of the second shift.
The outside temperature of the carcass is also very important because this is the place where
bacterial growth starts. When carcass temperature rises after spin chilling it causes weeping which
results in moisture loss and a subsequent yield loss.
Carcasses chilled in this manner are used for frozen products. The water temperature, agitation and
time is important for water pick-up. The maximum percentage of water pick-up allowed after spin
chilling at the packing point is 8 % for all chicken carcasses.
A pre drying section can be used where the air temperature is ± 22 °C. The main purpose is to dry the
carcass before it goes into the air chiller. A wet bird can sometimes show ice forming in the air chiller
and that is unacceptable.
In the air chiller cold air at ± 0 °C is blown over the carcasses at 0.75 meters per second. This
provides for a carcass that is dry and chilled. The deep bone temperature of these air-chilled
carcasses should not exceed 7 °C.
These air chilled carcasses are used for fresh meat production.
125 Poultry Jan 2007
1. Red offal
(1) Consists of the neck, cleaned gizzard, liver, spleen and heart.
(2) Must be washed, packed and chilled without delay–
(a) to reach a temperature of 4°C or less within 12 hours of evisceration; but
(b) it need not be chilled at the abattoir if dispatched on a continuous basis to the
chilling facilities, the proximity of which must not compromise hygiene
standards and be approved by the provincial executive.
(3) When small spin chillers are used for the washing of red offal, the level must be
maintained by adding water which may contain a bactericidal substance, which
complies with the requirements of the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act,
1972 (Act No. 54 of 1972) and is approved per protocol by the provincial executive
officer, at levels not harmful or injurious to health, at a temperature not more than 4
°C at a rate of 1 litre per kilogram.
(4) Bile contamination must be avoided when removing gall bladders from livers.
(5) No red offal may be stored with or come into contact with rough offal.
(6) Where red offal is packed in cartons, containers or plastic bags for dispatch, chilling
or freezing –
(a) it may only be done in a separate area or room and equipment must be
provided for this function;
(b) storage facilities for clean empty bags or containers, for a day’s use, must be
provided; and
(c) bulk storage facilities must be provided for packing material.
(7) If any red offal is to be included in a chilled carcass, it must be wrapped and chilled to
o
not more than minus 2 C before inserting into the carcass.
(8) Gizzards must be opened, emptied, the mucosal lining removed and washed under
running water without contaminating the surrounding area and products.
(9) Cartonned offal may not be stored in the same chiller as carcasses or un-cartonned
offal.
2. Rough offal
(2) After evisceration and meat inspection, the intestines must be removed from the
evisceration area.
(3) Intestines intended for human consumption must be washed, packed and chilled
o
without delay, to minus 2 C within 12 hours of evisceration but it need not be chilled
at the abattoir if dispatched on a continuous basis to the chilling facilities, the
proximity of which must not compromise hygiene standards and be approved by the
provincial executive;
(7) No rough offal may be stored or come into contact with red offal.
126 Poultry Jan 2007
(1) All the cutting, dicing or mincing must be so arranged that the hygiene of all the
operations is assured.
(2) Bones derived from cutting procedures must be removed continuously to a suitable
room or container provided specifically for this purpose.
(3) Meat that has been cut must be chilled, or freezing started, within one hour of cutting;
(4) Meat obtained from cutting and found unfit for human and animal consumption must
be collected in properly marked containers or facilities and removed from the
premises in accordance with Part VIII.
(4) Meat may be cut after the dressing process and primary chilling if –
(a) meat is transferred directly from the slaughter room to the cutting room in a
single operation, the dressing room and cutting room being in close proximity;
(b) cutting is carried out immediately after transfer; and
(c) a protocol approved by the provincial executive officer is adhered to.
5.11.3. Wrapping
(1) Wrapping materials may not be kept in a cutting room in quantities greater than the
daily requirement, and must be so stored and handled as to maintain them in a clean
condition up to the moment of use.
(2) Exposed meat may not come into contact with cartons, unless waxed cartons are
used.
5.11.4. Temperature control
(1) The air temperature of a room where meat is cut and packed, must be maintained at
or below 12°C.
(2) Cut poultry meat must be subjected to uninterrupted chilling to reduce the core
o
temperature of the meat to 4 C within 12 hours in the case of chilled meat and meat
o
that is being frozen may not be dispatched before a core temperature of minus 12 C
has been reached.
5.11.5. Sanitation
(1) Sanitizing and sterilizing of hand and other equipment must be done on a continuous
basis during working hours.
(2) The cleaning and sterilization procedure of portable and other equipment must
comply with Part II C (5).
127 Poultry Jan 2007
Further processing must comply with the requirements set in the Requirements for Food
Premises under the Health Act,1977 (Act No. 63 of 1977).
(6) Rough offal may not be stored in a holding freezer which contains carcasses, meat or
red offal, unless all these products, including the rough offal, are wrapped and
packaged.
(7) No item or product other than meat may be stored in a chiller or freezer except in the
case of holding freezers, where approval has been granted by the registered
inspector.
6.4. Ice
(1) The use of ice as a coolant in an abattoir is subject to prior approval of the system by
the provincial executive officer.
(2) Ice, incorporated in any system or equipment which is utilized for the chilling of meat,
must be made from potable water.
(3) Equipment or systems incorporating ice as coolant for meat must be designed and
operated in such a manner that water melting off the ice will not adversely affect the
product or adjacent areas.
8. Sanitation
8.1. Water and equipment
9. Cutting
Portioning is the cutting up of a chicken into pre-determined recognisable pieces (wings, thighs,
drumsticks etc.).
• Before any portion is packed, it must be inspected and cleaned by the QA team. All pieces of
lungs, bronchial tubes, windpipes, blood clots, and other debris must be removed.
• The types of portions according to Regulation R946 of March 1992 are as follows:
1. Half carcass
2. Quarter carcass alternatives: Front quarter, hindquarter, thigh plus drumstick.
Whole birds:
Portions:
• Packaging used to keep meat in must be new, clean and in good order (it may only be used once)
and:
131 Poultry Jan 2007
• Packing material may not be re-used for packing meat except if the packing material is made from
corrosion resistant material which is easy to clean and sanitise and which was cleaned and
sanitised before.
• Packing crates must be square and must be so designed as to not keep more than 39,09 kg net
weight of firmly packed meat.
• The inside may not be more than 720 mm, by 480 mm, by 180 mm.
• The package must be clearly marked on both sides with the following information:
• The staple machine must be fenced off from the deboning room to prevent contamination of the
product.
• Held in a clean, dry store away from walls and floors in a special container.
• Kept secure and under the supervision of the hygiene manager
• Vermin free
• Monitored by means of a hygiene management system for the bacteriological testing of in contact
packaging material and it MUST be available in the case of high throughput abattoirs.
Packaging material drawn from a “bulk store” to a “daily use store” and/or in-line facilities, must be
subjected to the following conditions:
a) Parts of poultry or offal separated from the carcass must always be wrapped in a firmly sealed
protective covering satisfying the criteria stated in 5.11.1.2.
(b) Where cut fresh meat or offal is wrapped, this operation must be carried out immediately after
cutting and in accordance with hygiene requirements.
(d) However, when wrapping fulfils all the protective conditions of packaging it need not be
transparent and colourless and placing in a second container is not necessary provided that the
other conditions are fulfilled.
(e) Cutting, boning, wrapping and packaging operations may take place in the same room if the
packaging is re-usable as described or subject to the following conditions:
132 Poultry Jan 2007
• the room must be sufficiently large and so arranged that the hygiene of the operations is
assured;
• the packaging and wrapping must be enclosed in a sealed protective covering immediately
after manufacture; this covering must be protected from damage during transport to the
establishment and stored under hygienic conditions in a separate room in the establishment;
• the rooms for storing packaging material must be dust and vermin-free and have no air
connection with rooms containing substances which might contaminate fresh meat.
• packaging must be assembled under hygienic conditions before being brought into the room;
• packaging must be hygienically brought into the room and used without delay.
• immediately after packaging the meat must be placed in the storage room provided.
(f) At low throughput abattoirs if products are packed in cartons, exposed meat and carcasses
may not be handled in the same room simultaneously with cartons unless:
• Exposed meat and carcasses are separated from cartons and persons handling cartons
by a distance of at least 2 metres;
• There is no positive airflow from the cartons in the direction of the exposed meat and
carcasses; and
• A separate carton store is provided where cartons are made up.
(1) The following marks of approval for meat are required for high, low and rural
throughput
poultry abattoirs:
133 Poultry Jan 2007
10.3. Security
(1) The stamp of approval or wrapping and packing material on which a stamp of
approval is printed, must never be used at an abattoir where the abattoir number
differs from the number on such stamp.
(2) The registered meat inspector must satisfy himself or herself regarding the security of
wrapping and packing material or labels on which the stamp of approval is printed.
134 Poultry Jan 2007
10.4. General
(1) No person may, in an abattoir, place a stamp of approval on, or remove such mark
from, any carcass, part thereof, meat or a wrapping, packing or container, except
under the supervision of a registered inspector.
(2) The registered inspector may at any time re-inspect a carcass or meat, in an abattoir,
notwithstanding that it may already have been passed for consumption and, if upon
re-inspection he or she is of the opinion that it is no longer fit for human or animal
consumption, he or she must remove the stamp of approval, and such meat must be
condemned
• Approval stamp
• Name of the abattoir
• Slaughter date
• Weight.
• Type of product
• Barcode for recall procedures indicating Lot no. and date of packing.
• “BEDIENINGSVOORSTEL” or ”SERVING SUGGESTION”
• “KEEP FROZEN” OR “KEEP CHILLED”
• Information such as HALAAL or COSHER must be indicated
• Nutritional information
• Value adding (if cooked etc.)
• Use and amount of additives in products and whether it is Natural or Artificial
• Use by date (last date that the product can be used)
• Sell by date (last day that fresh product can be sold)
• Whether the product has been irradiated.
• The sodium (salt) and fat contents in the product
• The lable will also indicate the proposed daily intake of the ingrdients on a table according to
percentage
• If the product is intended for petfood , it must be indicated
• Not only the carcasses but portions and offal or any other products of poultry intended for human
consumption must be marked accordingly
• The barcode will indicate production lot and date of processing and packing in case of recall
procedure.
• Enables inspectors to approve/ condemn returns
• Public knows what they are buying
• Knowledge of origen of meat in case of bad product (legal prosecution)
• Some people only eat HALAAL or KOSHER
° Celsius
60
Scalding tank water - hard
54
53
50 50 Scalding tank water - soft
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE 3
ANATOMY
137 Poultry Jan 2007
Index
Anatomy
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
1. THE SKELETON
2. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
3. BLOOD AND VASCULAR SYSTEM
4. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
6. THE URINARY TRACT
7. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
8. FATTY TISSUE
9. GENITAL SYSTEM
10. THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
11. GLANDS OF THE BODY
138 Poultry Jan 2007
ANATOMY
1. INTRODUCTION
Poultry are described as any chicken, duck, goose, turkey, guinea-fowl, partridge, pheasant, pigeon,
quails and the chicks thereof.
The chicken consists of a skeleton, muscles, organs and systems which are covered with skin and
feathers for protection.
Each system consists of organs, muscles, tissue cells, etc., which function independently as well as
collectively in order to exist as a healthy balanced organism.
Humerus
Hock Joint
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While most of the bones of the higher animals are present, their shape and in many instances their
function is different.
The skeleton of the chicken consists of 150 bones and has two important functions:
• Serves as a framework for muscles and creates sturdiness, shape and provides protection for the
systems and important organs.
• Accumulates Calcium and phosphates (in the form of organic salts) in the bones. 99% of all
calcium and 80% of phosphates present in the chicken are found in the bones.
The sponge-like bone contents of the long bones of the wings are responsible for the creation of red
and white blood cells.
The skeletal system is also important in the respect that disease conditions of the skeleton cause
financial losses to the poultry industry.
2.1.1 Skull
The bones conform well to the peculiar shape of the head of fowl. Instead of the upper and lower
jaws, these parts are shaped into a sharply pointed beak, void of teeth and the nostrils are very close
to the junction of the beak with the skull. The upper part of the interior of the mouth is split (cleft) and
therefore much of the nasal cavity is common with the mouth so as to make swallowing of food much
more difficult. Thus, it is that the bird must raise its head to cause the food and water to flow or glide
back to the oesophagus. The junction of the head to the neck is very flexible and less solidly
constructed than in mammals which provides greater mobility and likewise it is more readily detached
from the body.
2.1.2 Vertebrae
(i) Neck - The number varies from thirteen vertebrae in the chicken to seventeen or eighteen in
the goose. The very large articular surfaces of the joints provide for great motility of this
region.
(ii) Thoracic Region - This part of the spinal column is comparatively short (7-9 vertebrae) with
the majority being fused or fixed.
(iii) The Lumber & Sacral Region - About 14 in number and all fused or solid.
(iv) Tail - Composed of five to six vertebrae. Although some are fused there is considerable
movement of the tail as a whole appendage.
2.1.3 Ribs
There are seven pairs, of which four are attached to the sternum (keel bone). The ribs have a
peculiar flat process pointing backward to form a bridge to the next for greater protection of the
internal organs.
140 Poultry Jan 2007
2.1.4 Sternum
It is along, broad bone which extends form the point of the breast to the pelvis region and forms a
bony support for the abdominal viscera to compensate for the lack of substantial abdominal muscles.
The posterior part is cartilaginous and progressively becomes bony in nature with advancing age.
Some anatomists have compiled tables for each species of bird of the rate of ossification to a point
where it may be used as a rather definite indication of age. There is connection through the shoulder
bones to the anterior thoracic air sac.
2.1.5 Wing
Most of the major divisions of the arm or front leg of the mammal are present but shaped and adapted
for flying. The largest bone, the coracoid (see chart) has an opening which connects with the anterior
thoracic air sac - (see explanation of air sacs).
2.1.6 Pelvis
The three bones (ileum, ischium and pubis) form a very incomplete girdle as compared to the
enclosure present in higher animals. The three bones are solidly fused together and firmly affixed to
the vertebrae. They form a strong roof over the pelvis and for the attachment of the leg bones (femur)
but completely open beneath. This allows considerable expansion of the posterior abdominal region
for egg production passage etc.
2.1.7 Legs
The upper bones of the leg, femur or thigh, tibia and fibula or drumstick are quite similar to mammals.
Most authorities believe that there is also some connection with the abdominal air sacs.
2.2 Muscles
Only the groups that have peculiarities will be mentioned. Consists mainly of 2 types of muscles
namely:
White muscle tissue, which is found in the breast meat of the chicken.
Red muscle tissue – it functions more effectively than white tissue and is therefore adapted for
continuous exertion.
There is much more close association of the underlying muscles with the skin for functional purposes
such as, these associated with the wing and tail to assist with motion and support of the large feathers
of these areas.
These muscles are highly developed to enable flight and the degree of development under natural
conditions is proportionate to the amount and speed of flying done by the species of bird concerned.
This group is much thinner and has less strength than mammals, in fact, they are only thin sheets of
muscle and fibrous tissue.
Ossification or the formation of bone tissue in these tendons is common in many birds. We notice
them particularly in turkeys.
141 Poultry Jan 2007
In mammals this forms a complete muscolo-tendinous sheet separating the thorax from the abdomen.
In birds this is only a thin membrane-like structure and there are two distinct parts. The first is
something similar to that of the mammal - the second divides the thorax or chest into upper and lower
compartments. These sheets are very light and posses large openings for the air sacs. The lack of a
complete diaphragm and the air sac in addition to the lungs are some of the anatomical reasons why
birds cannot cough or sneeze to expel mucous and debris of a respiratory disease, to the same extent
as mammals.
The most important function of the digestive system is processing, absorption and assimilation of
ingested food. The following body parts and their functions are encountered in this system.
2.3.1 Beak
The upper and lower segments are of bone covered with a heavy and very much hardened coating of
epidermis (outer layer of the skin) replacing the lips. There are no teeth.
2.3.2 Mouth
Similar lining to mammals but the roof or hard palate is clefted (split). Delivery glands in the mouth
cavity also moisten the food. There is no provision for mastication. The saliva is primarily lubricating
in action. Swallowing is accomplished by raising the head as the palate is cleft and muscular
contractions are absent.
142 Poultry Jan 2007
2.3.3 Tongue
The covering is similar to mammals. The muscles are poorly developed but parts of two bones are
present.
Production of saliva. There are five recognised groups of glands around the interior surface of the
mouth and in the tongue. The saliva, unlike that of mammals is said to have little or no digestive
properties and is mainly a lubricant for deglutition (act of swallowing).
2.3.5 Pharynx
This is the common passageway of the digestive and respiratory systems and has direct opening to
the nasal passages via the cleft palate. In structure, it is quite similar to mammals.
2.3.6 Oesophagus
Is a muscular tube similar to mammals with an inner mucous membrane lining with circular and
lengthways layers of muscles. This tube extends from the pharynx to the proventriculus.
2.3.7 Crop
This is only an enlargement of the oesophagus and serve as a reservoir for storage purposes and
softens the food. There is an interesting deviation in the pigeon that at near the hatching time of the
young the walls of the crop of the mother and the father become enlarged with fat, the cells of the
lining slough off to form the "milk" for feeding the young.
A large muscular and tendinous organ designed to crush and grind the food. The gizzard is
sometimes called the “muscular” stomach. The internal mucosa is very thick and is constantly being
erated and sluffed off. The inlet from the oesophagus and the outlet to the duodenum is on the front-
upper side of the organ.
Although similar in structure to the mammal, they differ markedly in some parts. These are 5 - 6 times
the length of the body. Most of the digestion and all the absorption takes place primarily in the small
intestines
2.3.11 Duodenum
Forms a loop to support the pancreas and receives ducts from this gland and the liver.
These are supported by the mesentery and bounded by air sacs, which separate them from the
abdominal wall. There is often a slight pocket or sac, which is the remnant of the egg yolk. At the
distal end or termination of the ileum there is a circular band of muscle covered with mucous
membrane.
143 Poultry Jan 2007
Instead of the caecum, colon and rectum of the mammal we find a pair of ceca, rectum and cloaca.
These are large blind pouches and may be as long as 15 centimetres. These are located at the
terminal end of the ileum and lay back along and parallel to it, where they are connected to the ileum
there are cecae tonsils on either side. These blind pouches are filled with soft material. The function
of the cecae is not known.
2.3.15 Rectum
This is the portion of gut between the caecal openings and the cloaca. Some believe it could be
called either rectum or colon.
2.3.16 Cloaca
The end gut and forms a passageway to the outside for the faeces, urine, eggs and sperm. Being
common to all of these purposes it has considerable ability to expand and contract to meet the needs
of the various functions. The structure is somewhat similar to the intestines. It is divided into three
distinct sections.
2.3.18 Liver
Brownish in colour and is divided into two lobes. Very similar to mammalians and has a duct into the
duodenum. Among its functions is the excretion of bile. The main function of the bile is to neutralise
the acid in the small intestines and to emulsify the fat. Glycogen is also stored in the liver.
Gallbladder: The chicken has a gall bladder but some birds do not. Bile is stored temporary in the gall
bladder
2.3.19 Pancreas
Similar to mammalians and has a duct into the duodenum. It secretes the enzyms amylase, lipase
and trypsin, which help with digestion.
2.3.20. Digestion
To understand some of the conditions encountered in poultry it is necessary to understand the role of
the various parts of the digestive system and its allied organs such as the liver and the pancreas. The
alimentary tract of birds differs markedly from the higher animals in the following respects.
Mouth
There is no provision for mastication. The saliva is primarily lubricating in action. Swallowing is
accomplished by raising the head as the palate is cleft and muscular contractions are absent.
Crop
Proventriculus
Although very small the glands of this stomach do secrete a gastric juice for protein digestion but the
food is not there long enough for digestion to take place.
Ventriculus (Gizzard)
Intestinal Tract
Pancreas
Pancreatic juice works on proteins starches, sugars and fats and constitutes a principal digestive
juice. In the intestines the most of digestion takes place, and all of the absorption is primarily in the
small intestines.
The respiratory system consists of the mouth, nasal cavities and opening, larynx, trachea, syrinx,
bronchi, lungs and air sacs.
While the microscopic structure of the upper respiratory track and the lungs is somewhat similar to
145 Poultry Jan 2007
mammalians there are vast important differences which are of great significance to inspection.
The exterior openings (anterior naris) are small and slit-like and may be surrounded with feathers.
The turbinate or baffle bones of the mammals are absent but these are crosswise projections, which
serve a similar purpose. The opening to the pharynx is large and directly through the cleft in the roof
of the mouth.
2.4.2 Larynx
2.4.3 Trachea
The cartilaginous rings are complete and divide into two bronchi, as does the trachea in mammals.
The trachea consists of 120 cartilaginous rings and is situated on the right hand side of the neck.
At the point where the trachea branches into the bronchi is a second larynx, the organ of voice of the
fowl. Folds of elastic tissue at each side of the entrance to the bronchi form the vocal cords.
2.4.5 Bronchi
Prior to entry into the lung tissue the bronchi divide into three distinct segments, primary, secondary
and tertiary. The first two pass directly on to the air sacs and the third serves the lungs.
2.4.6 Lungs
The lungs extend from the first ribs to the anterior part of the kidneys and are deeply imbedded
between the ribs. They do not extend very much into the thorax cavity. The lungs are not formed into
lobes as in the mammalians but are small groups of lung cells. They are at the ends of the myriads of
small tubes with come off of the tertiary bronchi.
These are thin membranous balloon-like sacs, which arise from first two segments of the bronchi, and
many also have connection to the cavities of the principle bones.
Air sacs are composed of an outer layer of pleura or peritoneum and an inner layer of the mucous
membrane, which is continuous from the bronchi. The number, size, extent, location and connection
with bones is a point of considerable difference of opinion. However, for our purpose we have
accepted the description given in Beister and Schwarte, which is:
• Assists with the circulation of fresh air through the lungs because the lungs do not expand
sufficiently.
• Makes it possible to stay air borne longer during flight without any additional muscular
development.
• Creates proper gravitation during flight and helps bird keep its balance.
• It regulates the body temperature by diffusing water into the blood through the lungs in the form of
moisture/perspiration.
• Provides a reservoir of air during flight.
i) Thoracic - Cervical - (paired) as the name indicates, they are located at the junction of the neck
and thorax. Prolongations extend upward along the neck and adjacent vertebrae.
146 Poultry Jan 2007
ii) Clavicular -(paired) as the name indicates, they are located along the clavicular bones.
iii) Anterior Thoracic - (paired) as the name indicates, these are located in the anterior (front) part of
the thorax and communicate with the cavities of the bones of the shoulder girdle, humerus, sternal
ribs and the sternum.
iv) Posterior Thoracic - (paired). Posterior part of the thorax but do not have connection with the
bones.
The left is larger than the right. Most authors believe there is connection with the bones of the pelvic
girdle and the femur. The respiratory system of birds is much more complicated than in mammals
and it also is apparent that there is a much greater area for infection and complication during
respiratory disease. The respiratory tract and/or system is therefore the site of many disease
conditions and they are today among the most prevalent causes for condemnation.
147 Poultry Jan 2007
2.5. Peritoneum
The peritoneum is the thin film-like membrane, which lines the abdominal cavity, forms the outer layer
of the air sacs and mesentery and enfolds the internal organs. It is given a different name for each
location but basically it may be subdivided into parietal (lining the abdomen) and visceral (covering the
viscera). Its purpose is to provide a smooth lubricated contact surface between the viscera and the
abdominal wall to prevent friction.
In view of the large expanse of air sacs throughout the abdominal cavity, their fragileness and
proneness to infection, there is a possibility of confusion of air sacculitis and peritonitis. All to frequent
in the past the term peritonitis may have been used when in fact it was the former.
The kidneys are usually in three lobes and these organs are deeply embedded along the vertebrae
and between the ribs. The urethras (tubes) can be traced from lobe to lobe and terminate in the
urodaeum (the central section of the cloaca).
Male
Testicles are within the abdomen and are located under the anterior lobe of the kidneys. There are
frequently dark or pigmented spots which could be taken as a diseased condition. In the chicken
there is no penis - just the tube to the central portion of the cloaca - in the male goose there may be a
rudimentary penis - like organ.
Female
Only the ovary and the oviduct persist on the left side. The oviduct (canal from ovarian mass to the
cloaca) is a long twisted channel in which the egg develops. In some cases the tube may be 750mm
in length.
The blood circulatory system consists of the blood and lymphatic system. The heart is similar to that
of mammals. In rapidly flying birds it may equal 25% of the body weight but in domestic fowl it is
usual 4 to 8% as compared to 1,5% in man and large animals. The vessels are similar to mammalia
and adapt to the peculiar needs of the fowl’s body. The following parts and their functions are
involved:
2.7.1 Heart
This is the pump of the body which pumps O2 rich blood under pressure from the lungs to the organs
and limbs and returns O2 deficient blood or CO2 back to the lungs again.
2.7.2 Blood
It consists of 75% liquid and 25% solids. The liquid, which is also known as plasma, transports
digested nutrients to the cell where it also absorbs hormones, red blood cells and waste matter from
the cells.
Cells
Are divided into two groups:
148 Poultry Jan 2007
They transport CO2 to the lungs and O2 from the lungs to the blood cells (Erythrocytes).
They are fewer in number but larger in size than the red blood cell and are the defence mechanism of
the body against infection (Leucocytes and Thrombocytes).
The Lymphatic system contains the mechanism to manufacture white blood cells for body's protection
or defence. Lymph cells are found throughout the body in different structures and tissues like the
feather follicles in the skin, the thymus, spleen and liver. The germinal centres would appear to be in
the bone marrow. Therefore, the system lymphatic glands of the higher animals are not present as
“indicators o disease”. Lymphoid patches are found in the mouth, tongue and along the digestive
tract. The walls of the intestinal tract have a considerable amount of nodes and lymph tissue. Serves
also as an intermediary system between the blood and the tissue. (That is the movement of nutrients
from blood to the tissue and waste matter from the tissue to the blood).
2.7.4 Spleen
Is round in shape, red and more or less 20 mm in diameter and is positioned to he right of the
proventriculus.
Removes iron from old/obsolete red blood cells. (Destruction of old cells are carried out by extracting
iron out of these cells, and putting it back in the blood stream to be sent back to the bone marrow and
liver for production of new red blood cells). In the case of mature chickens the spleen is responsible
for the production of white blood cells which provide protection against infection. It also serves as a
filter to remove toxins from the blood.
Contains lymphoid tissue. It is the origin of the immune system and produces anti-bodies for
immunity.
Contains lymphoid tissue. Circulates and produces anti-bodies for immunity. It also produces certain
white blood cells and plasma. When mature the bursa diminishes in size and its function is taken over
by the spleen.
Consists of two systems viz. Central and Automatic nervous system. The central nervous controls the
voluntary movements and consists of the following components:
2.8.1 Brain
Enables certain nerves, which receive stimuli from processes e.g. the senses (sight, hearing, smell
and taste), to react to it.
Is responsible for the transport of sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the different parts of
the body in order to:
• Facilitate muscular movement to bring about communication between the organs (instructions).
• The autonomic nervous system contains nerves from the intestines and these are not influenced
by voluntary impulses from the brain.
• Other functions, which are controlled, are e.g. liver, pancreas, intestines, kidneys, colon,
reproductive organs and blood cells.
Situated at the base of the brain. It secretes hormones, which are responsible for growth and, in the
case of over-secretion, results in giant growth. Hormones also play a role in ovulation and the
formation of the egg. Affects the growth of sexual organs of roosters and hens. They regulate blood
pressure and the respiratory rate.
Situated at the base of the neck. Secretes hormones that will determine feather development and
colour. Responsible for metabolism.
Located under the thyroid. Important in the case of laying hens and regulates the calcium and
phosphate metabolism. A malfunction of the parathyroid can cause abnormalities in the eggshell.
Situated adjacent to the kidneys. Responsible for the production of adrenaline. Stimulates glands in
the autonomic nervous system as well as the heart beat – over secretion causes high blood pressure.
Manufacture a hormone, oestrogen, which stimulates growth and functional activities of the ovaries
and sexual characteristics. Egg yolk originates here.
Located in the pancreas and manufacturers insulin. Insulin is secreted when there are increases in
blood sugar concentrations. Controls and regulates glucose metabolism. Manufacture and storage of
glycogen. Oxidisation of glucose. Regulation of fat metabolism.
Located in the brain. Manufactures a hormone that is involved in growth and puberty.
150 Poultry Jan 2007
2.10.1 Eyes
Similar to mammalians except that the nictitans (membrane at inner canthus) regularly sweeps across
the whole surface of the eye.
2.10.2 Ears
2.10.3 Smell
Similar to mammalians.
2.10.4 Taste
Similar to mammalians.
2.11. Skin
The body of the bird is covered by skin (cutis) which consists of two basic layers, a layer of epithelium
(epidermis) and a layer of dense connective tissue (dermis). The skin of the chicken is thin as
compared to most mammals.
The sweat and sebaceous glands are absent. There is a large oil gland - (uropygial gland), on the
dorsal surface of the tail from which the birds lubricates the skin and feathers. The skin of the legs is
scaled and horny. There is considerable connection with the muscles, which strengthen the feather
follicles, which also contain a major part of the lymphoid tissues. The comb is a modified skin with a
fatty, connective and erectile tissue as are the wattles.
Feathers
Have similar tissue and organ as hair. There is a large central shaft or quill with lateral grooves from
which the barbs arise. Feathers are also modification of the epidermis. There are three types of
feathers. Contour feathers are large and form a smooth protective surface over the body of the bird.
Those on the wings and tail are used in flight. Downy feathers (plumules) are smaller and form a
warm undercoat. Filoplumes are thin hair like rudimentary feathers. The contour feathers and the
downy plumules are removed from the carcass in plucking operations. The fine filoplumes are
removed by the singeing operation. The feathers arise from feather follicles, which are arranged in
definite rows across the body (feather tracts). The feathers are moved by the contraction of small
bundles of smooth muscle fibres situated in the dermis of the skin.
MEAT INSPECTORS MANUAL
POULTRY
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE 4
PATHOLOGY
152 Poultry Jan 2007
Index
PATHOLOGY
1. Introduction
2. Definitions
3. Pathological conditions
153 Poultry Jan 2007
PATHOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to give the meat inspector a basic understanding of the different
pathological conditions found in poultry. It is not the intention to discuss all the diseases and
conditions but some of the more important ones.
It must be emphasized that most of the diseases will not be directly recognisable during inspection but
will need comprehensive laboratory analysis to be confirmed. It is important that the inspector knows
the lesions that indicate the presence of diseases. These include nasal discharge, swollen head,
congested (dark) carcass, emaciation, airsacullitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, peritonitis etc.
Many of the diseases mentioned below will result in secondary E. coli infection and might all be very
similar when the birds reach the processing plant.
Meat inspection will not only make poultry meat safer but will also remove aesthetically unacceptable
conditions. To improve the safety of poultry products it is important to have an integrated health
system involving production, processing, trade and finally an informed consumer.
2.DEFINITIONS
(2) Acute disease/ condition : Condition of relative short duration; not chronic.
(23) Rigor Mortis : When all the muscles in the carcass stiffen after
death.
(25) Systemic Disease : A disease that spreads through the blood and affects
the body as a whole.
3. PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
3.1 Anaemia
Causes:
• Nutritional deficiency
• Chicken anaemia agent (CAA) -unclassified small virus; causing infectious anaemia
• Protozoa (coccidiosis)
• Internal parasites (helminthiosis) and external parasites (lice)
• Loss of blood after an injury
Judgement:
Occurs in laying hens. The liver appears pale and friable due to the accumulation of fat in the
liver cells. Haemorrhages in the liver could occur. Liver may rapture, with the accumulation of
blood in the intestinal cavity and death of the bird.
Cause:
Judgement:
Partial or total condemnation of the liver depending on the extent of the fat deposit.
3.3 Fever
During a post mortem inspection, certain changes in the carcass will give an indication that
the live animal was suffering from a fever:
Causes:
Judgement:
Total condemnation.
(There might be an underlying illness and the blood filled carcass will have a short shelf life.)
3.4 Gangrene
The body tissues die off as a result of poor blood circulation. Bacteria invade the tissue. It
mostly occurs in tissues susceptible to contamination e. g. skin, intestines, genital openings
and penetrating wounds. Mostly the feet and wings are affected but the internal organs may
also be affected. Affected parts are feverish, painful, dark and have a bad smell. Two forms
occur, namely: dry and wet:
Dry gangrene: the blood circulation to a part of the body is cut off and the part withers or
mummifies.
Wet/ Gas gangrene: There is still blood circulation and Clostridium spp. bacteria, which form
gas, invade the lesion. Gas filled tissues may also contain bloody sera. Rotting of the necrotic
tissue may lead to a bad smell and a purple, green-brown or black discolouration.
Causes:
a. Freezing
b. Torsion (twisting) of organs
c. Infected wounds
Judgement:
3.5 Inflammation
Inflammation is the localised vascular and cellular protection reactions of living tissue to injury
by destroying or isolating damaged tissues and their causes.
During the inflammatory process, the inner lining of the blood vessels (endothelium) becomes
more permeable and permits the migration of white cells and plasma into the tissues.
a. Increase in the diameter of the blood vessels and the flow rate through them.
b. Increased permeability of capillary blood vessels.
c. Leakage of white blood cells.
157 Poultry Jan 2007
Causes:
The inflammatory changes seen have one or more of the following characteristics:
1. REDDENING
Small blood vessels in the area distend and more blood flows to the area, giving the
area a red appearance.
2. HEAT
The area becomes warmer than the surrounding tissues due to the increase in blood
flow to area.
3. SWELLING
The extra-vascular plasma (fluids) and white blood cells as well as the distended
blood vessels result in swelling of the affected tissues.
4. PAIN
Caused by the sensation of swelling and pressure on the nerves as well as chemicals
(histamine) that are released which evoke pain.
5. LACK OF FUNCTION
Usually as a result of the pain.
• Chronic: As a result of connective tissue being deposited e.g., adhesions, cirrhosis of the
liver, chronic arthritis.
Judgement:
3.6 Necrosis
Death of specific cells or tissue which is still part of the living body. Normal tissue has a shiny,
transparent appearance and dead tissue looks dull, looses it’s colour and is sunken in.
Causes:
Judgement:
3.7 Pericarditis
This is an inflammation of the heartsac. It can be thickened or covered with a cream coloured
fibrous membrane. In severe cases the membrane might be attached to the heart and may
affect the function of the heart.
Cause:
Judgement:
3.8 Petechiae
Small pin size haemorrhages in and on the surface of tissues and organs (skin, liver, muscles
etc.).
Petechiae < 1 mm
Causes:
Judgement:
Total or partial condemnation depending on the causes and the changes in the carcass.
Causes:
Genetic
Management
Disease
Judgement:
3.10 Purulence
Causes:
Judgement:
When bacteria penetrate the body, they usually do so through a wound or through the
intestine or respiratory system.
A bird with septicaemia has fever and numerous small haemorrhages on serous membranes.
The liver is usually pale and various organs may be infected.
Causes:
There are many kinds of micro-organisms that can cause septicaemia. In poultry meat
inspection the most common cause of septicaemia is E. coli bacteria.
Judgement:
The time when bruising occurred can roughly be ascertained by the colour and intensity of
discoloration:
• Yellow, green to purplish discolouration: during the growing stage and before the catchers
arrive at the chicken houses (24 hours or longer before slaughter).
• Deep red or purple discoloration: during catching, loading and transport of poultry (4 to 6
hours before slaughter).
• Pink or bright red discoloration: during off-loading and hanging of poultry onto the
slaughter line (2 to 15 min. before slaughter).
Causes:
Judgement:
Total condemnation where bruising and haemorrhaging covers more than 50 % of the
carcass.
Partial condemnation (recovered as portions) if less than 50 % is affected.
Causes:
These wing conditions develop when a bird with engorged wings passes through a plucker.
The plucker ruptures the blood vessels in the wings and massages the blood out of the
ruptured vessels into the surrounding wing tissue to form a haemorrhage.
Judgement:
Abnormal red colour: darker red areas on the lower hanging parts such as the wings and
neck.
Causes:
• Insufficient bleeding time (minimum 90 seconds) could be the cause of poultry still
breathing when entering the scalding tank. The high water temperature coagulates the
blood and bleeding stops. The bird drowns and this causes the red skin colour when
eviscerated. Congestion of blood vessels and organs are caused as a result of the
insufficient bleeding of the carcass.
Judgement:
Causes:
Judgement:
Total condemnation if deeper than 2 mm is affected (Cut to be made at the second inspection
point – no cutting allowed in the dirty area).
Partial condemnation if less than 2 mm deep is affected.
3.16 Fractures
Causes:
Judgement:
Causes:
Judgement:
NOTE:
Defeathering may only take place in the defeathering (dirty) area. No pin feathering is allowed
beyond this point.
3.18 Contamination
Contamination should be prevented before it occurs. Light covers, separate store rooms for
chemicals, machine maintenance, personal hygiene, health certification of poultry, good
slaughtering techniques etc. are very important preventative measures and should be
addressed in the Hygiene Management Systems.
• Physical Pieces of glass, wood, small stones, material, nails, screws etc.
• Chemical Sanitisers, insecticides, residues etc.
• Microbiological Micro-organisms e.g. E. coli (from faeces), Staphylococcus spp.
(from feathers and skin) and Salmonella spp. (from bile).
• The birds being slaughtered (skin and feathers, intestinal contents, diseased birds with
septicaemic conditions etc.)
• Workers (skin infections and other illnesses, poor personal hygiene and protective
clothing, untrained, poor slaughtering techniques etc.)
• Equipment and work surfaces poorly sanitised and maintained (including incorrect
storage of cleaning agents)
• Rodents and insects (droppings, urine etc.)
• Poor water quality (chlorine contents not adequate, microbiological tests not done etc.)
Causes:
st
There are many sources of contamination in the abattoir but for meat inspection at the 1 and
nd
2 inspection points the following are the most important forms of contamination:
Judgement:
st
1 Inspection point:
• If any contamination is visible at the second inspection point, the carcass must be
removed and trimmed at recovery.
• If more than 50 % of the carcass is affected, the carcass must be condemned.
Causes:
• Tears in the skin as a result of damage by the plucker machine, incorrect setting of the
fingers.
• Tears in the skin as a result of scratches by claws of other poultry (back scratches) may
become inflamed and infected. Scratches, skin tears and scabs are often the origin of
infections e.g. dermatitis and cellulitis.
• Genetics of the poultry flock (slow and fast feathering of the body).
• Environment and management (warm and cold temperatures, poor ventilation, lack of
space around feed and water troughs).
• Disease conditions (an underlying disease condition e.g. Gumboro will be the cause of a
decrease in the ability to recover from infections such as cellulitis or any other skin
infection).
• The interchange between light and darkness (long days of summer, short days of winter).
Judgement:
Causes:
Judgement:
• The first stage of the infection shows up as a swollen area overlying the point of the
breastbone (the soft breast section) that later hardens as the condition progresses.
• Breast burns with secondary infection.
Causes:
Judgement:
Gangrene dermatitis:
Causes:
Gangrene dermatitis is also called necrotic dermatitis, skin necrosis or rotting wing. Poultry
flocks suffering from Gumboro and/ or skin problems experience greater incidence of
gangrene dermatitis infections. (Clostridium spp. could be involved.)
Judgement:
3.23 Cellulitis
Appears as a yellow, pussy and septic lesion in the areas between the muscle tissue and
epidermis.
Causes:
• When a skin infection (e.g. caused by injury) spreads to the areas between the muscle
tissue and epidermis.
• Natural body resistance is low because of the low blood supply.
• Cellulitis will develop.
Judgement:
Causes:
Judgement:
3.25 Residues
Causes:
Judgement:
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE 5
DISEASES & CONDITIONS
166 Poultry Jan 2007
Index
1. Introduction
2. Diseases caused by viruses
3. Diseases caused by bacteria
4. Diseases caused by protozoa
5. Fungi
6. Diseases caused by parasites
7. Metabolic conditions
167 Poultry Jan 2007
1. INTRODUCTION
Diseases can be caused by different kinds of organisms. These organisms include viruses, bacteria,
fungi and protozoa. They will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
INTRODUCTION
A virus is not a true cell, since it has no autonomous metabolism or life; it needs a living cell to
reproduce and is therefore an obligatory intracellular parasite.
Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and cannot be seen under even the highest magnification or a
normal light microscope; a special microscope called an electron microscope that is able to use very
high magnifications, is used to obtain images of viruses:
Cause
Paramyxovirus
• Nervous system: paralysis of wings and abnormal behaviour e.g. twisting of the head and neck
(torticollis).
• Gastro-intestinal system: Green diarrhea
• Respiratory system: Coughing, wheezing, coarse squeaking in the trachea (windpipe), excessive
fluid from the respiratory tract.
• General: Loss of appetite, depression.
• Digestive tract: Intestinal inflammatory response and haemorrhaging of the proventriculus and
caecal tonsils. The mucosal lining of the proventriculus is a frequent site of haemorrhage,
especially at the junction between the oesophagus and proventriculus.
• Respiratory tract: Tracheitis, excess mucous secretion, haemorrhagic mucosa of the trachea,
airsacs may be covered with a yellowish deposit (in cases of secondary bacterial infection). In the
chronic form catarrhal inflammation of the respiratory system can be seen with oedema in
surrounding connective tissue.
• General: Fever carcass, could have secondary septicaemia (E. Coli)
Laboratory tests together with certain symptoms are important for positive diagnosis.
168 Poultry Jan 2007
Judgement
• Notifiable disease, should be reported to the nearest state veterinarian or animal health technician
as soon as an outbreak is suspected.
• Birds with NCD should not be presented for slaughter (feverish carcass).
• Total condemnation if the disease is confirmed.
• Suspect carcasses should also be condemned because of notifiability.
A.I is caused by various strains of influenza virus, which can be isolated in embryonated chicken
eggs. In poultry the disease is known as fowl plague. Outbreaks of AI occurred in ostriches in South
Africa in 1992. The virus has also been isolated from ostriches in Zimbabwe, and from other ratites in
the Netherlands and the USA. Ostriches with AI show depression, green discoloration of the urine,
respiratory signs and ocular discharge. Severity of symptoms and lesions depend an age and on
concurrent infections with other bacteria and fungi.
FOWL POX
Fowl pox commonly occurs in poultry and many other avian species and is caused by several strains
of avipoxvirus. In South Africa it is usually transmitted by mosquitoes during summer.
Cause
Birna virus
• Acute, highly contagious viral infection and the primary target is the Bursa of Fabricius.
• Immuno-suppression is induced by the virus and secondary conditions e. g. gangrenous
dermatitis and E coli infections could follow.
• Affects young chicks usually 4-6 weeks old but could also be slightly older.
• Virus extremely resistant, can survive in environment for weeks and months
• Does not affect humans
• Bursa of Fabricius: yellowish transudate, increase in size and weight and could be haemorrhagic.
• Dehydration, accompanied by kidney lesions
• Haemorrhages in leg and pectoral muscles
169 Poultry Jan 2007
Diagnosis
• Clinical signs
• Post mortem
• Laboratory tests
Judgement
Cause
Corona virus
• Respiratory signs: sneezing, coughing, gasping and tracheal rales (abnormal respiratory sounds)
• Secondary bacterial infections
Judgement
Cause
• Multifactorial
• Reo virus, management, nutrition and environment
• Poor pigmentation
• Ruffled feathers
• Skeletal abnormalities
• Severe growth depression
• Emaciated carcass
Judgement
Cause
Avian pneumovirus
• Primary viral cause complicated by environmental factors (ventilation) and secondary E. coli
infection.
• Affects young chicks.
• Incubation period 5-6 days
Clinical signs
Diagnosis
• Laboratory tests
Judgement
Cause
Herpes virus
Judgement
Cause
Herpes virus
• The nerves leading to the legs and the wings are thickened.
• Lymphoid tumours in especially the ovaries (cauliflowerlike appearance) and other organs
including muscle and skin.
• Bursa of Fabricius usually not involved.
Diagnosis
Judgement
• Total condemnation.
Cause
Retro virus
• Virus is transmitted via the egg and to a lesser degree from chicken to chicken.
• Important economic influence.
• B cell tumour that starts in the bursa and, before sexual maturity spreads to the other organs.
• Mature, female birds mostly affected.
• Usually seen in layers and breeders older than 14 weeks.
• Not transmissible to humans.
• Grey to creamy white, soft, smooth, glistening tumour lesions (may be nodular, miliary or diffuse)
in the liver, spleen, bursa, lungs, heart, proventriculus, gonads, bone marrow and mesentery.
• Emaciated carcasses.
• Enlarged liver, bursa and kidneys.
Diagnosis
• Differential diagnosis between Marek’s and Lymphoid leucosis is very important for the producer.
• Histopathology.
Judgement
Cause
• Development of nodular skin lesions on the unfeathered parts of the body (cutaneous form) and/
or fibrino-necrotic lesions in the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract, mouth and
oesophagus (diphtheritic form/ “wet pox”).
• Not of public health significance.
• It is a viral disease transmitted by biting insects or through minor abrasions.
• Cutaneous form: Small white nodular lesions that rapidly increase in size and then become yellow
are seen on the comb, wattle, eyelids and other unfeathered areas on the body. Later the lesions
become thick, rough and grey or dark brown. Lastly scabs form that will naturally drop off and
leave a smooth scar.
• Diphtheritic form (wet pox): Nodules occur on the mucous membrane of the mouth, oesophagus
or trachea. The white nodules will become yellow, cheesy, and necrotic. If the membranes are
removed they leave bleeding erosions. Lastly the lesions enlarge and become covered by a dry
scab or a yellow-red or brown wartlike mass.
• As a result of lesions in the mouth, a lower feed intake occurs. Therefore loss of weight also
occurs.
Judgement
• The whole carcass is condemned if progressive generalised lesions in a bird are accompanied
with emaciation.
• Fowls with localised lesions and recovered birds are approved after the removal of scabs.
173 Poultry Jan 2007
Causes
• Inflammation of the soft tissue around the joint of the foot and shin
• Causes lameness and swelling
Symptoms
• Lameness
• Swelling around joints
• Breast blisters
• Listless, dehydrated, emaciated
• Ruffled feathers
• Greenish droppings with large amounts of uric acid
• Hock joint contains straw-coloured or blood tainted exudate, which could become purulent.
• Excessive accumulation of creamy to grey fluid in the joints, synovial membranes of tendon
sheaths and keel bursa in the case of M. synoviae
• Hepatosplenomegaly
• Degeneration of kidneys.
Judgement
INTRODUCTION
At the end of this section you should know the condition, the bacterial species causing the condition,
the poultry species involved, the organ involved, the carcass or organ judgement with reasons, and
the lesions (pathology) of the organs.
Bacteria are very small, microscopic, single celled organisms and vary in size and shape. They can
only be seen under the oil immersion lens of a microscope.
Bacteria multiply or reproduce by direct splitting of the cells under favourable conditions of
temperature, moisture and food supply.
Under adverse conditions, some bacteria (usually bacilli) may form spores that can exist for a long
time.
Some bacteria can only grow in the presence of oxygen (aerobic bacteria); others only grow in the
absence of oxygen (anaerobic bacteria); while some can grow either in the absence or presence of
oxygen (facultatively anaerobic).
Bacteria could produce poisonous products (toxins). These are called endotoxins if they are released
when the bacterium disintegrates or dies, and are called exotoxins when secreted by a living bacterial
cell.
Causes
E. coli
Occurrence
• Escherichia coli bacteria are commonly found in the intestines of birds, animals and humans
• If it spreads to other parts of the body, it will cause infections of different kinds.
• E coli is found in chickens mainly as a secondary pathogen especially to respiratory viral
conditions
• E coli presence in water is an indication of faecal contamination
• 10-15% of E coli in chickens belong to potential pathogenic serotypes
• Eggs can be infected by the bacteria that enter the eggshell and penetrate the egg
• Bacteria in dusty poultry houses survive for long periods if it is dry
• A new pathogenic strain (E coli O157:H 7) has been isolated in humans
• It is the most common disease that will be encountered during processing
Poor management resulting from the following factors contributes to E. coli infections:
• E coli frequently infects respiratory tracts of birds concurrently infected with various combinations
of different viruses etc.
• The damaged respiratory tracts become extremely susceptible to invasion by E. coli entering
through the respiratory route.
• The resulting disease is commonly called airsac disease.
• Pericarditis and perihepatitis are often present.
• Anorexia, emaciation and death may result
• Susceptibility to airsac infection is influenced by the following factors:
1. Socialisation, environmental stresses
2. Inhalation of coliform contaminated dust
3. Inhalation of chicken house dust and ammonia.
• Airsacs are thickened, with caseous exudate
2. Pericarditis
3. Coli septicaemia
• Mortality is generally not very high (less than 5%) but losses are due to retarded growth
• Mostly in broilers, turkeys and ducks
• May follow diseases such as infectious bronchitis and may be associated with malnutrition
4. Coli granuloma
• Granulomas (nodular condition) in the liver, caeca, duodenum, mesentery but not the spleen
• The granuloma may attain a large size, the condition resembling one caused by tumours.
• Necrosis involving as much as half the liver may be involved.
• The condition is caused by the reaction of tissues to chronic infection.
• After septicaemia/ blood poisoning by E. coli
6. Salpingitis
8. Peritonitis
9. Panophthalmitis
Judgement
• Septicaemic (systemic involvement) carcasses or those with extensive lesions should be totally
condemned.
• Localised infections – Partial condemnation
Cause
• For infection to occur, the defence mechanism of the chicken has to be damaged.
• Most common site of infection is bones, tendon sheaths and leg joints.
177 Poultry Jan 2007
• About 50 % of S. aureus strains produce toxins capable of causing food poisoning in humans.
• They are natural inhabitants (part of the natural flora) of the skin and mucous membranes and are
common where poultry are processed, hatched and reared.
• Some have the potential to be pathogenic if allowed through the skin (wound) or mucous
membranes (inhalation).
• After the bacteria enter through the wound/ mucous membrane they travel to an internal location
where a locus of infection is established (usually close to a joint).
• In newly hatched chicks the open navel provides for a site of entry leading to omphalitis and other
types of infection.
• Ruffled feathers
• Reluctance to walk
• Synovitis (acute –inflammation of synovial membranes and tendon sheaths producing acutely
swollen and painful joints) and Arthritis (more chronic – swollen joints filled with pus and fibrin
deposits) are common.
• “Bumblefoot” (plantar abscess) are common and leads to massive swelling of the foot and
lameness
• The disease can easily be diagnosed through isolation of the S. aureus bacteria.
Judgement
Introduction
• There are four species of Salmonella that are of importance in poultry, namely:
• Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium are zoonoses (it can be transmitted from
poultry to man.)
• S. Pullorum (causes bacillary white diarrhoea/ pullorum disease in chicks) is seen mainly in
growing chicks.
• S. Gallinarum (causes fowl typhoid) is seen in both adults and young growing birds.
178 Poultry Jan 2007
a. Salmonella Pullorum
• Spread by true egg transmission (infected hen lays infected egg and infected chick is born to
be infected for it’s entire life).
• In chicks an acute systemic form occurs.
1. Anorexia
2. Diarrhoea
3. Pasting of vent, chalk white excreta, sometimes tainted greenish brown, in and around
the vent
4. Stunted, unthrifty
5. Poor feathering
6. Pale, shrunken comb and wattles
1. Multiple grey nodules in the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, peritonium, gizzard, intestines and
pancreas
2. Rarely peritonitis, ascites or oviduct impaction
3. Swelling of the tibiotarsal joint
(*Liver and heart lesions should be differentiated from other lesions caused by e.g. colibacillosis.)
Judgement
b. Salmonella Gallinarum
Fowl typhoid
Judgement
Judgement
Causes
• Respiratory signs including eye and sinus infection, with nasal discharge
• Decrease in feed intake, poor weight gain
180 Poultry Jan 2007
Diagnosis
Judgement
Partial or total condemnation of carcass or intestines depending on the severity of the case.
Causes
Haemophilus paragallinarum
Diagnosis
• Post mortem
• Laboratory Tests
Judgement
3.6 Mycoplasmosis
Causes
Most commonly:
• Mycoplasma gallisepticum
• Mycoplasma synoviae
• Mycoplasma iowae (turkeys)
181 Poultry Jan 2007
• Etc.
• Catarrhal exudate in nasal and paranasal passages, trachea, bronchi and air sacs
• Sinusitis
Judgement
• Partial condemnation
• With septicaemia total condemnation
3.7 Pasteurellosis
Fowl Cholera
Causes
Pasteurella multocida
Occurrence
Acute:
• Vascular disturbances
• General hyperaemia
• Petecheal and ecchymotic lesions widely distributed
• Increased amounts of pericardial and peritoneal fluids
• Livers are swollen and contain multiple small areas of necrosis
• Ovaries of laying hens are affected due to fever
Chronic:
• Localised infections of the foot pads, hock joint and peritoneal cavity and oviduct
• Torticollis due to presence of pus in middle ear
Diagnosis
Judgement
3.8. Tuberculosis
Causes
Mycobacterium avium
• Emaciated carcass
• Lesions in the liver, spleen, intestines and bone marrow.
• Irregular greyish white or greyish yellow nodules of varying sizes in organs such as the liver,
spleen, and intestines.
183 Poultry Jan 2007
Judgement
• Total condemnation
• Condemned carcass must be handled correctly in order to prevent swine from having access to
the carcass.
Cause
Chlamydia psittaci
Judgement
Total condemnation
Diagnosis only by a laboratory and it must be reported to the nearest state veterinarian or animal
health technician.
4.1 Coccidiosis
Causes
• The parasites multiply in the intestines and cause tissue damage with resulting interruption of
feeding and digestive processes or nutrient absorption, dehydration, blood loss, and increased
susceptibility to other disease agents.
• Short direct life cycle
• Almost all young poultry are given continuous medication with low levels of anti-coccidial drugs to
prevent infections or keep it to a low level
• The tissue damage in the intestines may lead to colonisation of harmful bacteria such as
Clostridium perfringens leading to necrotic enteritis.
• The disease is transmitted by oocysts excreted in the faeces. The ingestion of sporulated oocysts
infects birds.
• Coccidia could be spread by personnel who move between pens, houses or farms.
• The lifecycle is ±7 days.
• These organisms are host specific, which means that they will not affect other animal species.
184 Poultry Jan 2007
• Although there are nine species of coccidia affecting domestic poultry flocks, the most important
organisms are:
• Bloody diarrhoea and/or watery droppings and high mortality is a definite sign of coccidiosis
• The different kinds of coccidia can be identified by taking into account the macroscopic lesions
and microscopic characteristics.
• At post mortem inspection: inflammation of the intestinal tract (gut) or blood in the caeca will be
an indication of the presence of coccidiosis.
• Catarrhal inflammation, petecheal haemorrhages, blood stained contents, caseous material and
minute whitish or blueish foci on the intestinal wall.
Judgement
5. FUNGI
Introduction
Fungi do not play a major role in food poisoning or spoilage under modern conditions. The one
essential requirement for their development is moisture, fungi thus become important when meat is
stored or transported under moist conditions. Although most fungi are retarded by cold, some species
may thrive under refrigeration, which once again emphasises the importance of free air circulation
during chilling, as these organisms cannot survive dehydration (drying out).
Fungi develop essentially on the surface of meat, especially that with no fat covering. They are mostly
non-poisonous but they often impart an undesirable colour and odour to meat. Most fungi form spores
which frequently contaminate the walls and equipment of abattoirs and chillers and thus the
carcasses. The more important types of fungi that are encountered by the meat inspector are easy to
identify by their colour, growing habit, etc. and include:
Contaminants:
• Causes blue- green areas of various sizes and are frequently seen on “mouldy” bread etc.
• Many mouldy areas may be simultaneously contaminated by bacteria, which give the areas a
slimy appearance.
• When such contamination is of recent origin and not too advanced, trim the meat deep enough to
remove the fungus growth completely, and or strip any serous membranes.
• In old cases with deep penetration it may be necessary to condemn on aesthetic grounds.
5.5 Aspergillosis
Causes
• Small, white caseous nodules scattered through the lungs and plaques on air sac membranes
• The caseous nodules consist of inflammatory exudate and fungus tissue
• In very advanced stages greenish, grey mold growth can be seen on the walls of the thickened air
sacs
Judgement
6. PARASITES OF POULTRY
• Ascaridia galli (large roundworm in small intestine). Most common. General signs of the presence
of large roundworms are: Emaciation, Diarrhoea and Depression (weakness)
Death can be caused by blockage in the intestines.
• Capillaria (fine thread worm). Loss of condition and catarrhal enteritis and thickening of the
intestinal wall. They are in most cases microscopically small and can vary in length from 2 mm to
several centimetres.
Their life cycle can be direct; in other words from one bird to the other.
They are responsible for considerable damage in the oesophagus and crop.
They can also be found in the small intestine where inflammation and excessive mucus secretion
is caused.
186 Poultry Jan 2007
Judgement
Judgement
7. METABOLIC CONDITIONS
Pathogenesis of ascites
Broilers
Ascitis or fluid accumulation in the body cavity occurs as a result of the enlargement of the right
ventricle of the heart in broilers, which may be due to one or more of the following factors:
a) Genetic:
Some genetic lines are more prone than others due to faster growth rate e.g. Cobb more susceptible
than Ross
b) Oxygen:
i) The supply of oxygen in the initial phases of broiler rearing are less in winter due to increased
heating, especially gas type burners and the closing of the brooder houses to prevent heat
escaping.
ii) Altitude: Water belly occurs more often at higher altitudes than at sea level because of the
availability of oxygen at sea level.
c) Feeding:
The starter rations of broilers in the first 21 days of life have a high kilojoule level that force
the chicken into a high metabolic rate. This forces the body and thus the heart to work harder
to metabolise the food.
d) Lighting:
Chickens given 24 hour lighting for increased feed uptake and no resting period.
e) Cold
E. g. in winter the chickens will have a higher metabolic rate in order to counteract the cold.
Any one or more of the reasons result in an increase in metabolic rate and an enlargement of the
right ventricle of the heart.
The increase in blood pressure causes fluid to leave the intestinal blood vessels and accumulate
in the abdominal cavity.
Symptoms
• Abdominal cavity filled with straw coloured fluid which may contain fibrin clots
• Right side cardiac enlargement due to dilation and hypertrophy
• Liver may show congestion or grey colour with enlargement and rounded edges.
• Congested lungs with oedema.
• Body shows emaciation and poor growth.
Judgement
• Characterised by lameness. Bones fracture easily when handling the chicken, haemorrhaging
normally visible in these areas.
• Degeneration of the ends of the long bones, especially the femur, occurs as a result of an under
supply of blood to this section of the bone.
188 Poultry Jan 2007
Judgement
• Ulcers occur in the gizzard. As a result of the blood adhering to the ulcers the gizzard contents
turns black which gives rise to the name black vomit.
Judgement
Judgement
Total condemnation
MEAT INSPECTORS MANUAL
POULTRY
PART II
MEAT INSPECTION
MODULE 6
MEAT INSPECTION
190 Poultry Jan 2007
Index
MEAT INSPECTION
1. Introduction
2. Ante mortem inspection
3. Poultry meat inspection
4. Poultry meat inspection component
191 Poultry Jan 2007
MEAT INSPECTION
1. INTRODUCTION
All birds presented for slaughter are subjected to an Ante-mortem and Post-mortem inspection.
Before slaughtering, ante-mortem inspection is one of the essential hygiene procedures, which is
carried out to ensure a safe product. This function commences on the farm in the broiler houses.
2. ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION
• No poultry having been treated with antibiotics, coccidiostats or any other substance that may
render the carcass, viscera or organs unfit for human consumption by reason of any residues
remaining therein may be submitted for slaughter unless the withdrawal period prescribed to such
substance has expired.
• No bird suffering from any disease or condition that may adversely affect the meat may be
slaughtered.
• Ante-mortem inspections of poultry must be done by the authorised poultry meat inspector on the
day of slaughter to ensure that the necessary arrangements can be made to accommodate
suspect flocks or flocks that are suffering from a disease.
• The slaughtering of poultry, affected by a notifiable disease may not be carried out without the
prior permission of the authorised person.
• Poultry affected by disease, excessive soiling, varying bird size, or any other condition that may
lead to contamination of other birds must be slaughtered at the end of the shift.
• Poultry that died during transportation from the farm to the abattoir, must be placed in leak proof
lockable containers with tight fitting lids, which are marked with the letters "CONDEMNED" in the
case of low throughput abattoirs and in high throughput abattoirs in a room provided for storage
awaiting disposal, if not removed on a continuous basis.
• No dead poultry may be presented for slaughter or brought into any area where approved poultry
products are handled and must be regarded and handled as condemned.
• If post-mortem examinations are performed on D.O.A.'s (dead on arrivals) to establish the reason
for death, it must be performed in a special room or area with adequate facilities.
To ensure that:
• Only clean healthy birds are presented for slaughter and that contamination of healthy carcasses
is prevented.
• Safe and wholesome meat for human consumption is made available to the consumer.
• To notify the abattoir manager in time about any disease/condition which will enable them to
make the necessary arrangements to deal with the disease/condition.
192 Poultry Jan 2007
The following disease conditions can already be observed in the broiler house on the farm and the
necessary action taken:
• Obviously sick and injured poultry (to prevent cruelty to poultry) destroyed on the farm.
• Badly soiled poultry are cleaned satisfactorily before presented for slaughter.
• Diseases which are easier to observe (detect) in live poultry e.g. nerve problem cases, breathing
(respiratory) diseases and fever be noted on the health certificate.
• Diseases, which pose a health, risk to humans and notifiable diseases must be reported to the
state veterinarian of the province.
• Aesthetically unacceptable conditions e.g. pussy, gangrene-like lesions and cannibalism should
be transported separately and handled and slaughtered at the end of the slaughtering shift.
Animal welfare considerations are becoming increasingly more important, both in South Africa and
internationally. Practices, which may once have been deemed acceptable, are now being reassessed
and modified according to new knowledge and changing attitudes.
High standards of animal welfare are not only important legally, but also have direct economic
benefits by enhancing productivity and helping to facilitate international market access.
(See Part 1 Module 2)
193 Poultry Jan 2007
• The abattoir management must inform, in advance, the Meat Inspector/Meat Examiner of any
abnormal conditions regarding consignments of live poultry from the farms (health certification).
• The inspector must, on reception of a load of suspected diseased poultry, carry out the necessary
inspection to establish the nature and extent of the disease and to determine the immediate
course of action.
• The inspector must bring his findings under the attention of the abattoir management or
representatives and arrange procedures for the further handling of birds.
• If diseased birds are to be slaughtered, it has to be done at the end of the shift. A space has to
be left on the hanging line between the healthy and suspected, diseased or contaminated
chickens, in order to perform a thorough primary and secondary examination and to remove
infected parts or remove the whole chicken from the line before it leaves the evisceration area.
• Equipment, which comes into contact with the suspected, diseased or contaminated chickens,
must be cleaned thoroughly disinfected and sterilised to prevent possible transmission of the
disease.
• Procedures for the handling of birds for emergency slaughter must be available although seldom
used at poultry abattoirs.
• All relevant information, including ante mortem and health records must be taken into
consideration when doing meat inspection.
• No poultry, rough or red offal may be cut/sold/dispatched in an abattoir unless inspected and
approved by a authorised person.
• No person may process a carcass or meat until it has been inspected and approved by the
authorised person.
• Evisceration must be such as to expose the organs and the body cavity for proper examination by
the authorised person.
• No viscera or any part thereof may be removed from any dressed poultry, prior to inspection.
• The authorised person must inspect the carcass and viscera by viewing, palpation and, if
necessary, incision.
• All viscera/organs must be correlated with the carcass of origin until the final inspection is
completed.
194 Poultry Jan 2007
If poultry, upon either ante- or post mortem inspection, is found on reasonable suspicion to be
suffering from any notifiable diseases or conditions, referred to in the Animal Diseases Act, the local
provincial state veterinarian must be notified immediately.
Portions of the poultry may be approved where removal and condemnation of affected parts or organs
can be done. The abattoir owner must keep daily record of birds slaughtered and the amount of
carcasses/ portions condemned/ or their condemned weight.
The examination of poultry carcasses to determine whether they are normal or abnormal is
accomplished by the use of the senses of sight, feeling and smell.
Indications of abnormalities of carcasses, organs or parts may include differences in size, position,
colour, shape, consistency, odour or a combination of these factors.
The normal poultry carcass may vary in colour as a result of age, breed, sex, kind of feed, amount of
exercise or scalding practices.
The firmness of the flesh and the colour and sheen and the tissues will depend on the age of the bird.
The head parts should not be enlarged nor should there be swellings around the eyes. The comb and
wattles of normal commercial slaughtered birds may vary from bright red to pale red or even yellowish
in colour.
Fowls that may have been in heavy production may have shrunken combs and the normal yellow of
the beaks and shanks will have diminished or disappeared.
The skin of normal birds, which have white slate-coloured or black shanks, is usually lighter in colour
than that of birds with yellow shanks. Certain breeds of birds, particularly Jersey Giants, have a
greenish cast to the skin extending over the abdomen and things.
The shanks and feet of older birds will be more angular and will not appear as rounded as those of
younger birds.
195 Poultry Jan 2007
De-feathering An occasional feather on the occasional bird can be To expose the carcass for inspection and to
described to human error, however, excessive facilitate the inspection of the carcass
occurrence of feathers after de-feathering , is
unacceptable
Removal/cutting off runners Must take place through the hock joints. Joint Exposure of the tendons and joint surfaces
surfaces and tendon sheath must be clearly visible for inspection purpose
for inspection
Removal/cutting off heads The head is removed in the “dirty” area after Heads are edible products for human
defeathering consumption and must be subjected to meat
inspection
Abdominal incision Done either by hand or mechanically, and only To avoid excessive water absorption and
sufficiently to ensure the viscera are exposed and contamination, but still allowing for an
easy to remove adequate inspection
Removal of viscera Viscera are removed from the carcass but are To provide the adequate view of all organs
identified with the proper carcass and surfaces for inspection
Positioning All birds must come to the inspector in identical To permit the inspector to use of rhythmic,
positions, including viscera, direction of hocks and organised and efficient method of inspection,
direction of breasts synchronising all hand and eye movements.
Identification If an inspector is not responsible for all carcasses, the To prevent carcasses from slipping through
ones he is responsible for must be identifiable not inspected
Prevention of contamination Care and skill must be employed in the opening of the To avoid contamination of wholesome, clean
of carcasses carcass so that no contamination may occur through and healthy food for consumption by the
gall or intestinal contents public
Meat inspection is divided into 6 inspection points, which takes place at different stages of the
processing process:
• ANTE MORTEM which takes place in the dirty (pre-evisceration) area at the offloading and
hanging areas.
• FIRST INSPECTION POINT which is in the “dirty” (pre-evisceration) area and situated directly
after de-feathering
• SECOND INSPECTION POINT which is situated in the “clean” (post evisceration) area directly
after evisceration when the carcass and organs are still corresponding with one another.
• RECOVERIES takes place in an area near to the second inspection point with it’s own facilities
where carcasses taken off the line at the second point, can be cut and the approved parts can be
utilised as portions and the rest must be condemned.
• FINAL INSPECTION POINT which is situated before the final washing of the carcass is to be
done
• RETURNS are inspected in a separate room near the dispatch and with it’s own facilities.
196 Poultry Jan 2007
The First Carcass Inspection Point is situated just after defeathering and prior to removal of heads
and feet and the pre-evisceration wash.
• Inspection of heads and feet, which are edible products in South Africa.
• Preventing the entering of obvious diseased poultry into the evisceration section and thus the
spreading of contamination by means of septic and disease contaminated parts.
• Re-hanging of carcasses which have not been properly de-feathered for re-de-feathering.
• To effectively record deficiencies for e.g. Poorly bled carcasses, machine damage, overscalded
carcasses, injuries and bruising.
3.5.1.2 Conditions recognisable at the FIRST INSPECTION POINT and action to be taken
AMMONIA BURNS • Small to large brown discolouration of skin over breast, 1. Carcass – no action at 1st inspection
hocks and footpads due to wet litter. point. T 2nd inspection point take off the
• Can become infected in which case the area will be line and partially condemn affected area
swollen and crusty and inflamed tissue will be visible in recovery area.
when cutting into the lesion. 2. Feet – even severe ammonia burns on
• May lead to “bumble feet” footpads are acceptable as long as no
secondary infection is present.
3. If infected condemn feet.
ASCITES • Excessive accumulation of abdominal and pericardial 1. Remove from line at 1st inspection point
(WATER BELLY) fluid. and condemn carcass.
• Carcass condition varies from normal to pot-bellied with
darkened colour.
ARTHRITIS/ SYNOVITIS/ • Inflammation and swelling of joints and sheaths of legs 1. Take off the line at the 2nd inspection
TENDOSYNOVITIS and feet. point.
• Mostly the hock joint is involved. 2. Take to recovery for partial
• White / yellow puss may be present. condemnation.
BREAST BLISTERS • Small to large pressure blisters on breastbone. 1. Leave carcass on line at 1st inspection
• Visible as soft swelling on front end of the breastbone. point.
Prone to become infected. 2. Carcass must be taken off the line at the
• Small - (less than 1cm diameter) 2nd inspection point partial condemnation
• Large - (more than 1cm diameter) at the recovery area.
197 Poultry Jan 2007
BRUISES/ • Yellow, green to purplish discolouration: during the 1. Remove from the line at 1st inspection
HAEMORRHAGES/ growing stage and before the catchers arrive at the point and condemn the carcass if more
FRACTURES chicken houses (24 hours or longer before slaughter). than 50% is affected.
2. If less than 50% is affected, leave on the
• Deep red or purple discoloration: during catching, line for 2nd inspection point and partial
loading and transport of poultry (4 to 6 hours before condemnation at recovery area.
slaughter).
CONTAMINATION • Crop content contamination 1. Poultry falling off shackle lines onto the
• Faecal contamination floor in the de-feathering area may be
• Bile contamination rinsed in running chlorinated water to a
• Pus contaminationg. concentration of 50 parts per million
• Oil contamination available chlorine, or water with
bactericidal levels of another approved
chemical, and put back onto the line.
2. In smaller abattoirs, carcasses may be
rinsed in a drum for 30 seconds with 100
parts per million available chlorine
concentration. The water in the drum
must be replaced regularly to avoid
contamination but running water is
recommended.
3. When birds fall onto or in the drainage
channel under the plucker machines,
they must be condemned because the
water used for washing the feathers
away is re-circulated water and therefore
contaminated with dirt, feacal material
etc.
4. If the carcass merely dropped on the
floor it may be placed in the spin chiller at
the bird entering point.
TORN SKIN SYNDROME/ • Localised to extensive areas of inflammation on the skin 1. If less than 50% affected take off the line
DERMATITIS/ CELLULITIS (easily damaged by pluckers). at 2nd inspection point and do partial
• Becomes red, thickened and crusting of the skin condemnation in recovery area.
appears as a result of physical, chemical and/ or 2. Condemn carcasses with generalised
microbiological factors dermatitis.
• Generalised if more than 50% of carcass is affected.
EMACIATION (as a result of • Carcass could be of normal colour to dark red-blue 1. Remove from the line at 1st inspection
not enough food or due to colour. point and totally condemn.
illness) and dehydrated • Muscles have wasted away and the breastbone and
carcass other bones are very prominent.
FEVERED CARCASS • Carcass of normal or abnormal conformation but with 1. Remove from the line at 1st inspection
dark red colour caused by acute infectious diseases. point and totally condemn.
OVERSCALDING • Carcass has a boiled or par-boiled appearance 1. If severely overscalded remove from the
depending on time and temperature of exposure. line and condemn.
• Breast muscle has a deep white appearance. 2. If scalding is done by hand, - partially
• Skin is pliable and damage is often seen caused by the condemn at recovery.
pluckers. 3. Test at 2nd inspection point by cutting into
• Occurs normally after the line has stopped. meat – 2 mm
4. If deeper than 2 mm – totally condemn
5. If less than 2 mm – partially condemn.
PLUCKER DAMAGE • Damage caused by improper plucker setting, rubber 1. If more than 50%, take off at 1st
(machine damage) finger maintenance, abnormal sized birds, skin inspection point and totally condemn.
weaknesses caused on farm and overscalding. 2. If less than 50% is affected leave on line
• Visible as the skin tears and fractures and dislocation of for 2nd inspection point and total
joints especially wing joints without bleeding into condemnation or partial condemnation at
surrounding tissues. recovery area.
198 Poultry Jan 2007
POOR DEFEATHERING • Carcasses with feathers that could not be readily 1. Remove from the line at 1st inspection
removed by pinners point and rehang before pluckers if
possible
2. If not possible total condemnation.
POORLY BLED • Bright red discolouration of whole carcass. 1. Remove from the line at 1st inspection
• Neck flap shows bright to dark red point and totally condemn the carcass.
• Wingtips shows bright to dark red. 2. Leave on line if only neck flap displays a
bright red discoloration.
(1) The whole carcass, including the head and feet, must be inspected;
(2) Only carcasses that will be totally condemned must be removed from the line,
trimming of carcasses must not be done at the First Inspection Point;
(3) Where trimming has to be done, carcasses must remain on the line and trimming to
be done at the detention and recovery area;
(4) Carcasses coming into contact with re-circulated, contaminated water used for the
conveyance of feathers, are unsafe for human consumption and must be totally
condemned; and
(5) Carcasses accidentally coming into contact with the floor may be recovered by rinsing
the carcass under running potable water containing bactericidal levels of a chemical
approved by the National Executive Officer for the use on foodstuffs.
The meat examiner/inspector must, when inspecting a carcass and its organs, give special
attention to –
Manning the first carcass inspection point and performing meat inspection.
199 Poultry Jan 2007
The Second Inspection Point is situated after evisceration and the pack is asociable with the carcass.
3.5.2.2 Conditions recognisable at the SECOND INSPECTION POINT and action to be taken
AIRSACULITIS • Inflammation of airsacs in the chest and abdomen 1. Take carcass to recovery.
visible as white / yellow cheesy deposit on the 2. Condemn the organs that are
membranes in the chest and abdomen due to affected.
bacterial infection.
• Lumps of cheesy material are often the only visible
sign.
BREAST BLISTERS • Small to large pressure blisters on breastbone. 1. Leave carcass on line at 1st
• Visible as soft swelling on front end of the inspection point.
breastbone. Prone to become infected. 2. Carcass must be taken off the line
• Small - (less than 1cm diameter) at the 2nd inspection point for
• Large - (more than 1cm diameter) recovery.
FATTY LIVER SYNDROME • Occurs in laying hens. 1. Partial or total condemnation of the
• The liver appears pale and friable due to the liver depending on the extent of the
accumulation of fat in the liver cells. fat deposit
• Haemorrhages in the liver could occur.
• Liver may rapture, with the accumulation of blood in
the intestinal cavity and death of the bird.
HEPATITIS • Normal to enlarged liver with haemorrhages or 1. Take off line at 2nd inspection point
abnormal discolouration and spots due to various and take carcass to recovery.
infectious and non-infectious causes. 2. Condemn affected organs.
• Not to be mistaken for light brown liver due to excess
fat accumulation.
PERICARDITIS • This is an inflammation of the heartsac. 1. Take off line at 2nd inspection point
• It can be thickened or covered with a cream coloured and take carcass to recovery.
fibrous membrane. 2. Condemn affected organs.
• In severe cases the membrane might be attached to
the heart and may affect the function of the heart.
PERIHEPATITIS (Inflammation of • Normal to enlarged liver with white / yellow cheesy 1. Take off line at 2nd inspection point
liver membranes) deposition outer surface due to bacterial infection. and take carcass to recovery.
2. Condemn liver.
PNEUMONIA / PLEURITIS • Inflammation of lung or lung membrane visible as 1. Take off line at 2nd inspection point
white / yellow cheesy material in or around the lung. and take to recovery.
2. Condemn affected organs.
POLI-SER0CITIS/ COLI- • Septicaemia is associated with the accumulation of 1. Total condemnation of carcass and
SEPTICAEMIA yellowish-white exudate in the airsacs. organs.
• May have enlargement of the liver, spleen and
kidneys.
• Visceral serositis (inflammation of serous
membranes), airsacculitis, tracheitis, pericarditis,
tenosynovitis (inflammation of the tendons).
• Pericarditis
• Peritonitis
200 Poultry Jan 2007
ARTHRITIS/ SYNOVITIS/ • Inflammation and swelling of joints and sheaths of 1. Take off the line at the 2nd
TENDOSYNOVITIS legs and feet. inspection point.
• Mostly the hock joint is involved. 2. Take to recovery for partial
• White / yellow puss may be present. condemnation.
GUMBORA • Bursa of Fabricius: yellowish transudate, increase in 1. Total condemnation in acute stage
size and weight and could be haemorrhagic. (feverish carcass).
• Dehydration, accompanied by kidney lesions 2. After acute phase only partial
• Haemorrhages in leg and pectoral muscles condemnations may be made
depending on secondary E. coli
infection.
TORN SKIN SYNDROME/ • Localised to extensive areas of inflammation on the 1. If less than 50% affected take off
DERMATITIS/ CELLULITIS skin (easily damaged by pluckers). the line at 2nd inspection point and
• Becomes red, thickened and crusting of the skin do partial condemnation in
appears as a result of physical, chemical and/ or recovery area.
microbiological factors 2. Condemn carcasses with
• Generalised if more than 50% of carcass is affected. generalised dermatitis.
(4) Inspect by observation the body cavity, air sacs, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, gizzard,
intestines, cloaca and bursa; and
Depending on the judgement, the following may be done with the carcass, organ or meat:
Manning of the “second” carcass inspection point and doing physical inspection of the poultry
carcasses and organs.
201 Poultry Jan 2007
3.5.2.5 Recovery
Where carcasses require partial condemnation as a result of a minor localised lesion and this
condition is of such a nature that it holds no meat safety risk the quality controller may do the
necessary trimmings and partial condemnation at the portioning section and approve of the rest of the
carcass or viscera.
Carcasses that require removal from the line, due to conditions that hold a meat safety risk and
renders it unsafe for human or animal consumption, such detained carcasses must be kept apart from
healthy carcasses.
Trimming and recovery of portions that can be approved for human and animal consumption, must be:
3.5.2.2 Conditions recognisable at the FINAL INSPECTION POINT and action to be taken
(4) Inspect by observation the body cavity, air sacs, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, gizzard,
intestines, cloaca and bursa; and
202 Poultry Jan 2007
Depending on the judgement, the following may be done with the carcass or meat:
Manning of the “final” carcass inspection point and doing physical inspection of the poultry carcasses.
The handling of “returns” often is a critical process because, the product being handled will already be
in a sensitive state either because of expired sell by dates, breaking of the cold chain or the exposure
to contaminant situations.
To minimise the possibility of contaminating the processing areas, these products must be handled in
a secured manner before the recovered portions can be re-introduced into the process to be frozen
after de-contamination (washed in chlorinated or Trisodium Phosphate treated water or water with
bactericidal levels of an approved chemical).
Regulatory Requirements
Inspected and approved poultry carcasses that have left the abattoir may be returned to the abattoir
for re-inspection and re-packing, provided:
A room for the recovery of returns should comply to the following minimum standards:
• Such a room must comply with the normal structural requirements of abattoirs.
203 Poultry Jan 2007
• The receiving area for these “returned” products must have a pre-receiving area where obvious
contaminated/ adulterated products can be sorted and removed.
• The receiving area must be connected to the recovery area via a hatch only.
• Hand wash facilities and washing facilities with hot and cold water for the washing of equipment
must be provided.
• Sterilisers for sterilising equipment and hand tools used in this area at a temp of 82 °C.
• Acceptable equipment for the purpose of re-inspection and salvaging of the returned carcasses.
• Lockable, properly marked containers for condemned material.
• A small spin chiller at < 7°C with a constant replacement of chilled water with a chlorine content of
50 p.p.m. free chlorine or bactericidal levels of an approved chemical.
• Adequate lighting is essential, minimum of 540 Lux is required.
• Bins for disposal of packing and wrapping material must be available.
Products originating from further processing plants and other slaughtering facilities
• Movement and re-introduction of poultry meat, carcasses and giblets between an abattoir and its
further processing plant belonging to the same owner and/or company is permitted, provided that:
(a) A veterinary public health officer or designated official is stationed at the plant concerned
(b) Regulations for transport are adhered to.
• Products from another abattoir although belonging to the same owner or company are not
permissible. Each abattoir must have its own area for the handling of returns.
• This is considered a high-risk area. A qualified poultry meat inspector must examine the re-
introduced product.
• All giblet and red offal returns will be considered as unfit for human consumption and must be
condemned and destroyed.
• Temperature control of less than 12°C in the receiving and re-packing area.
204 Poultry Jan 2007
Work area
The whole abattoir and processing plant, including any other activities that might take place including
farm visits.
Duties
• See that compliance with the Meat Safety Act, Act 40 of 2 000 is carried out.
• Monitoring the poultry meat examiners manning the first and second carcass inspection points.
The number of inspectors will be determined by the line speed and health status of the livestock being
slaughtered,
Involvement of a veterinarian
It is the prerogative of the abattoir owner to employ a veterinarian on a full-time or on ad hoc basis.
• Ante- mortem inspection, liaison with farm managers and the issuing of health Certificates.
• Post-mortems on DOA’s, mortalities and poultry not fit for slaughter with written reports to the
abattoir manager/processing manager.
The Veterinary Authorities of a province may specify the maximum rate at which poultry in an abattoir
may be slaughtered if insufficient meat examiners are available.
The Veterinary Authority of a province may require additional meat inspectors/examiners after having
considered:
Involvement of veterinarian
4.2.3 Guideline for the determination of the minimum number of meat examiners required
GRADE FIRST INSPECTION SECOND RECOVERY FINAL TOTAL
POINT INSPECTION INSPECTION
POINT POINT
A 1+R 1+R 1+R 1+R 8
B 1+R 1+R 1+R 1+R 8
C 1 1 1 3
D* 1 2
E* 1 1
The figures mentioned are per line per shift. The supervisory meat inspector can however supervise more than one line. The
recovery area needs a minimum of one examiner but may require more depending on the quantity of recoveries. The meat
examiners may only do meat inspection under the supervision of the meat inspector.
(*In the D and E grade abattoir, one examiner can do meat inspection at both the inspection points if these functions are carried
out at different times.)