Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Tom Blenkinsop
Department of Geology,
University of Zimbabwe, Harane Zimbabwe
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Acknowledgements ix
2 Cataclasis 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Fundamental cataclastic deformation mechanisms 7
2.2.1 Microcracking 7
2.2.2 Frictional sliding 10
2.3 Microcracks 10
2.3.1 Classification, characteristics and observation 10
2.3.2 Microstructures and mechanisms 12
2.3.3 Impingement microcracks 12
2.3.4 Flaw-induced microcracks 13
2.3.5 Microfracturing of pre-existing flaws 13
2.3.6 Cleavage microcracks 13
2.3.7 Elastic mismatch microcracks 13
2.3.8 Plastic mismatch microcracks 14
2.3.9 Microfault-induced microcracks: Microscopic feather fractures (mffs) 14
2.3.10 Thermally-induced microcracks 15
2.3.11 Phase transformation-induced microcracks 16
2.4 Microfaults 17
2.4.1 Characteristics 17
2.4.2 Mechanisms 17
2.5 Deformation bands 18
2.5.1 Characteristics and classification 18
2.5.2 Mechanisms 18
2.6 Distributed cataclasis and cataclastic flow 18
2.7 Gouge zone microstructures 19
2.8 Microfracture surface features 19
2.9 Crystallographic fabrics 22
2.10 Pre-lithification deformation microstructures and mechanisms 22
2.11 Pseudotachylites and frictional melting 22
2.11.1 Characteristics 22
2.11.2 Origin 22
2.11.3 Misidentification 23
v
vi CONTENTS
4 Intracrystalline Plasticity 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Fundamental mechanisms of intracrystalline plasticity 39
4.3 Deformation twins 39
4.4 Undulatory extinction 41
4.5 Intracrystalline deformation bands,
kink bands and subgrains: Recovery 41
4.6 Deformation lamellae 47
4.7 Grain shape fabrics and ribbon grains 47
4.8 New grains, core and mantle structure: Dynamic recrystallization 47
4.9 Crystallographic fabrics 50
References 107
Index 127
ix
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Symbols, Abbreviations and Units
Numbers in brackets give the chapters and sections where the symbols are used. Units are given if they are referred to in the
text.
a Microcrack long axis (2.2.1), Rate and state variable friction law constant (9.3.2)
A Flow law constant, (9.4.1), or (9.4.3)
S to C-surface angle (7.5), Flow law constant (9.4.3), Effective stress coefficient (9.2.3)
b Microcrack short axis (2.2.1), Flow law constant (9.4.3)
Burger’s vector (4.2, 9.8)
B Particle velocity/unit potential gradient (3.2), Flow law constant (9.4.3)
c Microcrack or flaw length (2.2, 2.3, 2.4.2), concentration of particles (3.2)
Cohesion, MPa (9.2, 9.3), Reference state solubility, mole fraction (9.4.1)
Angles defining external asymmetry of an LPO (7.9)
CL Cathodoluminescence (2, 3, 8)
CMF Critical melt fraction (6.2)
d Particle size (2.2.2), Flaw spacing (2.4.2), Grain size, m (9.4), mm (9.8)
Subgrain size, mm (9.8.3)
D Fractal dimension (2, 9.9.3)
Reference state diffusion coefficient for Pressure solution creep, (9.4.1)
Reference state diffusion coefficient for Nabarro-Herring, Coble creep, (9.4.1)
S to C- or angle (7.5), Grain boundary width, m (9.4)
DMT Diffusive mass transfer (1, 3, 5, 9)
Twinning density, (9.8.5)
E Young’s modulus (2.2)
Strain rate, strain rate at 0 K in the Dorn Law, (9.4)
f Volume fraction of phase in polymineralic flow law (9.5)
Crystal fraction, fraction at critical packing (6.2.1)
Microcrack extension force, Critical value (2.2)
GBM Grain boundary migration (4.8, 9.4, 9.8)
Surface tension force (2.2), Angle between flaw and (2.3.4)
G Fracture toughness (2.2)
Viscosity of suspension, Viscosity of pure melt (6.2.1)
ISA Instantaneous stretching axes (7.1, 7.7)
Twinning incidence (9.8.5)
J Diffusive flux (3.2)
Angle between flaw array and (2.4.2)
k Dislocation density palaeopiezometer constant (9.8.4)
Stress intensity factors for mode I, II, and III opening (2.2)
Threshold, Critical stress intensity factors (2.2)
kC Velocity of deforming crystal face, (9.4.1)
l Model microcrack length (2.3, 2.4.2), Dislocation density palaeopiezometer constant (9.8.4)
L Critical slip distance (9.3.2), Length of grain boundary (9.9)
LPO Lattice preferred orientation (4.9, 5.10)
LSE Lithospheric strength envelope (9.7)
m Grain size exponent in flow law (9.4, 9.5), Grain size palaeopiezometer constant (9.8.2)
Coefficient of friction (2, 9.2), Chemical potential (3.2), Shear modulus, GPa (9.8.3, 9.8.4)
Coefficient of internal friction (9.2)
n Power law exponent for flow laws (9.4, 9.5)
P Mean stress, Pa (3.2, 9.4)
PDF Planar deformation feature (7)
xi
xii SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND UNITS
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY 3
A general term for both categories 2 and 3 is useful because events, each of which may be associated with different mech-
they are often closely associated with each other: crystal anisms. One of the applications of this book should be to
plasticity or simply plasticity means deformation by either allow the unravelling of multiple deformations from their as-
or both DMT and intracrystalline plasticity. DMT can be sociated microstructures. Secondly, even within a single de-
split into two major sub-divisions: diffusion via a solution formation, mechanisms and microstructures vary from min-
eral to mineral within a polymineralic rock: a common ex-
(pressure solution, Chapter 3), and diffusion in the solid state
(Chapter 5). Solid state phase transformations may occur ample is the intracrystalline plasticity of quartz in a shear
during deformation, some involving DMT: these are included zone at greenschist facies, that contrasts with cataclastic de-
in Chapter 5. formation of feldspar in the same conditions.
Two or more mechanisms may act simultaneously together Thirdly, one mechanism may be incapable of accommod-
within a single mineral. An example is the combination of ating the imposed stress, strain or strain rate, so that other
sliding on grain boundaries, and mass transfer of material by
mechanisms are substituted or added during the same de-
diffusion to fill space created by sliding. This is is one type
formation: for example, faulting (cataclasis) may relieve high
of superplasticity, which is a composite deformation mech- stress levels in a shear zone otherwise deforming by intracrys-
anism; one in which two or more mechanisms are coupled talline plasticity. The record of both the cataclasis and plas-
together in the same mineral under the same conditions. An ticity may be preserved in the microstructures. Mechanisms
important composite deformation mechanism involves the in- that can only accommodate deformation in a single direction,
teraction of microfractures and intracrystalline plasticity: this
for example slip on a single fault set, are especially restrictive
is called semibrittle deformation. The different components and invariably require supplementary mechanisms.
of a composite mechanism may have variable strain rates: the
mechanism with the slowest rate determines the composite The variation in conditions in the earth, particularly of tem-
strain rate, and is said to be rate-limiting. perature and pressure, causes a corresponding variation in de-
formation mechanisms. Two systematic changes occur with
It is fortunate that the non-genetic classification of the mi-
increasing depth: temperature increases by the geothermal
crostructures matches the genetic classification of the mech-
gradient, and pressure increases due to the effect of gravity.
anisms so well, and this means that both classifications can be
referred to by similar names. The chapter titles of this bookCataclasis is relatively insensitive to the variation in temper-
ature, but is suppressed by pressure. The plastic deformation
use the names of the mechanisms for simplicity. The order of
mechanisms (intracrystalline plasticity and solid-state DMT)
the chapters follows the general change in deformation mech-
behave in the opposite way: they are strongly promoted by
anisms from low to high grade metamorphic conditions dur-
temperature but relatively insensitive to pressure. As a res-
ing deformation (see next section). Specific microstructures
that are diagnostic for each mechanism are shown in bold in ult, cataclasis is generally restricted to the upper crust (where
pressures are low), and crystal plasticity occurs in the lower
Table 1.1.
crust and the rest of the lithosphere (where temperatures are
Three chapters deal with relatively new developments in
high). The transition from cataclasis to plasticity is some-
structural geology, which can involve all three categories
times called the brittle-plastic transition. Experiements have
of deformation microstructures and mechanisms. Magmatic
identified an important intermediate regime of semibrittle be-
and sub-magmatic deformation (Chapter 6) describes the de-
haviour where microfractures interact with intracrystalline
formation of rocks that contain melt. Important deformation
plasticity (e.g. Carter and Kirby 1978, Kirby and Kronen-
mechanisms are flow of melt and crystals, with crystal de-
berg 1984), leading to the concept of two transitions in de-
formation (sub-magmatic flow) or without crystal deforma-
formation mechanism with increasing depth: firstly the brittle
tion (magmatic flow). This topic has great relevance to cur-
- semibrittle transition in the upper crust, and secondly the
rent debates about pluton emplacement mechanisms. Micro-
semibrittle - plastic transition in mechanisms at mid-lower
structural shear sense criteria (Chapter 7) provide clues to
crustal levels.
the displacement of rock masses during deformation on all
scales: this is one of the most important types of tectonic These generalizations need to be heavily qualified because
information. Shock-induced microstructures and shock meta- of the other variables that affect deformation mechanisms.
morphism are produced by meteorite impacts (Chapter 8), and Stress, strain rate and pore fluids are some of the most im-
are the focus of much current interest, because microstruc- portant additional variables to be considered. For example,
high stresses or strain rates may cause cataclasis at greater
tural studies have a central role to play in the debates about
depths or higher temperatures, which would otherwise be as-
mass extinction and other possible effects of large meteorite
impacts on the earth’s evolution. sociated with plasticity, as in the above example. Pore flu-
ids are essential for solution-assisted DMT, and may promote
cataclasis by mechanical and chemical effects. Furthermore,
1.3 Deformation microstructures and the various minerals within a polymineralic rock have differ-
mechanisms in the earth: Brittle- ent transitions from brittle to semibrittle to plastic behaviour,
and interactions between the minerals themselves also need to
semibrittle-plastic transitions be considered as an independent variable (Chapter 9). These
qualifications, particularly the variation in properties of dif-
Several different deformation microstructures commonly oc- ferent minerals, mean that no unique depth or temperature
cur together in rocks for three important reasons. Firstly, can be given for the brittle-semibrittle and semibrittle-plastic
deformation microstructures may record several deformation transitions. However, the transitions are important concepts
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY
relative ductility as: “the amount of permanent deformation the most widely used today. The scheme is based on the dis-
achievable prior to rupture”. These definitions of ductility tinction between random fabric and foliated deformation zone
based on stress-strain relationships are satisfactory and quan- rocks, as well as the cohesion of the rock (the degree to which
tifiable, but the widespread application of the term outside it behaves as a continuous body during deformation) and pro-
the rock mechanics laboratory necessitates alternative defin- portion of matrix to porphyroclasts. The original scheme is
itions, since stress-strain relationships are never known for slightly modified to allow for a range of foliation intensities in
rocks in the field (e.g. Griggs and Handin 1960). fault rocks in Table 1.2, by including the additional category
The use of deformation continuity or distribution in the of foliated cataclasites (e.g. Chester and Logan 1987), and
definition of ductile is implicit in the application of the terms by extending the gouge, breccia and pseudotachylite categor-
by most geologists in the field. Rutter (1986) suggested that ies to the foliated category. Random fabric has been changed
ductility is “the capacity for substantial, non-localized strain”, to Unfoliated to allow for deformation zone rocks that have
thus strictly excluding shear zones, and “is a concept which some order to their fabric, for example fragments with a jig-
must be defined on a macroscopic scale”. However, “ductile saw texture, and Foliated has been changed to Strongly fo-
shear zones” (e.g. Ramsay and Huber 1987) is a commonly liated in order to contrast with Unfoliated. Many deforma-
used phrase. It is proposed here that continuity rather than tion zone rocks have two or even three distinct foliations. All
distribution should be used to define ductility, and that a more foliations should be considered when assessing foliation in-
satisfactory definition of ductility is “macroscopically con- tensity, and the existence of different foliations can be used
tinuous deformation”. This definition has the merit of encom- to further classify deformation zone rocks (e.g. S-C mylon-
passing all features that the field geologist usually refers to as ites, Lister and Snoke 1984). The crush breccia series of the
ductile, including shear zones and macroscopic folds, and is original classification has been omitted for simplicity, and be-
preferred because continuity can be identified more precisely cause these terms have not found widespread use.
than distribution at any scale. The classification scheme in Table 1.2 is based on descrip-
Brittle and ductile are defined above by different cri- tion at the hand specimen scale, and recognizes that larger
teria. Therefore it is possible for a rock to be both brittle fragments in a finer grained matrix is a fundamental character
and ductile: for example, a type of deformation band of most deformation zone rocks. However, as noted by Sibson
(Chapter 2.5) forms by fracture (it is brittle) but has macro- (1977), any pidgeon-hole classification such as Table 1.2 suf-
scopic strain continuity (it is ductile). The concept of the term fers from the problem that the classification criteria may show
“brittle-ductile transition” is rendered questionable by these a continuous range of variation. This is especially problem-
definitions. Many terminological problems can be avoided atic in the assessment of foliation development, which may be
by using the concept of a deformation mode and the cat- difficult to quantify, or to judge objectively on a qualitative
egories of deformation continuity, distribution and mechan- basis. Another problem with the classification is the defini-
ism suggested in Section 1.4, and avoiding the use of the tion of cohesion, which is specified in the original classific-
term brittle-ductile transition, which has no meaning using ation as primary cohesion, i.e. cohesion during deformation.
the above definitions. Post-tectonic processes may decrease cohesion, for example
by weathering, or increase cohesion by cementation. These
processes may not be recognized easily or allowed for when
1.6 Character and classification of de- assessing primary cohesion.
more heavily referenced than other topics. The references are ST - Sensitive tint (gypsum) plate inserted
presented in two forms. The main list gives all references in
full. This is followed by a list of abbreviated references col- SEM - Scanning electron microscope optical image
lected by chapter, which shows important general sources for TEM - Transmission electron microscope image
the chapter topics in italics.
A general list of symbols, abbreviations and units prefaces CL - Cathodoluminescence image from the SEM
this chapter. Abbreviations and conventions for all photomic-
rographs are as follows: Figures below the captions give the horizontal dimension of
the image in mm. Shear sense (see Chapter 7) is given as
PPL - Plane polarized light sinistral or dextral (assuming that the shear or fault plane is
vertical); all illustrations with shear senses given are perpen-
XP - Crossed polarized light dicular to the shear plane and parallel to the shear direction,
RF - Reflected light and the shear plane is approximately parallel to the horizontal
edge of the image.
Chapter 2
Cataclasis
2.1 Introduction The second model treats the microcrack as flat with a sharp
tip (e.g. Lawn and Wilshaw 1975a), and gives a versatile
Microfractures, displacements and rotations of rigid particles solution for the stress field around the microcrack, in the polar
with no permanent lattice distortion are microstructures coordinates of Figure 2.1b:
formed by cataclasis. There are two fundamental cataclastic
deformation mechanisms: microcracking (Section 2.2.1) and
frictional sliding (Section 2.2.2). The single most distinct-
ive cataclastic microstructure is the microfracture, defined The stress is thus specified by K, the Stress intensity factor,
as a tabular or planar microscopic discontinuity. The term describing the intensity of the field around the microcrack,
thus includes microfaults, microscopic deformation bands, and the stress distribution, described by radial factor
microjoints, microcracks, microveins, and microscopic slip and a function of which depends on the propagation mode.
surfaces. Microfractures can be sub-divided into microfaults The three microcrack propagation modes shown in Figure 2.2
(Section 2.4), which contain a fragmental matrix, and mi- are tensile or opening mode, (mode I), in which displace-
crocracks (Section 2.3), which do not. Pseudotachylites are ments are perpendicular to the fracture plane, and two shear
briefly discussed in Section 2.11 because they are associated modes, in which displacements are parallel to the fracture
with cataclastic mechanisms. plane, sometimes called sliding and tearing modes (modes II
and III, Fig. 2.2). The stress intensity factor depends on the
propagation mode, the microcrack length and the applied
2.2 Fundamental cataclastic deforma- stress
tion mechanisms
2.2.1 Microcracking
Given these descriptions of the stress around the flat mi-
Microcracking involves microcrack nucleation followed by crocrack, it is possible to deduce the failure criteria for brittle
propagation. Nucleation is irrelevant in a geological context solids from Griffith’s postulate that a microcrack will extend
because of abundant heterogeneities in natural rocks and min- when the total energy change with the propagation of the mi-
erals. crocrack is negative or constant. The energy terms involved
in microcrack propagation are release of mechanical energy,
Dynamic microcrack propagation which must be equal to the energy required for creation of
surface area.In terms of force, the microcrack extension force,
Microcrack propagation from an initial flaw can be con- G, must be greater than or equal to twice the surface tension
sidered by two different models. The first model assumes force, (the doubling factor accounts for the two sides of
an elliptical microcrack (Inglis 1913, Griffith 1924). For a the crack). This leads to the classical Griffith result for fail-
uniaxial remote applied stress parallel to the microcrack ure under a tensile remote stress in a solid with Young’s
axis, the tangential stress, on the microcrack surface var- modulus E:
ies from a negative (tensile stress) equal to the value of at
the long axis of the microcrack, to a compressive stress at the
short axis (Fig. 2.la). In a biaxial stress field is equal to The well-known Griffith failure criterion and its derivatives
at the long axis of the microcrack (Fig. 2.1a; can be determined from this relation (Section 9.2). The Grif-
Jaeger and Cook 1979). The stress state around an elliptical fith failure criterion thus implicitly assumes the existence of
microcrack illustrates the essential concepts that large tensile microcracks of length Griffith observed that the theoretical
stresses can develop at the tip of a microcrack surface in com- strength of solids is much greater than their actual strength,
pression, and that the maximum tensile stress will develop and postulated that real solids contain microcracks which
in the direction of the maximum applied stress. These two concentrate stress leading to failure, thus explaining the dis-
concepts explain why extension microcracking perpendicular crepancy between theoretical and measured strengths. The
to the least principal stress is a widespread and fundamental existence of such microcracks or “Griffith flaws” is still ac-
cataclastic mechanism. cepted as the basis of most failure criteria.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 9
The above analysis is restricted to microcracks that propag- Five mechanisms of sub-critical microcrack growth have been
ate at speeds that are typically significant fractions of the ve- proposed, but stress corrosion, a general term for environ-
locity of elastic waves in solids, or dynamic microcracking. mentally influenced, stress driven, thermally activated chem-
However, microcracks may propagate under stress conditions ical reaction allowing breaking of bonds is considered to be
well below the critical stress intensity factor, at rates that the dominant mechanism for geological materials in crustal
depend on temperature and chemical environment as well as conditions (Atkinson 1982). Hydrolysis of the Si-O-Si bond
stress intensity. This phenomenon is known as sub-critical is likely to be responsible for the weakening. The microcrack
microcrack growth and is potentially of enormous geological velocity in Region 1 is controlled by the reaction rate of the
importance (e.g. Anderson and Grew 1977, Das and Scholz hydrolysis, and transport-rate control occurs in Region 2.
1981, Atkinson 1982, Meredith 1983). A diagram showing
Other types of chemical reaction occur with sub-critical
microcrack velocity (V) as a function of mode I stress intens-
microcracking. An example is the reaction of plagioclase to
ity factor illustrates the main features of sub-critical mi-
increasingly sodic compositions and ultimately to laumontite,
crocrack growth (Fig. 2.3), which have been demonstrated for
which creates a 60% volume increase (Blenkinsop and Sibson
a range of geological materials (e.g. quartz, granite, andesite,
1991). This alteration occurs along cleavage microcracks,
basalt, calcite, oil shale, sapphire and glass). The
resulting in a texture of expanded, matching fragments, de-
relationship falls into three parts:
rived from a single parent crystal (Plate 1). This texture sug-
Region 1. Velocity is highly sensitive to water concen- gests chemical alteration and sub-critical microcracking oc-
tration and temperature. There may be a threshold stress curred in a linked process, which can be called alteration-
intensity factor for microcrack growth to occur at enhanced microcracking.
all (Meredith 1983). Sub-critical microcrack growth has been incorporated into
some models of crustal processes, for example to explain the
Region 2. Velocity is dependent on water concentration and difference between creep (stress intensity factor between
temperature, but not and and seismic faulting (stress intensity factor equal to
Rudnicki 1980), the barrier theory for earthquake rupture
Region 3. Velocity increases extremely rapidly with until of Das and Scholz (1981), and features of magmatic intru-
microcrack growth becomes dynamic at sion and hydrofracture propagation (e.g. Anderson and Grew
10 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
several rocks (Wong 1990) follows the theoretical relation- flaw (Fig. 2.6, Table 2.1). Such microcracks can be intra-,
ship and shows that the required pre-existing flaws have sub- trans- or circumgranular.
micron dimensions, comparable to the flaws invoked in Grif-
fith’s failure analysis (Section 2.2.1).
2.3.5 Microfracturing of pre-existing flaws
Photoelastic experiments on convexo-concave contact sur-
faces which model indenting grain contacts due to pressure Microfracturing of pre-existing flaws is known as an import-
solution (Section 3.4) show that tensile microcracks should ant and even dominant microcracking mechanism from ex-
form normal to the indenter contact, and shear failure is pre- periments (e.g Biegel et al. 1992, Menéndez et al. 1996).
dicted along curved trajectories that are approximately nor- It is considered to be at least as important as cleavage in
mal to the contact in its immediate vicinity, but deviate pro- controlling the overall microcracking process, and Atkinson
gressively with distance (McEwen 1981). (1982) asserts that it dominates the upper 20 km of the crust.
The diagnostic feature for recognizing the impingement The opening of grain boundaries (a type of pre-existing flaw)
mechanism is linking of contact points by intragranular mi- is well known to contribute to experimental cataclasis (e.g.
crocracks (Fig. 2.9, Table 2.1), although the contact points Dunn et al. 1973, Hadizadeh 1980, Tapponnier and Brace
may not be visible in the plane of the section. Impingement 1976). The weakness of some natural grain boundaries, even
microcracking is suppressed in well-cemented or low poros- when these are overgrown by optically continuous quartz ce-
ity crystalline rocks because impingement contacts are lack- ments, is apparent from the observation that overgrowths are
ing and tensile stress concentrations are dramatically reduced a major component in the matrix of faults (Pittman 1981).
by the cement (e.g. Wong and Wu 1995, Menéndez et al. Microfracturing of pre-existing flaws can be identified by mi-
1996). crofracture of a cement, and may involve all three types of
microcrack (Fig. 2.11, Table 2.1).
2.3.4 Flaw-induced microcracks
2.3.6 Cleavage microcracks
Flaw-induced microcracks are joined to flaws such as other
microcracks, pores and grain boundaries. They form because Microcracks in biotite are controlled by the basal (001) cleav-
of the tensile stresses that develop on the flaw surface when age (Plate 42, Wong and Biegel, 1985). In feldspars, the ma-
remote stresses are imposed. They are recognized in experi- jor (001) cleavage and also (010), and (110) planes ex-
ments on analogues and on rocks (e.g. Brace and Bombola- ert a strong influence on microcracks (Willaime et al. 1979,
kis 1963, Tapponnier and Brace 1976). Analytical solutions Brown and Macaudière 1984, Tullis and Yund 1992). Cleav-
show that the microcracks will grow along curved trajectories age microcracking of feldspars is important during deforma-
from both ends of a flaw to produce the well-known “wing tion of granitic rocks in the upper crust (Plate 1; Evans 1988).
crack” geometry (Fig. 2.10, Horii and Nemat-Nasser, 1985, The fracture toughness of quartz is least along the rhombo-
1986, Kemeny and Cook 1987, Baud et al. 1996). For isol- hedral planes, followed by the basal plane: these are prefer-
ated microcrack growth, a flaw length 2c, orientated at to entially exploited during fracture (e.g. Borg et al. 1960, Voll-
is assumed to have both cohesive and frictional resistance brecht et al. 1991). Cleavage microcracks can be recognized
to shear, and tensile microcracks grow from both ends with because they occur in crystallographically controlled sets par-
length l (Fig. 2.10), making an angle with the flaw. The res- allel to known cleavages within single grains (Table 2.1).
ults show that microcracks will grow by tensile failure from
the edges of the flaw along paths which fit experimental ob- 2.3.7 Elastic mismatch microcracks
servations very well (Horii and Nemat-Nasser 1985). After
a critical length (approximately 1.0) in even the slightest Microcracks have been noted in quartz and feldspar grains
tensile value of microcrack growth becomes unstable, but at contacts with micas in experimental studies (Tapponier
remains stable in compression. Flaw-induced microcracking and Brace 1976, Wong and Biegel 1985), and in a naturally
can be recognized by the connection of the microcrack to a deformed quartzite (Hippert 1994). These microcracks are
14 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
thought to develop because of the difference in elastic strain microcracking is largely responsible for semibrittle behaviour
across the quartz-mica or feldspar-mica boundaries due to the (e.g. Carter and Kirby 1978). It can be recognized by
different elastic moduli of the two minerals in contact along the close association between intragranular microcracks and
a coherent interface (Plate 5, Fig. 2.11). They can be recog- areas or individual microstructures of intracrystalline plasti-
nized by the localization of intragranular microcracks around city, such as subgrains, kink bands, deformation lamellae or
contacts between grains of different mineralogy (Table 2.1), twins (Table 2.1).
but may be difficult to distinguish from thermally-induced
microcracks (see Section 2.3.10).
2.3.9 Microfault-induced microcracks: Micro-
scopic feather fractures (mffs)
2.3.8 Plastic mismatch microcracks
Mffs are intragranular microcracks found only adjacent to
Where intracrystalline plasticity is localized in one area (e.g. faults. They are characteristically wedge-shaped, opening to-
in twins, deformation lamellae and kinks, Chapter 4), mi- wards the fault plane (Fig. 2.12c). They were identified in ex-
crocracks may be initiated due to the strain incompatibility perimentally generated faults by Friedman and Logan (1970),
between the area of plastic deformation and the adjacent un- who found them exclusively within 5-10 grain diameters of
deformed area (e.g. Olson and Peng 1976, Wong and Biegel shear faults, and parallel to They did not occur adja-
1985; Fig. 2.12). Microcracks have been observed along cent to an incipient shear, and therefore formed in response
kink bands in naturally deformed enstatite, and normal to to shearing. Conrad and Friedman (1976) defined mffs as mi-
the kink bands in experimentally deformed quartz (Carter crocracks occurring only within grains adjacent to a fault, dy-
and Kirby 1978). Plastic mismatchs may account for the ing out rapidly away from the fault and statistically close to or
common microcracking of feldspar porphyroclasts surroun- parallel to the applied direction of Microcrack density and
ded by deformed quartz grains in quartzofeldspathic mylon- length increase with displacement and normal stress (confin-
ites (e.g. Evans and White 1984; Fig. 2.13). Plastic mis- ing pressure) (Conrad and Friedman 1976, Teufel 1981). Tec-
matches may also occur within single phases or grains due tonic analogues of mffs have been observed associated with
to stress concentrations created by intracrystalline plasticity shear surfaces between pebbles in contact with each other
(e.g. Lawn and Wilshaw 1975a). Plastic mismatch-induced (McEwen 1981). T fractures as described by Petit (1987)
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 15
(1984) and Vollbrecht et al. (1991). Granite can be treated transformation involves a volume increase
as a composite of quartz surrounded by feldspar. Two ex- of 11%. Quartz inclusions in garnet or omphacite are sur-
treme cases can be considered during cooling and uplift. In rounded by radial extension microcracks (e.g. Chopin 1984,
isothermal decompression, greater elastic expansion of quartz Smith 1984, Wang et al. 1989), and indeed this texture has
may cause microcracking of feldspar, while isobaric cooling been used as evidence for the former presence of coesite
may lead to microcracking of quartz due to its greater thermal (e.g. Wang and Liou 1991). Although it is clear that the
contraction. The critical geothermal gradient for equilibrium transition has occurred in these rocks be-
between thermal and elastic strains in quartz and feldspar is cause relict coesite can be found in some inclusions, the ques-
10°C/km. Crystal anisotropy may be important on the grain tion arises whether such microcracks could be due to elastic
scale; quartz has a maximum coefficient of thermal expan- mismatches between the silica phase and the host. The key
sion perpendicular to the c-axis, favouring microcracks at low evidence for phase transition microcracking is the observation
angles to the c-axis. Regional stresses can also be important: that there is no microcracking around other types of inclusion,
microcracking will be favoured in those grains with appropri- including rutile. The extensional nature of the microcracks
ate orientations relative to the regional stress.(e.g. Vollbrecht and their origin from tips of inclusions are consistent with
et al. 1994). The general interaction between thermal and the mechanism. Fracture surface energy measurements in the
elastic stress around inclusions has been modelled by D’Arco conditions of the quartz phase transition imply that
and Wendt (1994), and specifically for garnet by Whitney microfractures could also be associated with this transforma-
(1996). tion, and other minerals undergoing similar phase transform-
Thermally-induced microcracking in granites can be re- ations (Kirby and Stern 1993). Radial microcracks have also
cognized by intragranular microcracks concentrated in quartz been observed around calcite inclusions which have replaced
surrounded by feldspar. Thermal microcracks in quartz may aragonite, a transformation that involves a 8.5% volume in-
have a preferred orientation parallel to the c-axis. crease (Wang and Liou 1991). The distinctive features of
phase transformation microcracking are the association of in-
tragranular microcracks with evidence for phase transform-
2.3.11 Phase transformation-induced micro- ation. In the case of the transition, radial
cracks microcracks around inclusions of quartz after coesite are dis-
tinctive.
The strain associated with solid state phase transforma-
tion can produce distinctive microcracks. For example, the
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 17
2.4 Microfaults
2.4.1 Characteristics
Microfaults are shear microfractures that contain grain frag-
ments formed by cataclasis (Plate 3). Displacement paral-
lel to a microfault surface can be identified from displaced
grain boundaries or fragments. However, caution is needed
in positively identifying such shear displacements, because a
purely extensional microcrack can appear to have a shear dis-
placement when viewed in a section which is oblique to the
opening direction of the microcrack. A useful indication of
true shear displacement is the consistent sense of offset of a
number of grain boundaries at a variety of angles to the mi-
crocrack (Plate 45). axial microcracks, buckled at a critical fibre strain, allow-
Two components can comprise microfault matrix: frag- ing the first through-going fault plane to form (Fig. 2.14).
ments derived from the wall rock, and a precipitated cement. This linking mechanism can be contrasted with the beha-
The fragments are usually angular and very poorly sorted, viour of other siliclastic rocks, in which grain boundary mi-
ranging in size from micrometres up to the width of the mi- crocracks form first, to be linked by axial microcracks (Had-
crofault. It is sometimes possible to identify the parent grain izadeh 1980, Menéndez et al 1996). The detailed sequence
from which the fragments have been derived (the sensitive of microcracking and linkage probably depends on the ini-
tint plate is useful for this purpose; Boldt 1995), and frag- tial microstructure of the rock (Hadizadeh 1980, Blenkinsop
ment displacement or rotation may also be detected (Plates 2, and Rutter 1986). A third type of linking mechanism is the
4, 45). The proportion of cement may vary from relatively direct interaction of microcrack stress fields. Such interac-
little, in which the fragments may form a jigsaw texture, to a tions were classified into en-echelon and en passant types
majority, in which the fragments will be matrix-supported and by Krantz (1979) (Fig. 2.15). The former occur between
isolated from each other. Precipitated cements can be identi- two straight, sub-parallel microcracks, which are linked by
fied from euhedral crystal faces overgrowing primary grains a third straight microcrack (Fig. 2.15 a, b). En passant inter-
(e.g. Pittman 1981) or from CL studies (e.g. Stel 1981) be- actions involve curvature of microcrack paths because the mi-
cause the precipitated cement has a different luminescence crocrack tip stress fields influence each other (Fig. 2.15 b, c).
from the grains in the matrix (Section 3.9). A cyclic history The definitive theoretical model of microcrack interactions is
of cementation and shear can sometimes be deduced from the based on solutions for the behaviour of isolated microcracks
presence of resheared matrix. The edges of microfaults may in compression (Horii and Nemat-Nasser 1985). To model
be planar and truncate adjacent grains cleanly, or they may be shear failure, the microcracks interactions are considered in
irregular, perhaps comprising a large number of circumgran- an array of parallel flaws with individual angles and overall
ular microfractures. angle to and spacing d (Fig. 2.16). The results show that
axial compression at first increases with for all values of
i.e. microcrack growth is stable. However, at lower values
2.4.2 Mechanisms
of microcracks interact unstably at a certain stress. In gen-
Experiments identify the shear failure mechanism as the link- eral the model predicts that and are different, suggesting
ing of extension microcracks once a critical microcrack dens- that a failure plane will consist of oblique microcracks linked
ity is achieved (Krantz and Scholz 1977, Costin 1983). Sev- by axial microcracks. The model correctly predicts the effect
eral mechanisms of microcrack linkage have been sugges- of confining pressure on ultimate strength and is validated
ted. Peng and Johnson (1972) proposed that axial micro- by experiments on resin blocks. Natural microfaults seem to
cracks became linked when individual beams, bounded by evolve by microcrack linking at a critical microcrack density
18 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
2.5.2 Mechanisms
Dilatancy caused by grain sliding, and impingement micro-
fracturing are important mechanisms in deformation band
formation. Experiments, theory and observations suggest
that the differences between the three categories of deform-
ation band are related to confining pressure and initial mi-
crostructure (Antonelli et al. 1994). Lack of grain micro-
cracking in the first category may indicate low confining pres-
sures during deformation compared to the bands in the second
category. Initial porosity determines whether a deformation
in similar ways to experiments and models (e.g. Blenkinsop bands dilates or compacts: low initial porosity leads to dila-
and Rutter 1986). tion, and vica versa. These relationships are predicted by crit-
ical state theory for granular materials (e.g. Schofield and
Wroth 1968). The third category forms as a result of the
2.5 Deformation bands higher clay content in these rocks.
The localization theory of cataclasis accounts for the form-
2.5.1 Characteristics and classification ation of microfaults, deformation bands, zones and slip sur-
faces (e.g. Rudnicki and Rice 1975, Aydin and Johnson
A distinctive type of localized deformation occurs in porous
1983). Localization is defined as a difference in strain rate
granular materials. Deformation bands are roughly planar
between a band and the matrix, and is a highly appropriate
features from millimetres to a hundred metres long, from
way to describe deformation bands since strain appears con-
fractions to a few millimetres wide, and with net slips from
tinuous across the bands. The theory predicts the formation
fractions to tens of millimetres. Displacement across deform-
of deformation bands at or before peak stress, and their sub-
ation bands is continuous at a mesoscopic scale, which distin-
sequent spread due to strain hardening. The development of
guishes deformation bands from faults. Porosity in deforma-
slip surfaces can be understood from the same theory as a pro-
tion bands may be greater or less than the wall rocks; in the
cess in which stress within the deformation band becomes too
more common case of porosity reduction, the bands contain
great to be accommodated with the result that a discontinuity
a layer of fine-grained matrix partly comprised of grain frag-
develops.
ments. Intragranular extension microcracks are found within
this type of deformation band.
There is a continuum between faults and deformation
bands, with many descriptions of faults having some charac-
2.6 Distributed cataclasis and cata-
teristics of deformation bands (e.g. Engelder 1974, House clastic flow
and Gray 1982, Jamison and Stearns 1982, Underhill and
Woodcock 1985, Narahara and Wiltschko 1986, Blenkinsop A number of experiments have produced distinctive cata-
and Rutter 1986, Cruikshank et al. 1991, Zhao and John- clastic microstructures in samples that have maintained
son 1991). Deformation bands were explicitly described by strength without localization of deformation. The micro-
Aydin (1978), Aydin and Johnson (1978, 1983), and most structures are characterized by distributed fracture and dis-
comprehensively by Antonellini et al. (1994), who distin- placement of fragments, but the deformation is macroscopic-
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 19
ally continuous: this is called cataclastic flow, which can be 2.7 Gouge zone microstructures
defined as deformation by cataclastic mechanisms leading to
continuous flow at a given scale. Cataclastic flow occurs at Faults formed at low grade conditions commonly contain
higher confining pressures than faulting in equivalent rocks, gouge with a distinctive set of microstructures, which have
and is favoured by lower differential stresses. been closely replicated by experiments (e.g. Logan et al.
Extensively damaged grain boundaries, perhaps produced 1981, Rutter et al. 1986). Most of the features of gouge
by fracture under sliding indenters (microfault-induced mi- zones can be understood in the context of a zone of simple
crocracks, Section 2.3.9), and wear products accumulated in shear with boundaries parallel to the shear plane (Fig. 2.17).
the sliding zone and in pores are characteristic microstruc- P-foliation is formed by grains (most commonly phyllosilic-
tures of cataclastic flow in quartzites. (Rutter and Hadizadeh ates) aligned at an oblique angle to the gouge zone boundary
1991). Compaction and filling of pores by crushed material (Fig. 2.17, Plate 6). It may be inosculating and rather variably
seems to be typical of cataclastic flow of siliclastic rocks in developed. It is one of the first microstructures to form in ex-
general (e.g. Menéndez et al. 1996). Axially orientated mi- perimental gouges. Shears parallel to the P-foliation with the
crocracks are dominant. same sense of shear as the gouge zone are known as P-shears.
Riedel shears (R) form at an oblique angle in the opposite
Microstructures produced during experimental cataclastic
direction to the P-foliation (Fig. 2.17, Plate 6). They are dis-
flow of feldspar aggregates consist of intragranular shear mi-
crete shears with the same sense of shear as the gouge zone
crocracks mainly along feldspar cleavages producing blocky
and have geometrical similarities to extensional crenulation
fragments between the cleavage microcracks at 90° to each
cleavages and (Section 7.5, cf. Platt and Vissiers,
other (Tullis and Yund 1987, 1992). The spacing of the
1980). Conjugate Riedel shears form at a large angle
microcracks is as low as Deformed grains have a
to the gouge zone boundary with the opposite sense of shear
puckered appearance consisting of areas of patchy extinction,
(Fig. 2.17). They are generally much less prominent in gouge
caused by slight mismatches between adjacent blocks, which
zones than Riedel shears.
resemble subgrains or even recrystallized grains formed at
T fractures or extension fractures are inclined to the gouge
higher temperatures by intracrystalline plasticity. However,
zone boundary in the opposite direction to the P-foliation
TEM observations established that no dislocation processes
(Fig. 2.17). They may be localized in more competent rocks
contributed to the block rotation. Microcrush zones <
in the gouge zone. Competent rock may form boudins,
wide have sharp boundaries and strong grain rota-
which are commonly asymmetric (Section 7.10) and sep-
tion. A crystallographic preferred orientation and a strong
arated along Riedel shears (Fig. 2.17, Plate 6). Ductile
grain shape fabric developed by slip on the closely-spaced
stringers (Fig. 2.17) consist of relatively large, rigid, asym-
grain-scale faults that are geometrically similar to crystal
metric clasts elongated in the direction of the P-foliation, with
plastic slip systems, and mechanical twins were formed.
stepped tails that may become detached from the main clast
Similar features have been observed in cataclastic flow of
(Logan et al. 1981). Asymmetric folds are also found in
anorthosite, and lamellar features interpreted as bundles of
gouge zones: they may fold earlier boudins. The vergence
cleavage microcracks were also observed (Hadizadeh and
of the folds may be the same as the shear sense of the gouge
Tullis 1992). Twinning is evidence for the operation of
zone (Fig. 2.17), although opposite vergence can occur (Sec-
semibrittle deformation mechanisms.
tion 7.11). The orientation of fold axes within gouge zones
It is likely that quartz does not undergo the same cataclastic may define a girdle distribution parallel to the shear plane.
flow regime observed in feldspars, but requires a thermally- Y-shears are discrete, relatively long shears that cut through
activated mechanism to stabilize flow (Hirth and Tullis 1991). the gouge zone with the same sense of shear as the gouge zone
The difference between feldspar and quartz behaviour is due (Fig. 2.17, Plate 7). There is usually only one Y-shear in the
to the excellent cleavages in feldspar. Pyroxenes and am- central part of the gouge zone. In experiments, Y-shears are
phiboles may behave in a similar fashion to feldspar (Tullis the last feature to form.
and Yund 1992). Cataclastic flow has also been reported from The orientation of all features except Y-shears shown in
experiments on basalts (Mogi 1965; Shimada 1986), dunite Figure 2.17 is variable since their initial orientation is likely to
and gabbro (Byerlee 1968). change with finite strain, because material lines rotate during
A maximum of 30% shortening has been achieved in ex- simple shear. Features rotate clockwise in a dextral gouge
perimental cataclastic flow, after which faulting generally oc- zone such as illustrated in Figure 2.17. Components of pure
curs, and therefore it is unclear whether cataclastic flow can shear may complicate this general rule. The foliation in a
be stable to higher strains. The problem is complicated be- foliated cataclasite may originate as a fabric along any of the
cause faulting is artificially initiated by the experimental con- above shears, or as a P-foliation in a gouge zone (Plate 8).
figuration. If porosity reduction is necessary for cataclastic
flow in porous rocks (e.g. Rutter and Hadizadeh 1991), this
must limit the amount of strain that can accumulate by cata- 2.8 Microfracture surface features
clastic flow. At the opposite extreme of scale, cataclastic flow
has been suggested for continents (Gallagher 1981), and at Microfracture surfaces may show a variety of microstructures
intermediate scales such as kilometric scale folds (Stearns that convey useful information about cataclastic deformation.
1968, Hadizadeh and Rutter 1983, Blenkinsop and Rutter Intact specimens of microfracture surfaces can be easily ob-
1986). In all these cases, the deformation is discontinuous served under a binocular microscope, and at greater magni-
at a smaller scale than the scale of observations. fication in the SEM. It is also useful to examine the cross-
20 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
sections by cutting thin sections perpendicular to the micro- category of slickenlines consists of equally developed ridges
fracture surface, preferably parallel and perpendicular to the and grooves with perfectly matching (or nested) profiles on
slip direction. both sides of a slickensided surface (Means 1987). The ridge
There is a rich field of microscopic studies on extension and groove structure can be formed by localized shear asso-
microfracture surfaces in the material science literature (e.g. ciated with a grain shape fabric, and the length of individual
Bansal 1977, Quakenbush and Frechette 1978, Michalske ridges and grooves may be greater than the displacement on
and Frechette 1980) which suggests that fracture surface fea- the shear zone (Wil and Wilson 1989). Ridge and groove
tures could be used to reveal rates of fracture propagation and structures can also be formed by inosculation of shear sur-
even fracture stresses (e.g. Scholz 1972, Martin and Durham faces (C-surfaces) in an S-C mylonite (Section 7.5, Lin and
1975, Swanson 1981, Norton and Atkinson 1981, Meredith Williams 1992). Another type of slickenside which may also
1983, Cox and Atkinson 1983). Surface microfracture fea- be formed by continuous deformation consists of very fine
tures such as mirror, mist, velocity hackle and forking, and grained quartz (0.01 to ) with a strong crystallographic
Wallner lines, which are known to be diagnostic of dynamic preferred orientation (Power and Tullis 1989). The preferred
microcrack propagation in glass, have not been found on frac- orientation may have resulted from orientated growth by dif-
ture surfaces in rocks. This has been taken to indicate that fusive mass transfer through a solution during the interseis-
the studied rock fractures were never dynamic (Kulander and mic, low strain rate part of the seismic cycle.
Dean 1995). This conclusion is supported by observations Microfracture surfaces may be offset along discontinuit-
such as irregular rib marks that imply stable propagation at ies approximately perpendicular to slickenlines, known as
low velocities, again by analogy with glass. risers or steps (Fig. 2.19). Risers are generally less dense
and coarser features than slickenlines, and are commonly
A shear microfracture with a smooth or shiny surface is
more irregular. They may be approximately linear or cres-
a slickenside, which is commonly marked by parallel lines
cent shaped. Risers are described as incongruous if the off-
known as slickenlines or slickenside striations. Many slick-
set opposes the direction of movement of the opposite block,
ensides are the surfaces of microfaults formed during tec-
and congruous if the opposite is true. Crystal fibres on fault
tonic deformation. The lines are parallel or tapering ridges or
surfaces are known as slickenfibres, and risers created by the
grooves parallel to the slip direction. There may be more than
crystal terminations are accretion steps (Norris and Barron
one set of slickenlines on a microfault surface in different dir-
1968). They are identified by the presence of fibres that are
ections. It is sometimes possible to distinguish overprinting
commonly monocrystalline. Risers may form either by ini-
relationships between different generations of slickenlines.
tial irregularities in the fault surface, or by the intersection of
Probably the most common mechanism of slickenline secondary fractures with the fault surface. Possible geomet-
formation is asperity ploughing (Section 2.2.2), which can ries of secondary fractures can be separated into P fractures,
be identified by the preservation of the asperity on one side R, T and fractures using the same terminology as intro-
of the microfracture and a matching groove on the opposite duced above for gouge zone features (Petit 1987). Slicken-
surface. The type of slickenline produced is called a wear fibres form by crystal growth in the dilatant gap adjacent to
groove (Fig. 2.18), tool track or mark, or prod mark (Tija congruous risers.
1967, Hancock 1985). Ridges of gouge may be formed by
wearing down asperities or by accumulating gouge around a
hard particle: this mechanism is debris streaking. Erosional
sheltering occurs where a solid ridge of microfracture sur-
face is preserved in the down-slip direction of a particle. A
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 21
22 CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS
2.9 Crystallographic fabrics Fine grained margins may occur at the contact with the wall
rock.
Experimental studies have shown that crystallographic fab- Pseudotachylite often occurs in planar veins a few mm to
rics can be produced by cataclasis (e.g. Borg and Maxwell 1 m thick from which veinlets may branch and penetrate the
1956, Borg et al. 1960). Crystallographic fabrics in feld- wall rock. Planar-convex lenses of pseudotachylite may oc-
spars have been produced by slip and rotation on multiple cur on either side of the vein. The pseudotachylite may occur
grain-scale faults (Tullis and Yund 1987, 1992). The faults in a volume between two parallel planar zones, and surround
are geometrically analogous to slip systems in intracrystal- large fragments of wall rock (e.g. Grocott 1981, Magloughlin
line plastic deformation (e.g. Allison and La Tour 1977, Sec- 1989). The wall rock fragments can form a jigsaw-textured
tion 4.9). Cataclastically-formed crystallographic fabrics can breccia with pseudotachylite matrix. Joints may form perpen-
be distinguished from intracrystalline plastic fabrics by the dicular to the vein walls. The pseudotachylite veins cross-cut
presence of multiple, grain-scale faults such as those illus- any earlier fabrics in the wall rock, and may contain frag-
trated by Tullis and Yund (1992). ments of previously-formed pseudotachylite, indicating cyc-
lical generation (e.g. Sibson 1980, Passchier et al. 1990). All
these features may occur on outcrop to thin section scale.
2.10 Pre-lithification deformation mi-
crostructures and mechanisms 2.11.2 Origin
The origin of pseudotachylite has usually been discussed in
The microstructures of pre-lithification deformation, and terms of the two mutually exclusive hypotheses of crushing
even the deformation itself, may be difficult to recognize. A (e.g. Wenk 1978) or frictional melting (e.g. Sibson 1977).
grain shape fabric can be produced by frictional grain sliding There is conclusive evidence that many pseudotachylites in-
and rotation, known as independent particulate flow (IPF) be- volved frictional melting during faulting. The intrusive tex-
cause the deformation is independent of fracture (Borradaile tures of pseudotachylite veins together with their flow band-
1981). This deformation mechanism is sometime regarded ing demonstrate that they formed in a fluid state. The spher-
as separate from cataclasis, because there is no fracturing; ulites and dendritic crystals and crystallites formed by cool-
here, however, cataclasis is used in a broader sense to en- ing from a melt or from devitrification of a glass formed
compass IPF. High pore fluid pressures may be essential in by quenching, by analogy with structures formed in rapidly
pre-lithification IPF (Knipe 1986, 1989, Maltman 1994). The cooled igneous rocks. The fine-grained margins of the veins
diagnostic feature of a grain shape fabric produced by IPF is can be interpreted as chilled margins, and the joints perpen-
the absence of microcracks and lack of internal deformation dicular to the veins walls can be interpreted as cooling frac-
of grains, but intracrystalline plasticity can also be involved tures (e.g. Camacho et al. 1995).
during pre-lithification deformation (e.g. kinking in biotite; Some pseudotachylites have the same bulk chemistry as
Morrit et al. 1982). The fabric of scaly clays (e.g. Agar et al. their hosts, and the pseudotachylite composition may change
1988) may also be characteristic of pre-lithification deforma- with that of the local wall rocks through which they pass (e.g.
tion. Maddock 1986, Maddock et al. 1987), demonstrating that the
melt was locally derived and not transported by an intrusive
dyke. In other pseudotachylites, there is a consistent differ-
2.11 Pseudotachylites and frictional ence in the bulk chemistry of the pseudotachylite and wall
melting rock which can be interpreted by fusion of the lowest melting
point fraction of the rock. Preferential melting of the hydrous
2.11.1 Characteristics mafic components of the host rock can generate a pseudot-
achylite matrix which is more mafic than the host rock, and
Pseudotachylite is a glassy or very fine-grained rock occur- explains why hydrous and mafic minerals are less common in
ring in veins and associated with deformation zones (Plates 9- the matrix than the host rock (e.g. Magloughlin 1989, Mad-
11). It generally consists of a dark matrix which encloses an- dock 1992, Camacho et al. 1995).
gular to rounded fragments of the wall rock (Plates 9, 11). The localization of pseudotachylite on and near planar sur-
The fragments are very poorly sorted and may have a high faces suggests that it is generated by sliding (hence these sur-
clast/matrix ratio. Clasts in the range to 10 mm in faces are called generation planes). The rounding of the frag-
some pseudotachylites have a fractal PSD, with a fractal di- ments may be due to thermal spalling. A link between slick-
mension of 2.5 (Shimamoto and Nagahama 1992). Quartz ensides, slickenlines and pseudotachylite has been suggested
and feldspar fragments may be more common in the pseudot- by Spray (1989) from observing mechanical excavation of
achylite than in the wall rock, while hydrous minerals such sandstone, which created thin layers of melt with shiny and
as biotite may be less common. Flow banding defined by striated surfaces.
colour variations may be seen in the matrix (Plates 10, 11), Pseudotachylite has also been successfully created in fric-
which may contain spherulites, dendritic crystals, crystal- tional sliding experiments (e.g. Spray 1987, 1995). Fila-
lites, and microphenocrysts, and may vary from opaque to ments of frozen melt drawn out across fractures “like warm
colourless and isotropic in thin section. Other microscopic mozarella” are a delicate feature of experimentally-produced
features include optically isotropic rims around clasts, em- pseudotachylite which has not so far been observed in tec-
bayments of clasts, sub-microscopic crystals, and amygdales. tonic pseudotachylite, but could be a useful diagnostic fea-
CHAPTER 2. CATACLASIS 23
ture. The experiments resolve the controversy about the ori- the Sudbury structure (Spray and Thompson 1994). Other
gin of pseudotachylites: both crushing and frictional melt- pseudotachylites have been described from the bases of large
ing are likely to be involved, depending on the strain rate landslides (e.g. Masch et al. 1985).
(Spray 1995). Crushing occurs in experiments at strain rates
of and melting at strain rates from to 2.11.3 Misidentification
The passage of seismic or shock waves, with a rapid in-
crease in strain rate, may involve three sequential processes: Veins of tourmaline, chlorite, ultracataclasite and fine-grained
initial fracture, comminution, and melting when heat can igneous dykes can easily be mistaken for pseudotachyl-
not be dissipated fast enough. Together with results from ite. Passchier and Trouw (1996) suggest some microstruc-
thermal modelling, experiments show that pseudotachylites tures that allow the distinction of pseudotachylite from other
should only form in dry rocks at relatively high temperatures, types of veins. The diagnostic microstructures that identify
because the presence of water decreases the effective stress pseudotachylite as a melt in distinction from hydrothermal
(Section 9.2.3) on the fault plane so that insufficient heat is veins are the quench and devitrification textures. The distinct-
generated to melt the rock (e.g. Spray 1987, 1988). On the ive chemistry, reflecting the wall rocks, is also diagnostic and
other hand, Magloughlin (1989) has argued that pseudota- distinguishes pseudotachylite from ultracataclasites. Distinc-
chylites were generated from a hydrous cataclasite with a low tion from igneous dykes relies on evidence for faulting associ-
melting temperature. The permeability of the wall rocks is ated with the generation of pseudotachylite, and the different
an important factor in determining whether excess fluid pres- chemistry of the dykes. Pseudotachylites should be distin-
sures can build up during faulting and suppress melting (Mase guishable from ultramylonites by their lack of evidence for
and Smith 1985). Experiments confirm the widely held view extensive intracrystalline plasticity.
that pseudotachylites can form during seismic slip at strain There are nevertheless many cases in which detailed evid-
rates greater than ence must be sought to prove the origin of a pseudotachyl-
Some pseudotachylites are associated with features such ite by frictional melting. It is a relatively uncommon rock
as craters, shatter cones and shock metamorphism which type in the field. The requirement of formation in hot anhyd-
show that they have been produced during meteorite impacts, rous conditions effectively limits the host rocks to igneous or
for example the Vredefort Dome in South Africa, from where metamorphic rocks.
Shand (1916) first coined the term pseudotachylite, and
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction The exact geometry of the diffusion path is still unclear.
Rutter (1976, 1983) has suggested that a water film on the
Microstructures that show evidence for material removal, order of nm thick must be present along grain boundaries to
transport and deposition without fracturing or lattice distor- allow DMT to occur. This concept is supported by observa-
tion form by diffusive mass transfer (DMT). It is often diffi- tions of arrays of fluid inclusions along grain boundaries in
cult to identify positively the nature of the diffusive flux, and naturally deformed halite, interpreted as evidence of a syn-
the evidence for the role of a solution may be indirect. Nev- tectonic continuous film of fluid along grain boundaries that
ertheless, it is a safe generalization that up to amphibolite fa- subsequently healed into discrete fluid inclusions (Urai et al.
cies, by far the majority of DMT occurs via solution because 1986), and by observations of grain boundary pores which
solid-state diffusion occurs very slowly at these temperatures probably formed in equilibrium with a fluid in quartz (Hip-
(e.g. Rutter 1983). pert 1994). Alternatively, islands of solid material may sup-
port normal stresses and allow diffusion to occur in a solution
within intervening channels (Raj and Chyung 1981, Raj 1982,
3.2 Fundamental deformation mech- Spiers and Schutjens 1990). It may be necessary for different
anisms of diffusive mass transfer phases to be adjacent to each other for a continuous fluid film
to be present (Hickman and Evans 1991).
by solution The undercutting mechanism proposed for pressure solu-
Diffusion of material occurs in response to gradients in chem- tion is completely different and does not require diffusion
ical potential, as summarized by Fick’s law which states that in a solute film between surfaces under high normal stress
the flux of the material (J) is proportional to the chemical gradients (e.g. Bathurst 1958, Tada and Siever 1986). In this
potential gradient mechanism, grain contact deformation occurs by intracrystal-
line plasticity or cataclasis, while dissolution of free surfaces
around the contacts maintains small contact areas and there-
fore the high stresses necessary for the solid-state grain de-
B is the particle velocity per unit potential gradient and c is formation. The relative importance of solute film diffusion
the concentration. The chemical potential of a component versus undercutting depends on temperature, grain size and
is given by: free grain surface area. Calculations by Tada et al. (1987)
suggest that undercutting will provide faster strain rates un-
der most circumstances, but that solute film diffusion will be-
where U is the molar internal energy, T the temperature, S come important for very small free grain surface areas, as in
the molar entropy, is the normal stress, is the pore the final stages of compaction, and in dense aggregates.
fluid pressure, and is the molar volume (e.g. Green 1980). The distribution of fluid in a rock, and therefore the effect-
Therefore variations in normal stress and pore fluid pressure iveness of pressure solution, is dependent on surface energy
can establish chemical potential gradients necessary for DMT (measured by the dihedral angle, ) and deformation. Fluids
to occur; internal strain energy may also play a role (Wintsch with greater than 60° will occur as isolated pores at equi-
and Dunning 1985, Bell and Cluff 1989). The diffusion will librium, as interconnected channels at triple grain junctions
be from sites of high to low normal stress; a gradient in for and along all grain surfaces for
normal stress is essential to cause material flux (Raj 1982). (e.g. Watson and Brennan 1987). The first two cases clearly
Hence deformation accommodated by DMT through an in- constrain the potential for pressure solution because the dif-
tergranular solute is often called pressure solution, despite fusion pathways are limited, and probably apply to fluids in
the fact that solubility itself is not significant to the thermo- most static geological situations. However, experiments and
dynamics of DMT. However, recent experiments that demon- theory show that fluids can wet grain boundaries completely
strate a crystallographic dependence of solubility may pose under deformation, leading to enhancement of diffusion creep
some problems for current pressure solution models based by orders of magnitude (e.g. Urai 1983, Copper et al. 1989,
on this thermodynamic approach (Becker 1995, Den Brock Heidug 1991, Tullis et al. 1996). Moreover, dihedral angles
1996). may be a function of pressure and temperature, as established
24
CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION 25
3.6 Microstylolites
3.6.2 Formation and propagation
3.6.1 Characteristics The geometrical similarities between stylolites and micro-
Microstylolites are microscale discontinuities with offset or stylolites suggests that they have the same genesis. The dis-
wave-like shapes that may truncate grains or other mark- cussion in this section refers to sylolites, because most previ-
ers such as bedding planes or fossils (Fig. 3.5, Plate 14). ous work has focussed on the mesoscale features.
Microstylolites are readily observed under the microscope, Truncation of markers is direct evidence that material has
and have most features in common with mesoscale stylolites. been removed along a stylolitic surface. The minimum thick-
Individual protrusions on a microstylolite are called teeth ness of material removed along a stylolite is approximately
or columns, which may have flat crowns at the top and twice the amplitude, or the height of the teeth (Tada and
steep walls along their sides (Fig. 3.5). The offset or wave- Siever 1989). The walls of the teeth are parallel to the direc-
like geometry is observed in all sections, showing that the tion of movement between the opposite sides of the stylolite.
three dimensional shape is a forest of columns and match- Railsback and Andrews (1995) have shown that the orienta-
ing pits approximately perpendicular to the plane of the mi- tion of teeth is more constant than the orientation of the plane
28 CHAPTER. 3 DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION
of the stylolite, and is useful for kinematic analysis because ficient to cause a stylolite to develop and propagate under its
it shows the direction of maximum finite shortening. The ob- own stresses. Anticrack tip stresses may be dissipated in a
liquity of the teeth of slickolites shows that there has been zone at the stylolite tip which can be referred to as a process
a component of shortening parallel to the slickolite surface zone, analogous to the non-linear zone ahead of a microcrack
(Fig. 3.6c). tip (Section 2.2.1.1). Carrio-Schaffhauser et al. (1992) found
The coatings or fillings on stylolite surfaces are usually in- evidence for a process zone in the form of enhanced poros-
terpreted as insoluble residues that did not diffuse and were ity at stylolite tips in limestones, and suggested that material
concentrated at the sites of solution. The relative insolubil- removed from the process zone was deposited in a zone of
ity of these coatings is good evidence that diffusion was via reduced porosity adjacent to the stylolite.
solution. This is further supported by a correlation between Stylolites may form on previous fracture surfaces (e.g.
the thickness of the coating and the concentration of this ma- Petit and Matthauer 1995, Railsback and Andrews 1995).
terial in the adjacent layers of rock (e.g. Borradaile et al. Stylolites and pressure solution features may be localized
1982), and by the influence of heterogeneities on the stylolite along authigenic clay layers and around pre-existing phyllo-
trace, which show that solution was concentrated in areas silicates. The proposal that contacts between different phases
of higher inferred normal stress, and was impeded by insol- are necessary for continuous fluid films (Hickman and Evans
uble material. The concentration of insoluble material on a 1991) suggests a good reason for enhanced DMT around
stylolite surface compared to its concentration in the host rock phyllosilicates, and may also apply to the formation of strain
can be used to give an estimate of the amount of shortening caps.
(Railsback and Andrews 1995). However, in some cases the
stylolite filling material is not found in the host rock, and is
therefore the product of metamorphic reactions (Beach 1979). 3.7 Diffusive mass transfer and cleav-
Reaction products can also mark grain boundaries to indicate
where fluid transport has occurred (McCaig 1987).
age
A stylolite can be regarded as an anticrack, or an ellips-
3.7.1 Classification
oidal volume removed from the rock (Fletcher and Pollard
1981). If the resulting hole is closed up by elastic deform- Diffusive mass transfer via solution is an important and even
ation, stresses are induced around the anticrack tip, which dominant deformation mechanism in cleavage formation.
cause the stylolite to propagate in its own plane. Therefore Unfortunately there has been a strong tendency to invoke
a stress concentration under the appropriate conditions is suf- genetic nomenclature for cleavage formation (e.g. solution
CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION 29
Crenulation cleavage
This is a spaced cleavage in which microlithons contain an
earlier fabric that is systematically related to the fabric of
the cleavage domains. The cleavage domains are usually
axial planar to folds (crenulations) in the earlier fabric (Plates
cleavage), which hinders discussion about deformation mech- 16, 17). The crenulations may be symmetric or asymmet-
anisms, but Powell (1979) and Borradaile et al. (1982) give an ric, and rounded or angular, and the transition from cleav-
excellent alternative, non-genetic classification, which is fol- age to microlithon may be sharp or gradational. The crenu-
lowed here. The main subdivision is made between spaced lation wavelength may be determined by the thickness of fol-
cleavage, consisting of cleavage surfaces that are separated ded layers as predicted by buckling theory (cf. Price and
by tabular bodies of rock called microlithons, and continu- Cosgrove 1990), or the grain size may dictate a minimum
ous cleavage, in which cleavage is penetrative throughout the wavelength. The cleavage domains are commonly localized
whole body of the rock. Since most cleavages are concen- along the limbs of the folds, especially those associated with
trated into domains at some scale, this distinction is evidently asymmetrical folds, in which the cleavage domains are usu-
scale-dependent. Powell (1979) suggests that any cleavage ally along only one of the two unequal limbs. Most crenu-
with domains spaced less than 0.01 mm (i.e. at the limit of lation cleavages are zonal because the cleavage domains are
optical microscopic resolution) should be called continuous compositionally quite distinct from the microlithons. Phyl-
at a microscopic scale. losilicates and opaques are concentrated in cleavage domains
and quartz, calcite and feldspar are concentrated in hinges.
While the essential role of buckling in crenulation cleav-
3.7.2 Spaced cleavages age formation is evident, the importance of DMT is clear
Disjunctive cleavage from the compositional zoning. Cleavage domains in typ-
ical crenulation cleavages are depleted in Si, Ca, Na,
Disjunctive cleavage is a spaced cleavage in which the cleav- P, Mg, Fe, and F, and enriched in Al, K, Rb, Y, Ce, Sc, and
age domains cut across the previous fabric of the rock Ba, and there is a net volume loss from the cleavage domains
(Fig. 3.7). The cleavage surfaces may be smooth, rough (dis- that is approximately balanced by volume gain in the micro-
continuous) or wave-like, and in relation to each other they lithons (Manktelow 1994). The zoning can be explained in a
may be sub- parallel, anastomosing, or trapezoidal/conjugate. simplistic way by the normal-stress dependence of diffusion:
Their spacing may be controlled by the rock type. The width crenulation hinges, where the primary foliation lies at a high
of the cleavage domains may be a substantial proportion of angle to the maximum principal stress, may be sites of low
30 CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION
normal stress. It is also possible that anisotropy in diffusion which must have occurred by DMT via solution at these meta-
pathways may play an important role in the differentiation morphic grades. However, bulk volume loss is not permit-
during crenulation (Marlow and Etheridge 1977). ted by several geochemical studies on the same rocks, as dis-
Other lines of evidence that can be used to show the import- cussed below (e.g. Erslev and Ward 1994).
ance of DMT are the narrow widths of quartz and feldspar Slaty cleavage domains are dominated by phyllosilicates,
grains in cleavage domains relative to microlithons, trunca- resulting in increased K, Al, Ti, Ba, and U, Na, Ca, Mn, Mg,
tion of grains, the association of crenulation cleavage with Fe, and Si are often depleted due to the loss of albite, carbon-
overgrowths and mica beards, and the lack of other deforma- ate, quartz and feldspar (Borradaile et al. 1982). The depleted
tion mechanisms (Gray 1977, Borradaile et al. 1992). elements may be redistributed by DMT into microlithons,
suggesting that there is little bulk volume change in the rock
(e.g. Groshong 1976). Large-scale volume fluxes are also un-
3.7.3 Continuous cleavage likely at low grades because average shale and slate compos-
itions are very similar (Erslev and Ward 1994). The reasons
The most characteristic continuous cleavage is slaty cleav- for the contradiction between this conclusion and the large
age, defined as a preferred orientation of phyllosilicates too volume losses suggested by the structural studies is presently
fine to be seen with the unaided eye (Fig. 3.9). Slaty cleavage unclear. Whether or not large scale volume changes accom-
commonly has cleavage domains with spacings of 0.1 mm pany cleavage formation, the pronounced local compositional
or less, which are easily visible under the optical microscope differentiation is clear evidence that DMT processes are es-
or the SEM. Mechanical rotation of grains (cataclasis), kink- sential to slaty cleavage development.
ing (intracrystalline plasticity) as well as DMT are involved
in the formation of slaty cleavage (e.g. Wood 1974). Elec-
tron microscope studies show that phyllosilicates and quartz 3.8 Grain surface deposition textures
are mobilized by DMT in the development of cleavage do-
mains (Knipe and White 1977,1979, White and Knipe 1978, Crystal growth from solution occurs by two different mech-
Knipe 1979). Structural studies using a variety of strain mark- anisms with different microstructures (Bennema and van der
ers including reduction spots, trace fossils and grain bound- Eerden 1987). Atomically flat crystal faces first nucleate
aries suggest that slaty cleavage formation is accompanied steps to which atoms can attach, and growth then occurs by
by volume loss (e.g. Ramsay and Wood 1973: 20%, Wright accretion along the steps in crystallographically controlled
and Platt 1982: 50%, Wright and Henderson 1992: 40-60%), planes. Dislocations (Section 4.2) may provide important
CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION 31
32 CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION
nucleation sites for both growth and solution on crystal sur- Porosity reduction may occur by mechanical compaction,
faces (e.g. Casey 1995). Above a critical temperature known solution and precipitation: the latter two are DMT processes,
as the roughening transition, growth rates are isotropic, and and they can be recognized by the loss of material at strain
sub-spherical crystals may be produced. Deposition by the markers and the precipitation of cements in pores in the form
first mechanism can be recognized from the euhedral nature of overgrowths (e.g. Carrio-Schaffhauser and Gaviglio 1990).
of grain surfaces seen under the microscope; the second may Crystal growth in pore spaces typically results in a convoluted
be responsible for botryoidal textures. pore-grain interface which is a fractal curve. Models suggest
that the fractal dimension of the curve increases with the ra-
tio between precipitation and dissolution rates, and also in-
3.9 Overgrowths, porosity reduction, creases from about 2.5 to about 2.75 in natural sandstones as
porosity reduces during diagenesis (Aharonov et al. 1997).
pressure shadows and fringes, and Pressure shadows and fringes are domains of secondary
mica beards mineral growth adjacent to grains (Plate 19). Pressure shad-
ows lack distinctive internal crystal forms, while pressure
3.9.1 Characteristics fringes have fibrous mineral fillings. Mica beards are a dis-
tinctive type of pressure fringe, consisting of fibrous mica de-
Overgrowths are mineral deposits surrounding a grain in a fining a good shape fabric. Passchier and Trouw (1996) prefer
rim. The rim and grain are usually the same mineral. The rim to use strain instead of “pressure” on the basis that it is non-
is commonly in crystallographic continuity with the grain, genetic; however, they point out that the term strain shadow is
and may therefore be difficult to detect. The overgrowth also potentially misleading as it incorrectly implies that strain
may, however, be separated from the original grain by a zone is low in the shadow zone. Analysis of steady-state pure shear
of inclusions (Fig. 3.10), and CL can distinguish subtle fea- around a rigid sphere shows that there are two volumes of low
tures of overgrowths (Plate 18). A distinctive microstructure pressure at the ends of the object perpendicular to the max-
formed by overgrowths in well cemented rocks are relatively imum applied stress, but that differential stress and strain are
straight grain boundaries and 120° triple junctions between high in these areas (Masuda and Mizuno 1995). With this in-
three grains (Fig. 3.11a). This texture arises from mutual im- sight, and since pressure shadow is so firmly entrenched in
pingement of overgrowths growing at equal rates from adja- the literature, it is probably the better choice of terminology,
cent grains. It can easily be confused with granoblastic poly- despite its genetic connotations.
gonal textures (Section 5.4) unless the overgrowth can be dis- The mineralogy in a pressure shadow or fringe may be the
tinguished from the grain. same as the grain, the same as the matrix, or different from
CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION 33
3.12 Microveins
Microveins are microscopic tabular zones of secondary min- orientation and grain size is characteristic of such “free-face”
eral growth. The rich variety of microvein textures observable growth.
under the microscope can allow very detailed interpretations In addition to the major filling phases, many microveins
of their formation. CL is valuable for analysis of microveins, also contain inclusions of the same mineralogy as the wall
because variations in fluid chemistry and temperature during rock. Lines of inclusions parallel to the microvein margins
microvein filling can be reflected in the luminescence, delin- are known as inclusion bands, while those at higher angles to
eating delicate growth features (e.g. Dietrich and Grant 1986, the margins are inclusion trails (Figs. 3.15, 3.16).
Urai et al. 1991). Inclusion bands and trails may form by two mechanisms:
One of the most important features of a microvein is the overgrowth of wallrock fragments, and fracturing of the wall
orientation of the opening vector, the vector which connects rock followed by incorporation of fragments into the filling.
points that were originally joined before microvein opening. The latter mechanism may occur where irregularities on mi-
The opening vector may be perpendicular to the wall (an crovein walls obstruct opening, and must be broken off for
extension microvein) or have components of displacement opening to occur (e.g. Urai et al. 1991). The presence of
both perpendicular and parallel to the walls (a shear micro- numerous inclusion bands is evidence for a cyclic process of
vein). The opening vector can be determined from displaced microcrack opening followed by filling, a process known as
markers, or from some features of microvein fillings, as de- crack-seal (Ramsay 1980). Each inclusion band represents
scribed below. The opening vector can be considered for the one cycle. The width between inclusion bands is
net opening history of the microvein (the cumulative open- for many rock types, and there may be up to thousands of
ing vector) or for individual increments of opening (the in- bands in a microvein (Ramsay and Huber 1987). Inclusion
cremental opening vector). trails are markers of the position of particular points on the
Common microvein fillings are carbonates, quartz, chlor- microvein margin at successive opening positions: they are
ite and epidote. The texture of the filling may be massive, therefore parallel to the opening vector (Fig. 3.15b).
equant (blocky; Plate 20), fibrous, laminated, euhedral (idio- Paradoxically, microstylolites sub-parallel to microvein
morphic), or botryoidal. Filling textures are a function of nuc- margins have also been described, particularly along inclu-
leation and growth kinetics, the rate of microvein opening, the sion bands (e.g. Cox 1987). The shortening demonstrated
geometry of the opening vector and the geometry of the walls. by such microstylolites could be part of the crack-seal cycle
Euhedral crystal terminations and botryoidal textures are dia- if fluid pressures decreased to less than lithostatic in part of
gnostic of growth into open space, and are useful in ore par- the cycle, causing the microvein to close and experience com-
agenetic studies for discriminating epithermal environments. pressional stress. These microstylolites may also be due to a
Euhedral crystal faces can be recognized by growth zoning in later deformation, unrelated to the microvein formation.
the crystal, which may be defined by fluid or solid inclusions. Laminated microveins have planar bands, often composed
Wilson (1984) suggests that considerable variation in crystal of phyllosilicates, sub- parallel to the margins. The bands
36 CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION
CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION 37
may form as inclusion trails where the opening vector has a metric antitaxial growth may result in a median line of inclu-
large component parallel to the margin (Cox 1987). In this sions along the centre of the microvein, unlike asymmetric
situation there is no distinction between inclusion trails and growth. Fibre widths can also be used to distinguish sym-
bands. metric growth (fibre widths increase symmetrically in two
opposite directions towards the wall rock) from asymmetric
Fibrous microveins are particularly rewarding for kin-
ematic interpretation. Fibrous fillings are common and form growth, in which the widths increase unidirectionally across
the microvein. Composite growth means both syntaxial and
by progressive microvein opening at a rate that can be
antitaxial protions in the same microvein (Fig. 3.17d). Non-
matched by crystallization of the filling. Fibres can grow
systematic growth (“ataxial” - Passchier and Trouw 1996)
by at least five different filling sequences: these need to be
histories may involve fracture at any point in the crystal
carefully established before kinematic interpretations can be
fibres, which are termed stretched crystal fibres by Durney
made. Syntaxial growth means growth from the wall rock
and Ramsay (1973). They exhibit none of the systematic fea-
towards the microvein centre on both sides of the fracture
tures described for the other four categories of growth above
(Fig. 3.17a, Plate 21). The diagnostic features of syntaxial
(Fig. 3.17e), and the sides of the fibres have distinctive in-
growth are two separate bands of fibres on either side of a
terlocking teeth, dividing then fibres into tablets (Plate 22).
central suture. The fibres are not continuous across the suture.
The lack of directional growth indicators (e.g. fibre widening
The microvein fill is similar to the wall rock and may be in
direction) in these microveins is diagnostic.
crystallographic continuity with it. Fibre widths generally in-
crease in the direction of growth due to competition between In many fibrous microveins, the fibres grow parallel to the
fibres, which ensures that the faster growing and therefore incremental opening vector: Such tracking or displacement-
larger fibres overgrow and eventually isolate the slower and controlled fibres can be used to deduce incremental strain
smaller fibres from the precipitating solution (e.g. Smith histories with great effect. They can be recognized because
1964). Therefore in syntaxial growth, fibre widths may in- fibres connect markers across the microvein, because they
crease towards the suture. By contrast, antitaxial growth oc- are parallel to inclusion trails (Urai et al. 1991), or because
curs from the microvein towards the wallrock, and may occur they have a constant orientation between microvein walls of
symmetrically on both sides of the microvein (Fig. 3.17b) or variable shape (Plate 23). The strain history deduced from
asymmetrically on only one side (Fig. 3.17c, 3.18). The dia- the fibres can be plotted on a diagram showing rotation of
gnostic feature of antitaxial growth is fibre continuity across the incremental strain on the horizontal axis against strain on
the microvein. Antitaxial growth is characterized by fillings the vertical axis (a cumulative incremental strain history or
of different material from the wall rock, and no crystallo- cish diagram, e.g. Fisher and Anastasio 1994, Hedlund et al.
graphic relationship between the filling and wall rock. Sym- 1994).
38 CHAPTER 3. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER BY SOLUTION
Intracrystalline Plasticity
4.1 Introduction Dislocations move along planes in the crystal called slip
planes, in a direction within the plane known as the slip dir-
Permanent distortion of a crystal lattice without fracture oc- ection; this process is called dislocation glide. The combin-
curs by intracrystalline plasticity. The definitive feature of ation of the slip plane and slip direction is known as the slip
all intracrystalline plastic deformation mechanisms is the in- system, which is specified by the crystallographic orientations
volvement of dislocation motion (Section 4.2), but solid state of the slip planes and directions. For example, slip along the
diffusion (Chapter 5) is an integral part of some mechanisms prism planes of quartz in the < a > direction is annotated by
considered in this chapter. Intracrystalline plasticity has a Breaking bonds during glide requires en-
long history of research and a vast literature, particularly in ergy, which can be provided by heat, so the stress necessary to
the materials science field, which is necessarily rather con- cause glide decreases with increasing temperature. Slip sys-
densed in this chapter. Useful references that provide more tems in some directions are more active than in others because
explanation and detail are Hull (1975) and Nicolas and Poir- of anisotropy in crystal properties. The relative ease of glide
ier (1976). between different slip systems changes with temperature.
Glide is impeded by impurities in the crystal lattice, and
by the stress fields associated with other dislocations. These
4.2 Fundamental mechanisms of in- obstacles may be overcome by dislocations changing their
slip plane. Screw dislocations can accomplish this by a pro-
tracrystalline plasticity cess called cross-slip (Fig. 4.4). Edge dislocations can change
their slip plane if a lattice vacancy replaces the last atom in the
A dislocation is one type of imperfection or defect in a crystal half-plane of the dislocation (Fig. 4.4). This process of dis-
lattice. A useful way to understand dislocations is to imagine location climb therefore involves diffusion, although it is an
cutting into the lattice, stretching the lattice apart along the intracrystalline plastic deformation mechanism because dis-
cut, and inserting an extra plane of atoms into the cut. The location motion occurs. Deformation by a combination of
dislocation is the line along the edge of the extra plane of dislocation glide and climb is called dislocation creep, and
atoms (Fig. 4.1). The stretching of the lattice to accommod- occurs at higher temperatures, and lower strain rates than dis-
ate the extra atoms causes a distortion, the orientation and location glide (Nicolas and Poirier 1976).
size of which is measured by the Burgers vector which
can be perpendicular to the dislocation line (an edge disloca-
tion), parallel to the line (a screw dislocation) or oblique (a 4.3 Deformation twins
mixed dislocation) (Fig. 4.1). If has a magnitude of one
lattice unit, the dislocation is described as perfect, but par- A twin is a region of a crystal that is rotated or reflected with
tial dislocations have with magnitudes of fractions of lat- respect to the rest of the crystal (the host). Twins may form
tice units. The lattice distortion causes a stress field around during crystal growth or deformation: the latter are known as
the dislocation, and is one way of storing strain energy in the deformation or mechanical twins. Growth twins are generally
crystal. A direct image of dislocations can be obtained in the straight and of constant thickness, but deformation twins have
transmission electron microscope (TEM) where they usually variable thickness (thinning and branching towards the edge
appear as dark lines (Fig. 4.2). They can also be revealed of a crystal), and are commonly bent (Plate 24, Fig. 4.8). De-
by the technique of etching, in which a flat crystal surface formation twins are common in carbonates (where their mor-
is exposed to acid, creating a small depression (etch pit) at phology is temperature-dependent; Section 9.9.2), and feld-
the intersection of a dislocation with the surface of the crys- spars.
tal. The etching occurs due to dissolution which is enhanced Deformation twins form by shear of the crystal lattice with
by the lattice distortion and strain energy of the dislocation. respect to the host lattice along the twin plane, together with
The density of dislocations can be used to measure past stress minor rearrangements of the twinned lattice points. The
fields (Section 9.8.4). Movement of a dislocation is accom- twin plane is a mirror plane comprising an array of par-
plished by breaking bonds in the intact lattice ahead of the tial or twinning dislocations. The strain due to twinning
dislocation and re-forming the bonds behind the dislocation, can be measured, and deformation twins can also be used
causing it to advance through the lattice (Fig. 4.3). to measure stress and temperature during their formation
39
40 CHAPTER 4. INTRACRYSTALLINE PLASTICITY
CHAPTER 4. INTRACRYSTALLINE PLASTICITY 41
new grains along grain boundaries, together with the serrated namic recrystallization in quartz is given in Table 4.1, and is
and lobate shapes of grain boundaries (Fig. 4.18, Plate 25). commonly applied to naturally deformed rocks.
The characteristic shape of these grain boundaries, also called
sutured grain boundaries, is caused by the fact that the
boundaries migrate away from their centre of curvature (e.g. 4.9 Crystallographic fabrics
Hirth and Tullis 1992). A bimodal distribution of grain sizes
may develop between the old and new grains (e.g. Lloyd A crystallographic fabric, or lattice or crystal preferred ori-
and Freeman 1994). New grains often develop where there entation (L or CPO) is a concentration of lattice orientations
is large lattice distortion and changes in lattice orientation, in one or a limited number of directions. Crystallographic
such as deformation bands and kink planes (Fig. 4.5). This fabrics can be recognized quickly under a optical microscope
occurs because grain boundaries migrate more rapidly at a by observing that many grains have the same extinction pos-
misorientation of about 5°. Drury et al. (1985) emphasize ition or interference colour. A useful way to detect the pres-
the importance of these special sites by proposing a third cat- ence of a crystallographic fabric in more detail is to insert
egory of dynamic recrystallization: sub-boundary migration, the sensitive tint plate or a quarter-wavelength plate, which
which is defined as subgrain growth in areas with large gradi- distinguish the different optical axes and therefore provides a
ents of strain and orientation. New grains also form in high more precise picture of the lattice orientations than extinction
stress sites around porphyroclasts. The size of recrystallized position or interference colour. This is particularly useful for
grains can be used as a paleopiezometer (Section 9.8.2). quartz because of its low order interference colours. Detailed
Dynamic recrystallization in naturally-deformed quartz oc- measurements of crystallographic orientation are made with
curs by either a mixture of 50% SGR and GBM (Fig. 4.19), the universal stage under the optical microscope, by electron
or by SGR alone (Drury et al. 1985). Both mechanisms may diffraction, channelling, and backscattering techniques under
be observed because they occur sequentially and cyclically the electron microscope, and by X-ray and neutron diffrac-
(Lloyd and Freeman 199la, b, 1994). Three regimes of dy- tion. Crystallographic fabrics can be produced in rocks by
namic recrystallization in quartz, depending on deformation at least four distinct mechanisms (e.g. Hobbs et al. 1976,
conditions, have been indentified from experiments (Hirth Mainprice and Nicolas 1989). The first two mechanisms, an-
and Tullis 1992). The Hirth and Tullis classification of dy- isotropic crystal growth (Chapter 5.3) and rigid-body rotation
CHAPTER 4. INTRACRYSTALLINE PLASTICITY 51
of grains in a flowing matrix, can be recognised because in- be understood through relatively complex models that allow
dividual grains are not deformed. A simple way in which for multiple slip systems and make additional assumptions,
intracrystalline plasticity can produce a crystallographic fab- such as strain compatibility between grains, uniform stress,
ric is shown in Fig. 4.20, in which a grain is deformed by the or viscoplastic self consistent theory, which minimizes stress
operation of a single slip system. As the grain rotates, the and strain differences from an average value (e.g. Wenk and
slip plane becomes orientated normal to the finite shortening Christie 1991). The work of Jessell (1988a, b, Jessell and
direction and the slip direction rotates towards a bulk shear Lister 1990) for quartz incorporates effects of both the intra-
plane (cf. Allison and LaTour 1977). Although this is a sim- crystalline plastic mechanisms referred to above, lattice rota-
plified case, it illustrates that lattice reorientation can occur tion and recrystallization. These models show that the dom-
by dislocation glide. Fourthly, crystallographic fabrics may inant slip plane does not necessarily align with the bulk shear
be created by recrystallization. The exact mechanism is un- plane, and the dominant slip direction is not necessarily paral-
clear, but experiments demonstrate that the mechanism of dy- lel to the shear direction, in contrast to the single slip system
namic recrystallization determines the type of LPO (Gleason model above. The simulations also show that the LPO is af-
et al. 1993). fected by the type of flow during deformation, the finite strain
A great deal of work has gone into theoretical attempts to magnitude and type, and the temperature, which determines
predict crystallographic fabrics, and to compare them with what slip systems are active. Crystallographic fabrics carry
experimental results and natural LPOs (see reviews by Law large amounts of structural information, and have been used
1990, Wenk and Christie 1991). The general development to analyze shear sense (Section 7.9), finite strain, and grade
of a crystallographic fabric by intracrystalline plasticity can of deformation.
Chapter 5
5.2 Fundamental deformation mech- 5.3 Grain shape fabrics and ribbon
anisms of solid state diffusive mass grains
transfer and phase transforma-
A grain shape fabric of unstrained grains is an important mi-
tions crostructure in metamorphic rocks at higher grades (Plate 26).
The grain shape fabric can be produced by anisotropic grain
DMT in the solid state may occur though the crystal lat-
boundary migration recrystallization, although the details of
tice by the movement of lattice defects. This is known as
the mechanism are not clear (e.g. Jessell 1987), and by aniso-
volume diffusion, and the resulting deformation is Nabarro-
tropic crystal growth (e.g. Shelley 1989a, b). Both of these
Herring creep (e.g. Nicolas and Poirier 1976). Coble creep
processes are important DMT mechanisms.
is a different type of deformation resulting from solid state
Quart-mica rocks at higher metamorphic grades commonly
DMT through grain boundaries, which have different diffu-
have a distinctive microstructure of flat grain boundaries
sion characteristics from the grain interiors (e.g. White and
between quartz and mica parallel to the mica basal plane,
White 1981). Deformation by either or both types of creep
and quartz-quartz grain boundaries approximately perpendic-
is known by the general term diffusion creep. Diffusion oc-
ular to the mica flakes (Plate 27). A related effect is pin-
curs in response to gradients in chemical potential (Fick’s
ning of quartz-quartz grain boundaries at the end of mica
law) which may be created by variations in normal stress,
flakes. These microstructures attest to impeded grain bound-
internal strain energy, and grain boundary configuration (cf.
ary movement, and can be attributed to a greater surface en-
Section 3.2).
ergy between quartz and mica than between quartz and quartz
Solid state transformations can be subdivided into four
grains. Where one phase has a strong preferred orientation,
types (Green 1985, Kirby and Stern 1993), which may be im-
the impeding effect on grain boundary growth may create a
portant in deformation because they are sensitive to deviatoric
grain shape fabric in the other phase, which grows parallel to
stress. The transformed polymorph is related to the original
the shape fabric (Plates 26, 27).
by crystallographic rules in the first three types, which are
Monocrystalline quartz ribbon grains (Fig. 5.1) in high
known as coherent transformations.
grade gneisses may form by the above mechanism, and
1. Displacive transformations are changes in crystal struc- are characteristically free of internal structures (by contrast
52
CHAPTER 5. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER AND PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE SOLID STATE 53
54 CHAPTER 5. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER AND PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE SOLID STATE
to lower grade ribbons; Section 4.7, Fig. 4.13). Gower than pinning the crystal boundaries as described in Sec-
and Simpson (1992) proposed that the geometry of quartz- tion 5.3, which are then free to grow at a faster rate. This
feldspar grain boundaries in ribbon grains is largely con- has been distinguished as a separate type of grain boundary
trolled by a combination of dislocation creep and diffusion migration mechanism called fast or free grain boundary mi-
that results in a microstructure of straight quartz-feldspar gration by Urai et al. (1986).
boundaries perpendicular to the shortening, and cusps point-
ing in the extension direction. However, recently MacKinnon
et al. (1997) have proposed that the textures of some ribbon 5.5 Decussate texture
grains may form by filling of microfractures, based partly on
the evidence that grains adjacent to the ribbons appear to be Decussate texture consists of randomly orientated, interlock-
truncated by the ribbon boundaries, and that the ribbons con- ing elongate crystals (Plate 28). It is especially common in
tain wall rock particles that have very similar geometries to amphiboles and micas, and arises because of unequal growth
inclusion bands (Section 3.12). Some of these features are rates in different crystallographic directions. The growth
illustrated in Fig. 5.1. Both models account for many of the anisotropy modifies the ideal foam texture to favour grain
observed features of high-temperature ribbon grains. A pos- boundaries parallel to the faster growth directions, and may
sible approach to distinguishing the two mechansims may lie lead to randomly orientated acicular crystals for particularly
in careful examination of the ribbon tips, which could yield high anisotropies.
evidence for incipient microcracking or diffusion processes.
during a later deformation, or a later stage of a progressive de- ural examples are so far virtually undescribed. The
formation (Passchier et al. 1992). Bell et al. (1992) have ar- quartz phase transition can be viewed as Dauphiné twinning
gued that truncation surfaces form in the strain shadow at the on the scale of the unit cell, so that relict Dauphiné twins as
end of a porphyroblast during progressive deformation. The well as microfractures (Section 2.3.11) could constitute mi-
same interpretations may apply to deflection surfaces. Prob- crostructural evidence of this deformation mechanism (Kirby
lems of interpreting curved inclusion trails are discussed in and Stern 1993).
Section 7.8. Martensitic-like transformations can occur during cool-
ing under hydrostatic stress, but in the case of the
transformation, deformation-induced trans-
5.7 Reaction rims, relict minerals, formation can be distinguished by lack of twinning in the
coronas and symplectites clinoenstatite (e.g. Kirby and Stern 1993). The best known
microstructures of Martensitic-like transformation are those
Reaction rims are rims of altered mineralogy around grains. of the olivine-spinel system. “Fingers” or lobes of spinel
This common metamorphic texture testifies to DMT since grow into olivine parallel to in experiments on
metamorphic mineral growth requires mobility of compon- (Vaughan et al. 1984), and a similar phase transformation mi-
ents. Relic minerals are mineral grains that have been mostly crostructure of aragonite crystals has been observed growing
replaced by reaction rims. Reaction rims that completely sur- into calcite parallel to (Hacker and Kirby 1993). These
round a grain are coronas (Plate 34), which are more common microstructures are consistent with the theoretical analysis
in high grade rocks. Symplectites are lamellar or vermicular of Green (1985), which suggest that ellipsoids of the stable
intergrowths that are common in reaction rims (Plate 35). The phase should grow with long axes parallel to possibly co-
intimate mixture of the phases involved, the fine grain size alescing into ellipsoids separated by cusps. However, later
and the disequilibrium grain shape shows that diffusion was experiments on olivine showed lens shaped spinel inclusions
not possible over long distances. perpendicular to These can be accounted for by stress re-
distribution at a microscopic scale between stronger olivine
and weaker spinel (Green and Burnley 1989).
5.8 Chemical zoning Exsolution of Ca-clinopyroxene from orthoenstatite is sim-
ilar to the transformation described
Metamorphic minerals, especially garnets, amphiboles, above, with the addition of Mg, Fe and Ca diffusion. Cooling
pyroxenes and feldspars, commonly show systematic com- exsolution may be distinguished from deformation exsolution
positional variations from core to rim, or a relatively con- by the orientation of the exsolved phase (Champness and Lor-
stant core composition and a quite different rim composition. imer 1974).
These variations can be seen in the colours of some min-
erals (e.g. blue-green colour variations in amphiboles), but
are most accurately revealed by electron microprobe studies. 5.10 Superplasticity
Zoning is clear evidence for DMT, and may form in two dif-
ferent ways. Superplasticity was first used to describe the behaviour of
metals deformed in extension to large strains without failure
Growth zoning. Preferential partitioning of an element into
(e.g. Langdon 1982). The dominant deformation mechan-
a mineral during growth can cause growth zoning by de-
ism in these experiments is grain boundary sliding, with in-
pletion of that element within an equilibrium volume.
compatibilities between grains mainly relieved by solid state
This describes how growth zoning may occur at con-
DMT around grain boundaries. Unfortunately the term has
stant temperature and pressure: however, the P-T con-
been used in at least three different ways in a geological con-
ditions may change during mineral growth, which will text (Gilotti and Hull 1990):
also change the distribution coefficients for elements
between mineral and matrix. This is probably the most 1. As a deformation mechanism consisting of grain bound-
common way in which growth zoning is produced. ary sliding accommodated by DMT and/or intracrystal-
line plasticity.
Reaction zoning. After a crystal has formed, DMT may oc-
cur with neighbouring minerals in response to a change 2. As a set of deformation conditions and mechanical re-
in P-T conditions from the formation of the original sponses in rock. In particular, dependence of strain rate
metamorphic rock. Commonly the rims of minerals have on an inverse power of grain size, high temperatures, and
compositions that reflect lower metamorphic grades than proportion between strain rate and a low power of stress
the cores: the rims have equilibriated during the cooling have been regarded as characteristic (Section 9.4.3).
of a rock. Such zoning is known as retrograde zoning.
3. As a description of strain e.g. “continuous, homogen-
eous deformation to very large strain”. This “phenomen-
5.9 Solid state phase transformation ological” definition proposed by Gilotti and Hull (1990)
is not in widespread use, and the more common first geo-
microstructures logical definition will be followed here.
Experiments suggest that phase transformations under devi- Microstructures characteristic of rocks considered to have
atoric stress could have distinctive microstructures, but nat- been deformed by Superplasticity have been summarized by
58 CHAPTER 5. DIFFUSIVE MASS TRANSFER AND PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE SOLID STATE
Fliervoet and White (1995). They include: Several of these microstructures are ambivalent in their in-
terpretation. For example, Fliervoet and White (1996) de-
1. A very fine grain size (less than in quartzites, scribe an exceedingly fine-grained quartz mylonite which de-
more in carbonates) (e.g. Behrmann 1985). formed exclusively by dislocation creep with no grain bound-
2. Equiaxed grains with diamond or blocky shapes (e.g. ary sliding. A fine grain size is apparently a necessary but
Drury and Humphreys 1988). not sufficient condition for superplasticity. Crystallographic
fabrics may be developed during superplastic flow of fine-
3. Alignment of grain boundaries over several grains (e.g grained calcite rocks, with the implication that they could in
White 1977). principle become strong after sufficient strain (Schmid et al.
1987, Rutter et al. 1994). Fig. 5.5 shows an ultramylonite
4. An inverse correlation between finite strain and grain that shows some of the characteristic features of superplas-
size (e.g. Evans et al. 1980). ticity. The clear definition and recognition of superplasti-
5. A weak crystallographic fabric (Rutter et al. 1994). city in rocks is still a difficult matter. An important example
of superplasticity related to phase transformation may occur
6. An inverse correlation between dislocation density and when olivine transforms to spinel. This is known as the anti-
grain size (e.g. Behrmann 1985). crack theory of phase transformation faulting, which suggests
that olivine transforms into spinel in anticracks which local-
7. High dislocation densities and voids at grain triple junc- ize into faults within which grain boundary sliding occurs on
tions (e.g. White 1977). fine grained spinel (Green and Burnley 1989, Burnley et al.
8. Large mismatches between the crystallographic orienta- 1991). The theory accounts well for earthquakes that occur at
tions of adjacent grains (e.g. Fliervoet and White 1995). depths too great for frictional behaviour, and is well suppor-
ted by experimental evidence (e.g. Tingle et al. 1993).
9. Rotations between grains that can not be explained by
rotation axes perpendicular to known Burgers vectors
(e.g. Fliervoet and White 1995).
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction 40 to 60% (Lejeune and Richet 1995). The importance of the
CMF is further suggested by the observation that the max-
Identification of deformation microstructures and mechan- imum proportion of phenocrysts in volcanic rocks is 55-65%:
isms in rocks containing melt has several important tec- volcanic rocks with larger proportions of phenocrysts may not
tonic implications, notably for the problem of melt extraction be able to erupt because their viscosities are too high (Marsh
and in the interpretation of pluton ascent and emplacement 1981, Wickham l987).
mechanisms. However, microstructural criteria to distinguish A minimum melt proportion for magmatic flow can also
magmatic, sub-magmatic and non-magmatic deformation mi- be deduced from the critical packing density of crystals to
crostructures and mechanisms are not well established, and bring them into a coherent mass. The critical packing density
the distinction is best made using a combination of meso- depends on crystal shape, size, size distribution, packing ar-
scopic and microscopic evidence. The mesoscopic evidence rangement, and amount of compaction. Table 6.1 summarizes
is briefly described in Section 6.4. porosity at critical packing density, which is equal to the min-
imum melt proportion, for some combinations of these factors
in geometrical models, and estimates for magmas. Surface
6.2 Fundamental deformation mech- energies of the crystal and liquid phases may be important in
flow because they can affect melt distribution (e.g. Jarewicz
anisms and microstructures in and Watson 1984, 1985), and indeed an explicit relationship
rocks containing melt between the CMF and surface energy can be formulated (Ri-
ley 1990). A more fundamental parameter than melt fraction
6.2.1 Magmatic flow for determining the rheology of melt-laden systems may be
the contiguity (the fraction of grain surface area in contact
Flow of magma (i.e. melt and crystal phases) by transport with other grains), because contiguity affects surface energy
of rigid crystals is often regarded as the typical deformation
and the resistance to shearing at the average surface. A load
mechanism in melt-bearing rocks. Magmatic flow has been bearing framework of crystals breaks down at contiguities of
defined as flow by displacement of melt and rigid-body rota- less than 0.15-0.2 (Miller et al. 1988), which correspond to
tion of crystals without sufficient interaction to cause crystal variable equilibrium melt fractions depending on surface en-
plastic deformation (Paterson et al. 1989). As shown be- ergies and grain size and shape distributions (German 1985).
low, crystal interaction in melts may lead to deformation by These factors may explain the variation in estimates of the
cataclasis and diffusive mass transfer (DMT) as well as in- CMF.
tracrystalline plasticity. A more useful, general definition for Viscosities of suspensions depend on fluid (melt) com-
magmatic flow is flow of melt and crystals without crystal de- position, pressure, temperature, and proportion, size and
formation; this definition allows for the possibility that crys- shape distribution of solids. The viscosity of melts contain-
tals may be deformed by processes other than crystal plas- ing spherical crystals is often approximated by the Einstein-
ticity, and also describes the flow of a suspension. It leads Roscoe equation (Roscoe 1952):
naturally to a definition of magmatic microstructures as those
which indicate melt-present deformation without crystal de-
formation.
Some experimental studies suggest that viscosities of melt- where is the viscosity of the pure melt, and is the
laden systems reduce abruptly by orders of magnitude when crystal fraction for coherent packing. Values of 0.6 for
the proportion of melt increases beyond a value known as the seem to represent silicate systems well. n has a theoretical
critical melt fraction, CMF (Arzi 1978, Van der Molen and value of 2.5 for variably-sized spheres, which is also a good
Paterson 1979). The CMF is commonly taken to be 30%, but fit to data for silicate systems, but the viscosity-melt fraction
may be as much as 50% (Vernon et al. 1988) or as little as relationship has a slight temperature dependence which can
10-20% for gabbroic rocks (Nicolas et al. 1988). Experi- be allowed for by letting n vary between 2.0 and 2.5 with
ments on two silicate melts reported an increase in viscosity temperature (Lejeune and Richet 1995). Another relationship
of three orders of magnitude, and a change from Newtonian between viscosity and crystal fraction includes the effect of
to non-Newtonian behaviour, as melt fraction increased from grain size (Sherman 1968). At lower melt fractions, the rhe-
59
60 CHAPTER 6. MAGMATIC AND SUB-MAGMATIC DEFORMATION
ology of the magma may be at least partly controlled by the 6.2.3 Magmatic and sub-magmatic flow and
mechanical properties of the solid phases or by the factors af- rheology
fecting diffusive mass transfer (DMT) through the melt phase
(see below). It appears that two fundamental changes in deformation
mechanisms occur as melt fraction is increased from the
While some experiments and observations suggest a signi-
solid to liquid states, and these correspond to reductions in
ficant mechanical change at the CMF, other experiments cast
strength or viscosity. An order of magnitude decrease in
doubt on the existence of a large change in viscosity over a
strength occurs as melt fraction rises from zero to only a
narrow range of melt fraction (e.g. Rushmer 1995), and it
few percent melt, and solid-state deformation mechanisms
has been argued that the abrupt change in viscosity observed
change to melt-enhanced diffusion creep, with other deform-
in some previous experiments was due to a combination of
ation mechanisms (cataclasis, grain boundary sliding, and in-
temperature effects and increase in water contents of melts
tracrystalline plasticity) also possibly accommodating crys-
(Rutter and Neumann 1995). There may be a continuous de-
tal deformation. As melt fraction increases still further, sus-
crease in magma viscosity as melt fraction increases, and no
pension flow can occur, reducing strength by three orders
CMF, if the change in water content is allowed for. Yet other
of magnitude, and crystal deformation ceases. Figure 6.1
experiments suggest that the change in strength at the CMF
shows these two transitions in mechanism schematically, but
is due to dilatancy hardening (cf. Brace and Martin 1968) at
it should be emphasized that the values and range of melt frac-
low melt fractions (Renner et al. 1999).
tions over which the transitions occur, and the magnitudes of
the changes in viscosity, vary with magma composition, and
are presently the subject of some debate.
6.2.2 Sub-magmatic flow
6.3 Mesoscopic evidence for magmatic
Sub-magmatic flow can be defined as deformation involving
flow of melt and crystals with crystal deformation. Sub- and sub-magmatic flow
magmatic microstructures are accordingly those indicating
melt-present deformation with crystal deformation, and cor- It is important to use mesoscopic evidence in conjunction
respond to the pre-full crystallization fabric of Hutton (1988). with microscopic observations to distinguish magmatic, sub-
Crystal deformation by DMT through the melt phase is prob- magmatic and non-magmatic flow. Fabrics in magmatic rocks
ably the dominant deformation mechanism at low melt frac- can be defined by phenocryst alignment, matrix mineral shape
tions and lower strain rates. The thermodynamic consider- fabrics, compositional banding, enclave or schlieren shape
ations for DMT through melt are the similar to those de- fabrics, or magnetic anisotropy. Phenocrysts may be tiled or
scribed for DMT through solution in Section 3.2. Experi- imbricated (e.g. Blumenfeld 1983, Blumenfeld and Bouchez
ments show that strength decreases by an order of magnitude, 1988). The fabrics can have any shape from prolate to ob-
and intracrystalline plasticity changes to melt-enhanced diffu- late. The mere existence of any of these fabrics is not dia-
sion creep, when melt proportion increases from zero to only gnostic of melt-present flow, but detailed examination on the
3-5% (Cooper and Kohlstedt 1984, Dell’Angelo and Tullis mesoscopic scale may provide some strong indicators to dis-
1988, Dell’Angelo et al. 1987). The weakening occurs due tinguish magmatic/sub-magmatic from non-magmatic flow.
to enhanced grain boundary diffusion though the melt. Ex- The following criteria are proposed as diagnostic of magmatic
periments on rock analogues by Park and Means (1996) also or sub-magmatic flow because they suggest extremely large,
demonstrate the importance of this process in some systems at non-systematic strain gradients in an homogeneous rock on
low melt fractions. Surface energy considerations may be im- a meter scale, which are mechanically unlikely in the non-
portant in sub-magmatic deformation. Most diffusion creep magmatic state. Microscopic studies should be used to back
models assume isotropic surface energy, but measurements up these lines of evidence.
suggest an order of magnitude anisotropy in olivine, for ex- 1. Abrupt and non-systematic changes in fabric orientation.
ample (Cooper and Kohlstedt 1982). This may affect strength
by allowing a continuous film of melt along two-grain bound- 2. Abrupt and non-systematic changes in fabric intensity.
aries instead of limiting melt to three or more grain junctions,
as usually assumed (Hirth and Kohlstedt 1995). 3. Irregular, polyclinal, disharmonic or rootless folds in
CHAPTER 6. MAGMATIC AND SUB-MAGMATIC DEFORMATION 61
massive rocks that have no sign of mechanical aniso- compositions. These foliations may have formed in a short
tropy or shear surfaces (e.g. McLellan 1984). interval of cooling after the melt has been emplaced but be-
fore final solidification.
The relationship between igneous layering and fabrics can Phenocryst density and size distributions may be affected
also be used to suggest magmatic/sub-magmatic flow. For by magmatic flow. Interaction between phenocrysts in con-
example, Pons et al. (1995) describe centimetre-scale cycles centrations greater than 8% in a moving fluid creates a “grain
with sharp bases consisting of a layer of fine-grained am- dispersive pressure” which is proportional to the velocity
phiboles to a medium grained amphibole-plagioclase layer to gradient in the magma and is therefore greatest at the margins
a slightly porphyritic plagioclase-K-feldspar-quartz layer in of an intrusion (Bagnold 1954, Komar 1972a, b). Phenocrysts
alkali granites. The layers are parallel to the preferred orient- are concentrated into the centre of the intrusion, and may also
ation in any of these minerals, and the fabric never cross-cuts coarsen in this direction. The velocity distribution and pheno-
the layering. The layering and fabric can be explained by cryst concentration should be plug-shaped with a central re-
trapping of a mafic cumulate layer from a slowly convecting gion of high density and an abrupt decrease in density towards
magma, leaving an increasingly felsic rich magma to crys- the sides of an intrusion, due to the effect of phenocryst con-
tallize as the upper layers. By contrast, Paterson and Ver- centration on viscosity, and this is indeed observed in many
non (1995) discuss several examples of an apparently mag- natural examples (e.g. Ryan 1995).
matic foliation that cross-cuts both gradational compositional Discordance between fabrics in a xenolith and a surround-
changes and contacts between phases of different magmatic ing igneous rock is often interpreted as evidence for mag-
62 CHAPTER 6. MAGMATIC AND SUB-MAGMATIC DEFORMATION
matic flow, but this criteria is not diagnostic: fabrics may formed inclusions in annealed minerals, and by a granoblastic
be preserved in xenoliths during non-magmatic deformation texture in mineral aggregates (especially quartz) which them-
due to competence contrasts between the xenolith and sub- selves define a shape fabric. Primary igneous fabrics can also
solidus matrix. Sub- or non-magmatic fabrics on this scale be recognized by random spatial relationships between dif-
are demonstrated by deformation of individual crystals such ferent phases. By contrast, solid state deformation produces
as feldspar megacrysts. However, concordance between fab- higher frequencies of contacts between like grains because
rics within enclaves and the host rock can be evidence for new grains preferentially nucleate on the same phase (e.g.
magmatic/sub-magmatic flow if the enclaves can be inter- Ashworth and McLellan 1985).
preted as partially molten during deformation (e.g. Vernon
and Paterson 1993).
6.4.2 Crystallographic fabrics
Shear zones may develop during intrusion by magmatic,
sub-magmatic and non-magmatic mechanisms (e.g. Guine- Magmatic crystallographic fabrics are due to orientation of
berteau et al. 1987, Pons et al. 1995). Magmatic shear euhedral, inequant phenocrysts during flow. In mafic rocks,
zones can be identified by fabrics defined by unstrained ig- (010) crystal faces are parallel to the magmatic foliation in
neous minerals (e.g. Miller and Paterson 1994) or reorient- olivines, pyroxenes and feldspars (Benn and Allard 1989).
ation of a magmatic fabric in the shear zones (e.g. Pons et The [001] direction of olivine and clinopyroxene is parallel to
al. 1995). Non-magmatic shear zones in the latter study had the magmatic lineation, and [100] has been observed parallel
pressure shadows filled by epidote around megacrysts, and to the magmatic lineation in feldspars within gabbros and ton-
ribbon grains formed by intracrystalline plasticity in quartz. alites (Benn and Allard 1989). Such crystallographic fabrics
Magmatic shear zones were identified in the experiments of can be distinguished from fabrics due to intracrystalline plas-
Park and Means (1996) by analyzing movements of solid in- ticity by complete lack of evidence for intracrystalline plastic
clusions, but there was very little direct microstructural evid- microstructures (Chapter 4), and in the case of olivine, by the
ence to distinguish the shear zones from the unsheared walls. fact that high-temperature non-magmatic deformation leads
Criteria which are sometimes misused to demonstrate mag- to [100] parallel to the lineation rather than [001], as observed
matic flow include imbrication, which may occur in mylon- for magmatic fabrics (Benn and Allard 1989).
ites (Section 7.11.3), magnetic anisotropy, which is well
known in metamorphic rocks, and S-C fabrics, which may
form in either sub-magmatic or non-magmatic deformation 6.5 Sub-magmatic microstructures
(Blumenfeld and Bouchez 1988).
6.5.1 Grain shape fabrics
6.4 Magmatic microstructures Grain shape fabrics may be expected to form in sub-
magmatic flow by both rigid body rotation and crystal de-
formation by DMT or intracrystalline plasticity. The crystal
6.4.1 Grain shape fabrics
deformation combined with evidence of melt such as matrix
The typical microstructure of magmatic flow consists of a with igneous textures is diagnostic of sub-magmatic flow (e.g.
preferred orientation of euhedral phenocrysts, in an isotropic Quick et al. 1992). Localization of melt in structures that are
matrix that shows igneous textures (Plate 36). Grain shape coeval with the foliation constitutes good evidence for sub-
fabrics are commonly defined by feldspars and micas in felsic magmatic deformation: this sort of evidence is more readily
rocks, and may be defined by feldspar, olivine and pyroxene seen at outcrop scale. As for magmatic flow, static recrystal-
in mafic rocks (e.g. Benn and Allard 1989). This is diagnostic lization may give the matrix the false appearance of a primary
of magmatic flow if there is no sign of any other deforma- igneous texture.
tion mechanism. Since intracrystalline plastic deformation
microstructures are readily visible in quartz after only small
6.5.2 Intracrystalline plasticity
strains, the lack of deformation in quartz (no undulose ex-
tinction, subgrains, or kink bands) is a reliable criterion for Intracrystalline plasticity in quartz may be expected in the
magmatic flow. Lack of sub-solidus deformation can also be presence of melt under appropriate differential stresses (>1
checked from inclusions (e.g. rutile) in quartz: the inclusions MPa) and temperatures (700 to 800°C) on the basis of granite
should be undeformed themselves and randomly orientated and quartz flow laws (Rutter and Neumann 1995). The very
(e.g. Mitra 1976, Stel 1991). Other primary, undeformed common appearance of undulose extinction in quartz within
igneous features such as strongly euhedral crystals, igneous granites suggests that intracrystalline plasticity occurs during
(e.g. idiomorphic) zoning, growth twins, and ophitic texture sub-magmatic deformation (Plate 37). Subgrain formation or
can be used to demonstrate the absence of intracrystalline de- recrystallization of quartz has been taken as an indicator of
formation. A fabric in igneous rocks can only be confirmed as sub-magmatic deformation where an overall igneous texture
a magmatic microstructure by lack of any evidence for other is preserved and no other non-magmatic deformation event is
deformation microstructures or mechanisms, including any of known (e.g. Bouchez and Gleizes 1995). Deformation twins
the microstructures described in previous Chapters. and bent twins in feldspar may also hint at sub-magmatic
It may be difficult to distinguish magmatic deformation intracrystalline plasticity (Plate 38). However, these micro-
from non-magmatic deformation followed by static recrystal- structures on their own do not demonstrate that melt was
lization. Post-deformational annealing can be revealed by de- present during deformation.
CHAPTER 6. MAGMATIC AND SUB-MAGMATIC DEFORMATION 63
6.5.3 Diffusive mass transfer of a competent body sub-divided by fractures that are filled by
melt. Melt may form in pressure shadows at the ends of boud-
Despite the experimental evidence for the importance of melt-
ins, and fill faults (e.g. Quick et al. 1992). Quartz-feldspar
aided diffusion creep, microstructural evidence has remained
neosomes have been described accumulated under imper-
elusive, probably because melt films have almost no poten-
meable refractory layers such as amphibolite sheets which are
tial for preservation in the geological environment. However,
boudinaged, allowing the neosomes to rise into boudin necks,
experiments suggest some features that could be used: trun-
and forming a geopetal structure (Burg 1991). Segregations
cated, embayed, scalloped or overgrown grain boundaries in
in shear zones and along axial planes of folds in migmatites
igneous rocks may be analogous to some of the features dis-
are common. Localization of the melt in these structures in-
cussed in Chapter 3 that indicate DMT through a fluid phase
dicates that the melt was syntectonic. This sort of evidence
(e.g. Dell’Angelo et al. 1987, Park and Means 1996). The
has great relevance to the problem of extracting melt to form
potential importance of surface energy anisotropy in melt dis-
plutonic bodies (e.g. Wickham 1987).
tribution needs to be investigated and may have some micro-
scopic expression in the form of differences between crystal
faces.
6.6 Other microstructures
6.5.4 Cataclasis Park and Means (1996) introduced the term “contact melting”
to describe melting at contact points between grains observed
Paradoxically, some of the clearest sub-magmatic microstruc- in their experiments, and suggested that indented boundaries
tures involve cataclasis of the crystals, such as microfractures and truncation of growth zoning might be indicative of the
which are healed by melt (e.g. Hibbard 1987, Bouchez et al process in nature. Another suggestion from their experiments
1992, Karlstrom et al. 1993). Microfractures in plagioclase is that filter pressing and expulsion of melt might be recog-
can be demonstrated to have been filled by melt from the fol- nizable from layers characterized by intracrystalline plasti-
lowing criteria: city adjacent to layers of less-deformed or undeformed rock
1. The microfractures are intragranular. This allows that formed by crystallization of the expressed melt. Overgrowths
the plagioclase crystals were in contact with melt. of feldspar along low-stress boundaries have been considered
as indicators of magmatic or sub-magmatic deformation (Hi-
2. The microfracture filling is compositionally and crystal- bbard 1987), but they may equally be be formed by sub-
lographically continuous with the same phase in the ig- solidus DMT processes (Paterson et al. 1989).
neous groundmass of the rock.
magmatic flow (Blumenfeld and Bouchez 1988, Miller and Myrmekite is sometimes taken as evidence for non-
Paterson 1994). Another case is the formation of quartz rods, magmatic deformation, but this is unreliable as myrmekite
folds and boudins in a non-magmatic state along an intrus- can form by direct crystallization (Paterson et al. 1989). Hi-
ive interface, while the bulk of the intrusion was still mag- bbard (1987) has suggested that magmatic myrmekite can be
matic, as suggested by the fact that all these structures die distinguished by growth in dilational sites (“pressure shad-
out away from the interface (Stel 1991). The non-magmatic ows”) around phenocrysts, in contrast with tectonically in-
simple shear zones described by Ramsay (1989) have a tan- duced myrmekite which forms in volumes perpendicular to
gential extension direction around an intrusion: these can be the shortening direction (e.g. Simpson 1985).
related to ballooning strains during successive phases of ex-
pansion of the pluton.
Chapter 7
65
66 CHAPTER 7. MICROSTRUCTURAL SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA
clast systems can be described with respect to a reference sidered to develop by dynamic recrystallization of the por-
plane that passes through the centre of the porphyroclast par- phyroclast to form a mantle of finer grains around the clast,
allel to the planar part of the tail far from the porphyroclast, which subsequently become entrained in the flow of the mat-
and that contains a symmetry axis (Fig. 7.4; Passchier and rix. The geometry of tails depends on the rate of recrystalliz-
Simpson 1986). An important distinction is made between ation relative to the rate of rotation of the porphyroclast, the
in-plane tails that both lie on the reference plane, and stair- shape of the porphyroclast, the rheology of the tails and mat-
stepping tails that lie on opposite sides of the reference plane rix, the shear strain, and the degree to which the tails and mat-
(Fig. 7.3). types have been subdivided into which rix adhere to the porphyroclast (the coupling). Many of these
are found around isolated porphyroclasts in an homogeneous factors can be simplified by analyzing the relation between
matrix, and which are are found in S-C or the recrystallizing mantle and the “separatrix”, which is a
mylonites, with short tails that curve into C- or surface around the porphyroclast that separates closed from
(Passchier and Simpson 1986). tails were origin- open flow lines. The separatrix is either eye-shaped or bow-
ally defined by the criterion that an individual tail crossed tie shaped in simple shear, depending on a variety of factors
the reference plane near the porphyroclast, and therefore the including the rheology of the matrix. The shape of the tails
two tails stair-stepped (Passchier and Simpson 1986). How- is governed by the shape of the separatrix and the location of
ever,the characteristic feature of a is commonly taken the separatrix relative to the mantle. A few generalizations
to be a deflection near the porphyroclast which produces a can be made from the experimental work of Ten Brink and
feature known as an embayment (Fig. 7.9), so that systems Passchier (1995):
do not necessarily stair step. There is a great deal of variation
in the detailed morphology of porphyroclast systems, and all A mantle entirely within the separatrix will not develop tails.
gradations exist between and (Fig. 7.10).
A mantle that intersects the separatrix will first form
tails which then develop into tails, thus explaining
7.4.2 Mechanisms of formation why there are transitional types between the two end-
members.
The formation of porphyroclast systems is now understood
to some extent from experiments and numerical simulations A mantle that encloses the separatrix will first form
(e.g. Passchier and Simpson 1986, Passchier et al. 1993, tails, which develop into type tails for an eye-
Passchier 1994, Passchier and Sokoutis 1993, Bjørnerud and shaped separatrix, but remain as tails for a bow-
Zhang 1995, Ten Brink and Passchier 1995). Tails are con- tie shaped separatrix.
CHAPTER 7. MICROSTRUCTURAL SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA 69
tails will stair step in a bow-tie shaped separatrix, but 7.4.4 Faces of a tail
not in an eye-shaped one.
The asymmetry of an individual tail can be used to
define shear sense (Simpson and Schmid 1983). An indi-
tails only develop with high coupling. vidual tail has two faces in contact with the matrix
around the porphyroclast, one of which is approximately par-
allel to the shear plane, and the other which is curved and
The evolution of tails is incompletely understood at present,
oblique (Fig. 7.9a). Provided the face parallel to the shear
but these approaches offer the possibility that analysis of tails
plane can be identified, the curvature and obliquity of the
will yield considerable information on rheology and deform-
other face can be used to give the shear sense: it is convex
ation conditions.
in the direction of movement of the adjacent matrix, and the
There are three simple guidelines for using porphyroclast acute rotation of the curved face to the shear plane is in the
systems as shear sense indicators. It should be emphasized same sense as an oblique foliation. It is usually possible to
that shear sense can only be determined from tails with mono- check this criterion by stair-step direction, but it is sometimes
clinic symmetry, i.e. and tails. useful if only one tail is well-developed (Fig. 7.5).
bayment has the shape of a fold: the direction of fold clos- nis and Secor 1987, 1990). Figure 7.11 shows the essen-
ure is the same direction as the rotation of the porphyroclast tial geometry of these fabrics and the angular relationships
(Figs. 7.7, 7.9b). between them, which are useful for description and classific-
Ideal conditions for the use of porphyroclast systems as ation. S-surfaces intersect C- or in a line perpen-
shear sense indicators are that the grain size of the matrix is dicular to, or at a high angle to, the shear direction, as defined
small with respect to the porphyroclast, the fabric of the mat- by the lineation on C- or surfaces. Angle is defined
rix is homogeneous, the porphyroclast systems were formed as that between the shear plane and the local orientation of
in one phase of deformation, the tails are long enough to S-surfaces between C or and angle is that
define a reference plane, and observations are made in the between the shear plane and which are inclined
shear sense observation plane (Passchier and Simpson 1986). to the shear plane in the opposite direction to the S-surfaces.
Porphyroclasts should be spaced widely enough not to inter- C-surfaces are parallel to the shear plane. In addition an angle
fere with one another. Structures similar to tails can develop can be defined, which is the angle between S- and C- or
in a passive matrix around a rotating porphyroclast, but these is equal to between S- and C-surfaces, and
have formed in a different manner from the porphyroclast sys- between S- and S-, C- and have
tems described above and should not be used in the same way a wide variation in morphology (Fig. 7.12, Plates 40, 41).
for shear sense determination (Section 7.10). Two major subdivisions of S-C mylonites were proposed by
Lister and Snoke (1984), but problems with this classifica-
tion have been pointed out (Passchier and Trouw 1996). An
7.5 S-, C- and alternative approach to description and classification (Blen-
kinsop and Treloar 1985) uses:
7.5.1 Characteristics and classification 1. The angles and
Many shear zones contain two or three planar fabrics that 2. The structures that define the S-surfaces,
can be divided into a sigmoidal penetrative foliation (an S- 3. The spacing of the C- or and
foliation), and discrete planar shears that displace the fo-
liation, which are known as C- or (Berthé et 4. The relative strengths of S- and C- or
al. 1979), extensional crenulation cleavage or ecc (Platt This classification is descriptive, yet uses features that have
and Vissers 1980), shear bands or shear planes (White et possible genetic significance. Three end members (porphyro-
al. 1980, Simpson 1986), or normal-slip crenulations (Den- clastic, megacrystic and banded types) identified using the
CHAPTER 7. MICROSTRUCTURAL SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA 71
72 CHAPTER 7. MICROSTRUCTURAL SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA
7.5.3 Curvature of S-foliation geometry that can be used in the same way as porphyroclasts
(Section 7.4.3). It may be difficult to distinguish pressure
Many S-foliations curve into like the curved foliation de- shadows from porphyroclasts (Plate 44). Rotation of the por-
scribed in Section 7.2, and the rotation sense from the S- phyroclast relative to the ISA and deformation of the pressure
foliation to the C- or gives the sense of shear re- shadow or fringe complicate this simple geometry. Despite
liably (Fig. 7.12, Plates 39, 40). the large variety of intricate structures that may be produced
(e.g. Etchecopar and Malavieille 1987, Aerden 1996) there
7.5.4 Shear on C- or are two reliable methods of determining shear sense from
more complex pressure shadows and fringes.
The sense of shear on C- or is always the same
as the overall sense of shear. It can sometimes be determined
7.6.2 Geometry of the last increment of growth
independently from the curvature of S-foliations by identify-
ing features such as veins that are offset by shear on C- or The last increment of growth may be virtually undeformed
and can therefore indicate the direction of the last maximum
ISA. In the case of antitaxial growth, the last increment will
be closest to the inclusion, while the opposite will be true for
7.6 Pressure shadows and fringes syntaxial growth. The sense of rotation from the last max-
imum ISA to the shear plane give the shear sense. Fibre ori-
7.6.1 Kinematics of pressure shadows and entation in pressure fringes can be used to indicate the ISA
fringes in shear zones only if the fibres are displacement-controlled.
blende, Plate 43) may show the same geometrical features as understand the porphyroblast growth mechanism, especially
mica fish. whether the porphyroblast is in a domain of coaxial or non-
coaxial flow.
shear planes are pointed out by Tikoff and Teyssier (1995). 3. Clasts are passive markers, but trains do not rotate
(“March-fixed train" model).
7.12.2 Oblique grain shape fabrics In all cases, the imbrication of clast trains gives the shear
sense according to the rule that the acute rotation from the
Grain shape fabrics of olivine, pyroxene and feldspar in gab-
train long axes to the shear plane is the same as the shear
bros have been used to determine sense of shear (Benn and
sense. Individual clast long axes can not be used reliably as
Allard 1989) on the basis that they form a fabric at an acute
shear sense indicators because they may rotate past the shear
angle to the shear plane. The shear sense is given by the acute
plane in the first two models, even in simple shear. The results
rotation from the fabric to the shear plane. However, since
of numerical modelling show that clast interaction depends
elongate grains may rotate past the shear plane, this criterion
strongly on clast density, and that the March models (2 and
needs to be used with caution, and a large number of obser-
3), possibly corresponding to sub-magmatic and solid state
vations should be collected.
deformation, are more effective at imbricating clasts. There-
fore clast imbrication is not diagnostic of melt-present de-
7.12.3 Tiling and imbrication formation.
Tiled and imbricated clasts have been proposed as shear
sense indicators in rocks containing melt (e.g. Blumenfeld 7.12.4 S-C fabrics
1983, Paterson 1989), and as diagnostic of melt-present, non-
S-C fabrics have been described in rocks that have no evid-
coaxial deformation. Imbrication has been comprehensively
ence of solid state flow (Blumenfeld and Bouchez 1988, Benn
modelled by Tikoff and Teyssier (1994), who suggested three
and Allard 1989), and these fabrics can be used as a shear
possibilities corresponding to magmatic, sub-magmatic and
sense indicator as described in Section 7.5. Euhedral, little
solid state deformation respectively:
deformed plagioclase grains in S- and C-orientations have
1. Rigid clasts in a fluid, which form imbricated trains of been described by Miller and Paterson (1994), suggesting that
clasts that rotate as a unit when they have coalesced the S-C fabric formed in a sub-magmatic state.
(“Jeffrey rotating train” model, after Jeffrey’s (1922)
analysis of rigid objects in a fluid). 7.12.5 Sub-magmatic microfractures
2. Clasts behave as passive markers in a fluid; trains rotate Sub-magmatic microfractures can be used as a shear sense in-
as a unit (“March-rotating train” model, after March’s dicator. They are inclined to the shear plane in the same ori-
(1932) description of the rotation of passive markers in a entation as T fractures (Fig. 2.17); the acute rotation from the
fluid). March-like behaviour of rigid clasts is suggested fractures to the shear plane opposes the shear sense (Bouchez
by the experiments of Ildefonse and Manktelow (1993). et al. 1992).
CHAPTER 7. MICROSTRUCTURAL SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA 79
7.13 Shear sense criteria for faults been suggested as shear sense indicators by observations on
faults with known shear senses in specific conditions (e.g.
7.13.1 Shear sense observations on faults Petit 1987, Doblas et al. 1997). It is not clear how widespread
these features are, and many of them could have ambiguous
Determining the shear sense (sensu lato) of faults requires interpretations on faults with unknown shear sense. Until fur-
observations in the shear sense observation plane which can ther work is reported, the only generally reliable fault surface
only be identified if the net slip vector of the fault is known. kinematic indicator at present are risers created by slicken-
In practice this almost always requires the presence of slick- fibre terminations (or accretion steps), which are always con-
enlines to identify the shear direction within the fault plane. gruous (Fig. 7.23). When using this criterion, it is useful to
Incohesive fault rocks are particularly difficult to sample and examine fault surfaces in more detail under a binocular mi-
section. It may be possible to collect intact and orientated croscope such as those in common use for micropalaeonto-
specimens by removing them in a metal casing, and to pre- logy, or under the SEM. This technique is particularly good
pare them for thin sectioning by impregnation with adhesive. for dealing with incohesive specimens.
8.1 Introduction
A number of distinctive natural microstructures have recently
been accepted as characteristic of shock metamorphism on
the basis of field observations, detailed microstructural stud-
ies, and comparisons with impact experiments. The products
and processes of shock deformation are distinct from other
geological microstructures and mechanisms, which justifies
a separate Chapter for their description. Shock effects have
well-established links with meteorite impact structures on
earth, which form under pressures ranging from <5 to > 100
GPa, temperatures up to 10 000 °C, and typical strain rates of
to (Fig. 8.1; Stöffler and Langenhorst 1994, Reimold
1995).
These pressures and strain rates are far greater than values
for tectonic crustal deformation (using the term tectonic to
imply endogenous processes). There has been vigorous de-
bate about which microstructures are diagnostic of meteorite
impact: this is discussed in Section 8.11.
a distinctive type of glass called diaplectic glass at moder-
ate pressures (25-50 GPa; 8.6), and a fused glass called le-
8.2 Shock mechanisms chatelierite at higher pressures (Section 8.8). Coesite and
stishovite, the high pressure polymorphs of silica, may be
Four fundamental shock mechanisms have been identified formed during shock metamorphism by solid state transform-
from experimental work that simulates shock conditions: ation or direct crystallization from melt (Section 8.7). These
cataclasis, intracrystalline plasticity, solid state phase trans- shock microstructures can be classified into high and low
formation, and melting (e.g. Huffman et al. 1993, Stöffler and pressure types (Table 8.1).
Langenhorst 1994). Cataclasis results in irregular, randomly
orientated microfractures, and sub-parallel sets of planar mi-
crofractures (Section 8.3). Intracrystalline plasticity is shown 8.3 Microfractures
by twinning and, possibly, shock mosaicism (Section 8.4), but
the formation of the latter is not well-understood. Non-planar, unorientated microfractures are common in
The most distinctive shock-induced microstructures and shocked materials. Planar, open microfractures (termed
mechanisms are associated with phase transformation at high planar fractures) parallel to low index crystallographic planes
compressive stress and with pressure-release melting. Quartz in quartz are a distinctive shock microstructure. They oc-
undergoes a phase transformation to an amorphous state in cur parallel to (0001) and planes, with a spacing of
which Si coordination with O changes from four-fold to six- (Stöffler and Langenhorst 1994). In experiment-
fold under pressures of approximately 5-35 GPa (Stöffler and ally shocked dunite, intragranular microfractures formed in
Langenhorst 1994). The phase transformation is heterogen- sets of variable orientation with separations of less than
eous at relatively low temperatures and high strain rates, and and more planar fractures with a spacing of
is localized on crystallographic planes leading to the form- formed in subregions of single crystals (Reimold and Stöffler
ation of one type of planar deformation feature (PDF, Sec- 1978). Their orientation is crystallographically controlled
tion 8.4). At higher temperatures and strain rates, the amorph- and a function of the direction of shock wave propagation,
ization is homogeneous. Quenching following melting forms and their density increases linearly with shock pressure in a
80
CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPHISM 81
given rock type. PDFs (next Section) do not cross the mi-
crofractures, which has been interpreted to indicate that the and PDFs have spacings from 1 to and thicknesses
fractures formed earlier than the PDFs during the shock event of under the TEM. Four different types of PDFs can
(Stöffler and Langenhorst 1994). be distinguished in the TEM (Goltrant et al. 1991):
1. Brazil twins in the basal plane.
8.4 Planar Deformation Features 2. Bands of high dislocation density, with concentrations
(PDFs) of voids or bubbles in rhombohedral planes.
Planar Deformation Features are intracrystalline zones of op- 3. Bands of variable proportions of glass and crystalline
tical and/or crystallographic contrast with the host crystal, quartz in the form of microcrystallites ~ 10 nm in size
typically on the order of micrometres wide and with spacings in rhombohedral planes.
of 2 to as seen under the optical microscope (Fig. 8.2,
4. Glass lamellae in rhombohedral planes.
Plate 46). Quartz is the mineral in which shock characteristic
deformation is best developed and has been most extensively The basal orientation of the Brazil twins (type 1, Fig. 8.3)
studied. PDFs in quartz occur in sets parallel to the crys- distinguishes them from Brazil growth twins which are on
tallographic directions given in Table 8.2 Other orientations rhombohedral planes, and their association with dislocations
include and As many as shows that they are mechanical twins (Leroux et al. 1994).
18 different sets may form in one grain. The orientations of Types 2 and 3 are thought to be secondary features due
PDFs in quartz can be related to the shock pressure as dis- to post-shock annealing of type 4 PDFs, which are recog-
cussed in Section 8.10. Planar features with the dimensions nized, together with basal Brazil twins, as characteristic of
of PDFs in shocked quartz are spectacularly revealed in SEM- fresh shock microstructures, and are the only type of lamellae
CL images (Seyedolali et al. 1997), though it is not known yet found in experimentally shocked material. The glass lamel-
certain that they correspond to PDFs. A fundamental distinc- lae can be subdivided into narrow transformation lamellae (<
tion can be made under the optical microscope between dec- 10 nm wide) which are only visible in the TEM, and wide
orated PDFs, which are marked by fluid inclusions or pores, transformation lamellae (50-500 nm wide) which are the op-
and non-decorated PDFs. tically visible lamellae, and which may contain a finer scale
It is necessary to turn to the TEM to study PDFs in more sub-lamellar structure of pillars at high angles to the lamellae
detail. About ten times more PDFs are visible in the TEM boundaries, which is clearly revealed by etching (Gratz et al.
than under the optical microscope (Goltrant et al. 1991), 1996).
82 CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPHISM
8.9 Tectites, microtectites and spher- MgO and ratios, and higher Cr, Ni, and Co (Koe-
berl 1990). These characteristics are similar to sediments.
ules
Tectites occur over large areas of the earth’s surface called
Tectites are rounded silicate glass bodies usually less than a strewn fields, demonstrating that they were deposited from
few centimetres in diameter (Glass 1990). They are usually the atmosphere. Terrestrial and lunar volcanism, and met-
black, but may be translucent, brown or green. Three major eorite impact, have been proposed as possible origins for
types are recognized: tectites, but a number of arguments favour the impact hypo-
thesis (Glass 1990). Flow structures demonstrate that tectites
1. Splash forms: spheres, disks, dumbell and teardrop were molten: the flanges of ablated forms were formed dur-
shapes. ing a second period of melting. Lechatelierite inclusions sug-
gest temperatures of 2000°C, far greater than volcanic tem-
2. Ablated forms, which are similar to splash forms but peratures. The chemical composition of tectites shows that
with an additional flange. they were derived by melting of sediments and not from ter-
restrial or lunar igneous rocks. Furthermore, the tectites in
3. Muong Nong types, which are larger, layered chunks of
two strewn fields can be linked to proven impact craters: for
tectite glass.
example, tectites in Czechoslovakia came from the Ries crater
Tectite glass has flow structures and abundant inclusions of in Germany, while the Ivory Coast strewn field is derived
from the Bosumtwi crater in Ghana.
lechatelierite. Baddeleyite, coesite, metallic spherules, and
corundum may occur as inclusions, as well as quartz, zir- Microscopic tectites (microtectites) have been described
con, rutile, chromite and monazite in the Muong Nong types from several sites at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, and
(Glass 1990). The chemistry of tectites is similar to felsic vol- associated with impact at the Chicxulub site in Mexico (e.g.
canic glasses, with contents of >65%, but with higher Smit et al. 1992, Olsson et al. 1997). Many of these mi-
CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPHISM 85
crotectites are spherical, with diameters of 0.2 to 5 mm, and to mosaicism and PDFs, followed by diaplectic glass, coes-
composed of clays or calcite. Some of these spherules contain ite and stishovite, and lechatelierite at the highest pressure.
a core of glass, suggesting that the clays formed by devitrific- However, the accurate pressure calibration of this general se-
ation. Flow structures in the glass, and associated shocked quence is subject to the effects of a number of other variables
grains, demonstrate the impact origin of these spherule beds. (8. 10.3) which are not yet quantified with the exception of the
initial temperature of the target rocks and porosity.
Figure 8.9 shows onset pressures for shock microstructures
8.10 Shock barometry and thermo- in quartz and feldspar based on experiments on single crystals
of quartz or non-porous crystalline rocks. The lines showing
metry decrease in onset pressure with temperature were determined
by experiments on granite and quartzite (Reimold and Hörz
Establishing shock pressures has fundamental implications
1986, Huffman et al. 1993, Huffman and Reimold 1996).
for establishing the origin of shock microstructures and is
Microfracturing occurs at the lowest pressures: planar micro-
useful to estimate the rate of shock pressure attenuation for
fractures form at pressures greater than 5 to 10 GPa (Huffman
modelling impact processes. Shock pressures have been
et al. 1993). Mosaicism in quartz is first seen from pressures
calibrated experimentally using microstructures, the density
of 6 to 10 GPa. The onset pressures for PDFs in these experi-
of quartz, and the optical, X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic
ments fall between 15 and 18 GPa, but this is well above fig-
and thermoluminescent characteristics of quartz (Stöffler and
ures given by other workers, who suggest formation of non-
Langenhorst 1994, Grieve et al. 1996). Shock temperatures
basal PDFs (i.e. not Brazil twins) at pressures as low as 10
can be calculated in non-porous rocks from shock pressures
GPa. These lower pressures are shown on Fig. 8.2 by labels
(e.g. Langenhorst 1994). In the following Sections, two
giving the orientations of the dominant PDFs (after Stöffler
methods of shock wave barometry using optical microscopy
and Langenhorst 1994, Grieve et al. 1996). The nature and
(microstructures and optical properties of quartz) are briefly
orientations of PDFs in quartz changes as a function of pres-
described.
sure. Brazil twins form at the lowest pressures, followed by
PDFs. PDFs are generally considered to form at pressures
of ~20 GPa, and become the dominant orientation at ~25
8.11 Calibration of shock pressures GPa (e.g. Langenhorst and Deutsch 1994). Widths of experi-
from microstructures mentally created PDFs at the TEM scale change in thickness
from <100 nm at <25GPa to ~200 nm at >25 GPa. Ini-
Microstructures form with increasing shock pressure in a tial (i.e. target) temperature has an effect on PDF develop-
sequence that has been clearly established by experimental ment. Approximately equal numbers of grains show single
work. In quartz, from the lowest pressure, fracturing evolves and multiple sets of PDFs in experiments at 18 GPa and 250C
86 CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPH1SM
CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPHISM 87
inverts in only 3 days at 250°C in the presence of water, and in impact rocks, so that the third criterion is not general. Mul-
thus has limited preservation potential (Gigl and Dachville tiple, intersecting sets of tectonic lamellae are also known
1968). (e.g. Lyons et al. 1993), but these lamellae are distinctly dif-
ferent to PDFs, mainly because they are non-planar (Reimold
1994). Several studies of PDF orientations in shocked targets
8.12 Diagnostic impact microstruc- show that criterion 4 is false: in particular, shock-induced
basal PDFs (Brazil twins) are common at low shock pres-
tures sures. Straightness (planarity), and sharpness or definition re-
main important characteristics for identifying PDFs, but have
The identification of microstructures that are diagnostic of
not been quantitavely defined: this lack of objectivity has
impact has profound implications for the understanding of the
evolution of the earth. The subject has been very controver- caused considerable controversy in the past. Optical studies
alone appear to be incapable of fully distinguishing impact
sial, with much debate on the extent to which shock-induced
from tectonic lamellae.
microstructures could be produced by volcanic eruptions or
other endogenous processes as alternatives to meteorite im- SEM and TEM-scale features do allow a clear distinction
pact. between fresh PDFs and tectonic deformation lamellae. Etch-
PDFs have been associated with shock metamorphism on ing with HF liquid or vapour followed by SEM examination
the basis of experiments and observations of their distribu- is a more widely available technique than the TEM (Gratz et
tion in suspected impact target rocks (e.g. McIntyre 1962, al. 1996). Relatively wide, glass-filled PDFs from impacts
Carter 1965, Hörz 1968, Robertson and Grieve 1977). How- and shock experiments are revealed as sharp, planar features
ever, PDFs can be superficially similar to deformation lamel- less than wide after etching, often containing sublamel-
lae formed by tectonic processes as described in Section 4.6, lar structure (see Section 8.4). By contrast, etched tectonic
and this raises the controversial questions of whether PDFs lamellae are much wider than and often sinuous, similar
can be diagnostic of shock metamorphism, and whether shock to their appearance under the optical microscope (e.g. Joreau
features can be produced in volcanic eruptions. et al. 1997; Fig. 4.11). Table 8.5 summarizes the differences
Commonly used criteria for identifying impact-induced between shock-induced PDFs and deformation lamellae in
PDFs include the following (e.g. Alexopoulos et al. 1988): quartz. Post-shock annealing reduces PDFs to a dislocation
structure similar to deformation lamellae, making the distinc-
1. Well-defined, sharp features. tion between the two difficult (cf. Goltrant et al. 1992). Basal
Brazil twins have only ever been observed in quartz from
2. Straight. impact structures and in experiments with deviatoric stresses
over ~4 GPa at room temperature (Leroux et al. 1994). These
3. Often occur in multiple sets per grain. observations were used by Leroux et al. (1994) to argue that
basal Brazil twins are strong evidence for shock.
4. 90% are in the and directions.
Stöffler (1972) suggested that mosaicism is the most com-
However, single sets of PDFs are developed in shock experi- mon manifestation of shock. However, mosaicism is not
ments under higher temperature conditions and are observed diagnostic of shock effects, and may also be caused by tec-
CHAPTER 8. SHOCK-INDUCED MICROSTRUCTURES AND SHOCK METAMORPHISM 89
tonic deformation or even chemical effects, especially in feld- within the field of crustal metamorphism (0.5 GPa) to values
spars (e.g. Sharpton and Schuraytz 1989, Officer and Carter as much as 10 GPa. Planar microstructures, mosaicism and
1991). The occurrence of coesite is known from inclusions Brazil twins in volcanic rocks have been claimed as shock
in high-pressure metamorphic rocks and kimberlites, but the microstructures (e.g. Carter et al. 1986, 1990, Huffman and
very fine-grained, polycrystalline nature of coesite in impact Reimold 1993), but much of this evidence has been strongly
related rocks is diagnostic (Grieve et al. 1996). Diaplectic refuted (Sharpton and Schuraytz 1989). The case for shock
glass can be formed by static compression at 25-35 GPa, but features related to volcanism or deep-seated explosive activ-
this is much higher than any pressures recorded by rocks at ity is not strong. In summary, Brazil twins, glass-filled PDFs,
the surface of the earth (Fig. 8.1): diaplectic glass remains a diaplectic glass, the distinctive very fine grained, polycrystal-
diagnostic indicator for shock pressures. line occurrence of coesite, and shock features in zircon are
Explosive volcanism and deep-seated explosive activity diagnostic of impact shock. As stressed by Reimold (1994),
are possible alternatives to meteorite impact as a source of a thorough evaluation of the case for shock metamorphism
shock waves. Controversy exists over what pressures may be should examine a variety of minerals and evidence on macro-
obtained in volcanic explosions; estimates range from values scopic to microscopic scales.
Chapter 9
90
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 91
is the uniaxial tensile strength. This simple criterion is and may also depend on the elastic moduli of the solid and
widely applicable, but limitations are the difficulty of meas- pore fluid (Bernabé 1987, Warpinski and Teuffel 1993).
uring (which is dependent on the type of test used) and generally lies between the value of porosity and 1; typical
the observation that in most rocks, the uniaxial compressive values for reservoir rocks are 0.5-0.8 (e.g. Detournay et al.
strength is 10 to 12 times the value of (Jaeger and 1989, Kumpel 1991). is approximately 1 for many crystal-
Cook 1979). The Griffith criterion predicts that line rocks. Departures from this value occur when the pore
Values of for use in the Griffith criterion can be calculated fluid has a chemical effect, when permeability is low enough
from the generalized values of given in Section 9.2.1. to prevent uniform pore fluid pressures during experiments,
The simple Griffith criterion does not predict any effect of and when porosity is not interconnected (Paterson 1978).
on failure: this was accommodated in the Extended Grif-
fith criterion by Murrell (1963), giving the failure criterion:
9.4 Fracture mechanics and failure
criteria
This criterion implies that in better agreement
with observed values. A more rigorous treatment of triaxial Shear failure occurs by linking of axial tensile microcracks
stress acting on a body containing randomly orientated ellips- (Section 2.4). This fundamental observation has been incor-
oidal cavities leads to a failure criterion which is independent porated into failure criterion (e.g. Peng and Johnson 1972)
of and implies lower values of than the Griffith fail- through the application of fracture mechanics (e.g. Lawn
ure criterion (Murrell and Digby 1970). The effect of fric- and Wilshaw 1975a, Nemat-Nasser and Horii 1982, Horii and
tional sliding on closed Griffith flaws with a coefficient of Nemat Nasser 1985, 1986, Kemeny and Cook 1987, Hallam
friction and stress required for closure was dealt with and Ashby 1990, Baud et al. 1996). Unfortunately the res-
by McClintock and Walsh (1962) in the Modified Griffith cri- ultant expressions for failure are complex and depend on the
terion: geometry and size of the initial flaws, which are not readily
measured microstructural properties.
is a function of Poisson’s ratio and the axial ratios of the 9.5 Frictional sliding laws
flaws: for penny-shaped flaws and
for biaxial stress. The value of is (Murrell 1965); 9.5.1 Byerlee’s law
a value of 100 MPa was used for in lithospheric failure
Amonton’s Law (Section 2.2.2) describes frictional behaviour
modelling by Kusznir and Park (1984, 1987). If is taken
of rocks well at low normal stresses, but at higher normal
to be negligible, this criterion becomes equivalent to the Cou-
stress, a threshold shear stress must be applied before any
lomb criterion and implies that
movement occurs: this is called the cohesion, so that fric-
which generally has little relationship to the observed values
tional sliding in rocks is described by:
of (Jaeger and Cook 1976). However, this criterion does
provide a better fit to stresses measured at compressive failure
than either the original or extended Griffith criteria.
The form of this equation is the same as used for the Coulomb
criterion; however, the cohesion and coefficient of friction of
9.3 Pore fluid pressure and faulting intact rock (the coefficient of internal friction) are different
The principle of effective stress (Terzaghi 1943) describes the from those of frictional sliding. Byerlee (1978) discovered
important mechanical effect of pore fluid pressure on that values of in most rocks are in the range of 0.5-1, with
failure in many experiments (e.g. Paterson 1978). The prin- an average of approximately 0.75, and that frictional sliding
ciple states that normal stresses are reduced by the value of in most rocks could be described by two simple equations,
the pore fluid pressure, so that effective stresses can be sub- depending on the normal stress.
stituted in any of the failure criterion above. The effective
stresses (“conventional effective stresses” of Paterson 1978)
are calculated from:
These two equations have become known as Byerlee’s law,
and are approximately independent of rock type, roughness
More detailed experiments and poroelasticity theory indicate of the sliding surface and temperature. Byerlee’s Law is of-
that the normal stress is not reduced by the exact value of the ten assumed to describe the state of stress in the upper crust
pore fluid pressure. The effective stresses are given by (e.g. Burov and Diament 1996) which implies that failure in
the upper crust is governed by frictional sliding of previously
formed faults in ideal orientations for slip.
where is known as the effective stress coefficient and has Marone et al. (1992) have proposed that distributed de-
values less than or equal to 1 for elastic properties. de- formation in a gouge zone has a separate frictional sliding
creases with permeability, porosity and confining pressure, law, because stress is re-orientated within the sheared layer
92 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
so that the maximum possible shear stress is supported. This localization on shear surfaces, which always has a negative
results in a sliding law of the form: velocity dependence (Marone et al. 1992).
Seismological observations support the above picture, but
there is a lack of corresponding knowledge about natural
microstructures produced by seismic slip. Pseudotachylites
where is the coefficient of sliding on a discrete (Section 2.11) are the only direct evidence for seismic slip
surface. (e.g. Sibson 1977), but seismic slip can also be tentatively
suggested by textures such as crack-seal vein fillings which
indicate repetitive fracture followed by fracture sealing (Sec-
9.5.2 Rate and state dependent frictional slid-
tion 3.12). Particle size distributions of gouge may give an in-
ing dication of its mechanical behaviour: velocity strengthening
Dynamic effects during frictional sliding, such as stick slip behaviour changed to velocity weakening when the fractal di-
behaviour, are not described by Amonton’s and Byerlee’s mension of the particle size distribution of the gouge attained
Laws. Stick-slip behaviour involves a steady rise in stress a value of 2.6 in experiments (Biegel et al. 1989). Another
with no movement followed by a sudden rapid episode of potential microstructural indicator of seismic slip is the evid-
stress drop and sliding, and is analogous to earthquake fault- ence of continuous deformation alternating with discontinu-
ing. Stick slip behaviour is favoured over stable sliding in ous deformation in slickenside surface material (Power and
rocks with higher quartz contents, by sliding along rougher Tullis 1989).
surfaces, by the lack of gouge, by high normal stresses, and
low temperatures (e.g. Paterson 1978). Dynamic frictional
sliding can be modelled by making the coefficient of friction 9.6 Flow laws
in Amonton’s Law depend on the rate of frictional sliding
V: 9.6.1 Diffusive mass transfer: Grain size sens-
itive creep
The fundamental flow laws for deformation accommodated
where is the coefficient of friction at a reference velocity by diffusive mass transfer can be derived from theoretical
V*, a and b are empirically determined constants, and is a principles for three cases: diffusion through a grain bound-
state variable (e.g. Rice and Gu 1983). L is the critical slip ary fluid (pressure solution, Section 3.2), diffusion through
distance for sliding to return to a stable rate after a change in the grains (Nabarro-Herring creep, Section 5.2), and diffu-
sliding velocity. It is possible to expand the above expression sion through grain boundaries (Coble creep, Section 5.2). All
with more than one state variable. The value of a expresses flow laws for diffusion-accommodated deformation have one
the dependence of on a change in velocity, and b expresses distinguishing characteristic: strain rate is a function of grain
a change in that decays with time. This behaviour is found size.
to describe laboratory experiments very well. The stability
of a sliding process depends on the value of if this
is negative, increasing velocity will lead to a reduction in Pressure solution creep
and the fault is said to show velocity weakening, and hence be Diffusive mass transfer through a solution requires three
capable of nucleating earthquakes. On the other hand, if steps: solution, diffusion and precipitation. The strain rate
is positive, velocity changes will lead to increased friction and may be controlled by the rate of diffusion in the fluid, the rate
the sliding will be stable. of solution or precipitation at the source or sink, or the rate of
The rate dependent friction law can be applied to the nuc- diffusion at the source or sink (Paterson 1995), and the flow
leation of earthquakes in the crust (Tse and Rice 1986, Scholz law depends on which process is rate-limiting. The follow-
1990). is expected to be positive in the upper few km of ing flow law can be derived theoretically for diffusion control
well-developed faults due to the presence of a layer of gouge (e.g. Spiers et al. 1990, Lehner 1990):
(which is characterized by positive values of ). Therefore
earthquakes are not expected to nucleate in the top part of the
crust except in areas lacking well-developed faults. Below the
level of gouge, there is an upper stability transition to negative
values of which are the conditions for earthquake nucle- where is the strain rate A is a dimensionless para-
ation (Scholz 1990). becomes positive with increasing meter varying from 40 to 140 that depends on a geomet-
temperature, so that there is also a lower stability limit be- rical model for the arrangement of the grains, is the molar
low which earthquakes will not nucleate: this is probably ap- volume is the thickness of the grain boundary fluid
proximately at the 300°C isotherm in continental crust, which (m), is the reference state solubility of the solid in the fluid
explains the observation that earthquakes generally nucleate (mole fraction), is the reference state diffusion coefficient
in the top 15 km of the crust (e.g. Sibson 1982, Meisner in the grain boundary fluid is the activation en-
and Strehlau 1982). However, this picture is complicated by thalpy for pressure solution R is the gas constant
the relation between velocity dependence and displacement: T is the temperature (K), and is the
positive velocity dependence at small displacements changes differential stress (Pa). The reference state for and is
to negative dependence with increasing displacement, due to It is conventional to quote flow laws for the uniaxial
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 93
shortening strain rate under axisymmetric stress, and the dif- Nabarro-Herring creep
ferential stress relations between other components
The flow law for Nabarro-Herring creep is similar to the pre-
of the stress and strain rate tensors can be obtained from ap-
vious law, with the following important differences: the grain
propriate geometrical modifications.
size dependence is to the square of d there is no grain bound-
The terms are sometimes
ary thickness to take into account, and the diffusion coeffi-
gathered together as a phenomenological coefficient repres-
cient and activation enthalpies are different:
enting effective grain boundary diffusivity (e.g. Spiers et al.
1990). Diffusion control is relevant for salt in which solution
rates are very fast (e.g. Spiers et al. 1990), and has been
reported for experiments on quartz (e.g. Gratier and Guiget
1986). This flow law is only valid for dense polycrystals: where is the reference state volume diffusion coefficient,
porosity is a very important factor in pressure solution creep, and is the activation enthalpy for volume diffusion. Para-
which requires a specific geometrical model (e.g. Lemée and meters for the flow law are given in Table 9.1.
Guegen 1996). Paterson (1995) presents a model for pressure A flow law for diffusion creep that combines both Coble
solution creep in porous materials based on an analogy with and Nabarro-Herring creep (Ashby 1970, Raj and Ashby
particulate flow in soil mechanics, leading to equations for 1971) is:
each of the three possible rate limiting processes.
Diffusion-limited pressure solution creep in quartz has
been described by the following flow law (modified by An-
gevine and Turcotte 1983 after Rutter 1976):
The value of A may differ in all the above expressions since
it depends on the preferred geometrical model of the grains.
is the reference state diffusion coefficient for grain where A is a pre-exponential constant, is the activation
boundary diffusion, is the grain boundary width, and enthalpy for dislocation creep, and n is the stress exponent
is the activation enthalpy for grain boundary diffusion. The (Weertman 1968). A depends on the volume diffusion coeffi-
specification of is difficult because it depends on the cient and the Burgers vector of the active dislocation system.
diffusing species. The strain rate will however be limited by Unfortunately there are severe problems in using this
the diffusion rate of the slowest species, which is normally simple flow law. One of the most important variables that is
quoted. In olivine, the values of the diffusion coefficients in- not explicitly taken into account is the effect of water. For ex-
crease in the order Si < O < Fe; the value for Si is rate limit- ample, “Dry” quartz, with H contents of less than
ing. Values for Coble creep flow laws are given in Table 9.1. Si, is an order of magnitude stronger than “wet” quartz (the
94 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
considerable amount of literature on this subject is summar- ation energy P is the mean stress (Pa), V is an ac-
ized in Paterson and Luan 1990). The effect is probably due in tivation volume often ignored due to its relatively
part to replacement of Si-O-Si bonds by weaker Si-OH-OH- small contribution to the exponential term), and m and n are
Si (hydroxyl) bonds, known as hydrolytic weakening (Griggs general dimensionless grain size and stress exponents. The
and Blacic 1965, Griggs 1967), which is similar to the mech- values of m and n suggest interpretations of the deformation
anism that controls sub-critical microcrack propagation (Sec- mechanism from experimental data by analogy with the the-
tion 2.2.1.1). Hydrolytic weakening enables easier disloca- oretical relationships: and indicates dislocation
tion glide and creep, although other mechanisms may also creep, and indicates pressure solution or Coble
play a role in the weakening effect of water. This suggests creep, and and indicates Nabarro-Herring creep.
that the flow law should incorporate a function of the water Superplasticity is characterized by and (e.g.
activity (e.g. Kronenberg and Tullis 1984, Ord and Hobbs Boullier and Guegen 1975, Schmid et al. 1977). Tables 9.2-
1985). Experiments show that the power law exponent de- 9.4 are a compilation of some results for minerals and rocks,
pends on water content, at least for low water contents (e.g. divided into grain-size sensitive Table 9.2), and
Blacic and Christie 1984). In any event, it is difficult to de- grain-size insensitive flow laws ( Table 9.3 for min-
termine water contents at the time of deformation, although erals and Table 9.4 for rocks). When using these tables or
Kronenberg et al. (1990) have shown how quartz water con- any such rock mechanics data, it is advisable to consult the
tents measured across a natural shear zone vary with shear original reference to find any important specific conditions of
strain, possibly reflecting a variation during deformation. the experiments which may limit the applicability of the flow
Mean stress is another variable that should appear in the laws.
flow law, which may have important rheological effects by At high stress levels, the power law relationship does not
increasing water diffusion rates, increasing water solubility, fit the experimental data (“power law breakdown”, Carter and
and increasing activation enthalpy. Quartz phase appears to Tsenn 1987). Two alternative empirical relationships may de-
affect both the activation enthalpy ( is higher for than scribe the data well:
and the power law exponent n which is lower for
(e.g. Linker and Kirby 1981). The quartz phase af-
fects diffusion coefficients in a remarkably similar way to ac- is an exponential law, with B and as empirical constants,
tivation enthalpies of power law creep, showing that the creep suggesting that flow controlled by dislocation glide is import-
enthalpies are essentially the same as the enthalpies of diffu- ant (Tsenn and Carter 1987). An expression that fits the in-
sion (Gilletti and Yund 1984, Dennis 1984). Trace amounts of termediate and high stress behaviour is :
impurities in quartz may also cause considerable weakening,
probably through their control on glide velocity (e.g. Jaoul et
al. 1984).
e.g. Heard (1963), with C, and n as the empirically-derived
constants.
9.6.3 Empirical flow laws from experimental
data
9.7 Polymineralic deformation
Experimental data can be fitted to empirical laws of the fol-
lowing general form for low stress levels: While flow laws such as those in Section 9.4.3 can describe
the bulk rheology of rocks, microstructural evidence shows
that strain is distributed in a complex manner between miner-
als with different rheologies, which should be accounted for
where A is a pre-exponential constant or in a detailed understanding of deformation. An empirical ap-
depending on the units of ), Q is an activ- proach was taken by Tullis et al. (1991), who derived a flow
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 95
96 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
law for a bimineralic rock that weighted the flow law para- The distinction between LBF and IWL behaviour occurs at
meters of each mineral by the volume fractions of the the conditions where both give the same bulk strength. On
weak and strong minerals as follows: either side of this equality, the more stable microstructure
is the one that dissipates less strain energy. For a quartz-
feldspar composite with dislocation creep flow laws, the LBF
microstructure is only stable for very low volume fractions of
quartz.
This model shows that strength of the composite always
lies between the limiting strengths of the strong and weak
where n, Q, and A are the parameters in the dislocation creep
phases, but the relative strengths of the composite compared
flow law (Section 9.4.2.2), and the subscripts and s are
to the end members are a complex function of their strength
for composite, weak, and strong minerals respectively. This
contrasts and their volume fractions. In a granite, 10-20%
gives a reasonable fit to experimental data.
volume fraction of quartz reduces the composite strength
A more fundamental way to treat polymineralic rocks is
by one half compared to the strength of pure feldspar, as-
to model the relationship between the behaviour of different
suming IWL behaviour, and that the deformation occurs in
minerals. Handy (1990, 1994) has suggested that for two
the conditions appropriate for dislocation creep flow laws.
minerals of contrasting strength, the microstructure may be
Quartz effectively governs the strength of the composite at
described as a load bearing framework (LBF) if the stronger
volume fractions over 10%. Feldspars in gabbros signific-
mineral supports stress around pockets of a weaker mineral,
antly weaken the composite strength from a pure pyroxene
or as an interconnected weak layer (IWL) if the weaker min-
rock up to 900°C: at higher temperatures, pyroxene is weaker
eral forms a matrix around microboudins of the stronger min-
than feldspar, and the composite has an intermediate strength.
eral. The behaviour of the composite depends on the contrast
Both the Tullis and Handy approaches outlined above are
on rheological properties of the minerals, and on their volume
limited to two phase rocks. A generalization to any number
fraction.
of phases is given by Ji and Zhao (1993) for two extreme
Quantitative observations can be used to distinguish LBF
assumptions. If all phases are loaded equally (isostress cri-
and IWL microstructures. In granite deformed under am-
terion), the flow law is given by taking the volume average of
phibolite facies, for example, the LBF case may be char-
the strain rates of individual phases:
acterized by similar grain shapes and sizes in all minerals,
and strain magnitudes, as estimated approximately by grain
shapes, are low (Schulmann et al. 1996). Quartz has large
recrystallized subgrains, and K-feldspars are fractured, while
plagioclase recrystallizes. There is a transition to an IWL
with increasing strain, which is manifest from higher strain where n, A, and Q are the flow law parameters, the subscripts
in quartz than feldspar, and the appearance of S-C fabrics. r and i refer to the isostressed aggregate and the individual
The ultimate stage of the process is a transition to another phases (total number m and volume fractions f) respectively.
type of IWL microstructure in which there is little contrast An alternative assumption is that all phases have the same
between the quartz and feldspar grains: all minerals have re- strain and strain rate. This isostrain criterion leads to the fol-
crystallized completely in a mylonite. lowing aggregate properties:
Two flow laws are necessary to describe the LBF and IWL
cases separately, which can be derived from considering that
the total rate of viscous strain energy dissipation is the sum
of the rates in the weak and strong minerals. In the LBF case,
both minerals deform at the same rate and the shear strength
of the composite is given by the sum of the shear An average flow law is considered to lie between the
strengths of each mineral multiplied by their volume frac- physically unrealisitic extremes of the isostress and isostrain
tions: cases. The average is determined by minimising the dif-
ference between two composite flow laws, that each allow
where and are the shear strengths and volume for variable, complementary proportions of the isostress and
fractions of the weak and strong minerals respectively. For isostrain flow law parameters. The results achieve reasonable
the IWL case, fits to some experimental data and the method is advantage-
ous when the effects of more than two phases need to be con-
sidered.
In another approach to the deformation of polymineralic
where a function x is introduced that describes the sensitivity rocks, Ji and Zhao (1994) have used a fibre loading model to
of the strain rate partitioning in the rock to the strength con- derive an expression for the elastic solution to the problem
trast of the minerals. The nature of this function can be sug- of rigid fibres in a weaker matrix, and generalized from the
gested by considering limiting values. One possibility sug- elastic solution to a viscoplastic case. The equation they de-
gested by Handy (1994) is: rive includes an expression for the aspect ratio of the fibres.
Their model describes some experimental results better than
the Tullis model, but they point out that it assumes uniformly
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 97
distributed fibres with a constant orientation, which may limit haviour of the lithosphere and have important applications to
its geological application. Flow laws for polymineralic rocks large-scale tectonic problems (e.g. Burov and Diament 1995,
require more theoretical and experimental research. 1996).
The upper part of the LSE is usually constructed using
Byerlee’s Law for frictional sliding to represent cataclastic
9.8 Deformation mechanism maps behaviour. Coulomb or Griffith failure criteria can also be
used to model the behaviour of intact lithosphere (cf. Sib-
The rheology predicted by the flow laws in Section 9.4 can son 1983, Kusznir and Park 1987). A power law for disloca-
be compared on a deformation mechanism map (Fig. 9.1), tion creep is usually assumed for the lower, plastic part of the
which shows the relationships between deformation mech- LSE, justified by observations that suggest that lithospheric
anism, stress, strain rate, temperature, and grain size (e.g. stress/temperature/grain size conditions are appropriate for
Stoker and Ashby 1973, Ashby and Verrall 1978). These this deformation mechanism. Dislocation glide can also be
maps may be shown in plots of stress normalized by the included (e.g. Burov and Diament 1995).
shearmodulus against temperature normalized by melt-
The LSE is based on a model of the compositional structure
ing temperature (homologous temperature, ). The shear
of the earth. Gross simplifications are necessary due to the
modulus normalization allows for the systematic dependence
limited availability of rock mechanics data, and the difficulty
of the flow law constant A on and for the temperature de-
of applying them to the earth. The upper crust is commonly
pendence of the modulus (cf. Tsenn and Carter 1987). The
modelled by wet quartzite, the mid to lower crust by feldspar
melting temperature normalization allows for better compar-
or diorite, and the mantle as olivine. A temperature-depth
ison between different materials because transitions between
profile is chosen for the crustal model. Appropriate steady
different rheological regimes depend on These nor-
state geotherms can be calculated from surface heat flux (e.g.
malizations are relevant for materials-science applications,
Kusznir and Park 1984, 1987), but Burov and Diament (1995)
but the direct values of stress and temperature are more useful
have modelled an evolving geotherm due to cooling after oro-
for tectonic studies.
geny.
The fundamental assumptions for constructing these maps
are that deformation will occur by the mechanism that The LSE is delineated by the lesser of the cataclastic or
provides the fastest strain rate, and that steady state conditions plastic strengths. The stresses can either be calculated for
are obtained. Deformation mechanism fields in stress and a given strain rate, or by applying a constant stress at the
temperature space are contoured for strain rate using the flow boundaries of a model that analyses the stress and strain with
law of the deformation mechanism with the fastest strain rate; time. The latter approach shows that stress applied uniformly
boundaries between fields correspond to loci of equal strain at the boundaries of the lithosphere is redistributed into the
rate. Different maps are constructed for different grain sizes; more competent layers which deform elastically, a process
alternatively grain size can be added as a third dimension. referred to as stress amplification (Kusznir 1982). Eventu-
The possibility of contributions to strain rate by more than ally the elastic strength of all layers is exceeded, leading to
one mechanism can be allowed for (e.g. Stoker and Ashby whole lithosphere failure, and deformation continues by fric-
1973). For example, both diffusional creep mechanisms can tional sliding and intracrystalline plasticity (Kusznir and Bott
be combined as in the last equation in Section 9.4.1.3, and dif- 1977, Kusznir and Park 1982, 1984, 1987). Hence steady
fusion and dislocation processes can also combine. However, state LSEs have no part that is controlled by elastic strength.
flow by dislocation glide and dislocation creep are mutually The shape of the simplest LSE (for a lithosphere of homo-
exclusive. geneous composition) consists of a rapid linear increase in
Deformation mechanism maps for geological materials strength with depth from the surface of the earth governed by
have been produced for only quartz, olivine and calcite (e.g. the high normal-stress dependence of Byerlee’s Law or a fail-
Rutter 1976, White 1976, Carter and Tsenn 1987), because a ure criterion (e.g. the top part of Fig. 9.2). The cataclastic
range of flow laws for different mechanisms are not available part of the LSE depends on the orientation of the failure sur-
for other minerals or rocks. Microstructures are a guiding face: differential stresses for faulting or frictional sliding at
principle to the construction and use of deformation mechan- any level of the crust increase in the order normal - strike-
ism maps: similarity in experimental and natural microstruc- slip - thrust fault. The strength of the lithosphere reaches
tures and mechanisms allows for the correct choice of flow a maximum where the cataclastic strength is equal to the
law parameters (e.g. Busch and Van der Pluijm 1995). flow stress for intracrystalline plasticity. Below this point the
flow stress is less than the cataclastic strength, and continues
to decrease with depth as temperature increases. LSEs for
9.9 Lithospheric strength envelopes layered models of the earth generally show the above pattern
repeated in each layer (Fig. 9.2). There are dramatic strength
A Lithospheric Strength Envelope (LSE) shows the relation- contrasts across layers, especially between the crust and the
ship of lithospheric strength with depth derived from elasti- mantle. This suggests that detachment could occur at these
city, failure criteria, frictional sliding laws and flow laws layer boundaries, which are sometimes misleadingly called
(Fig. 9.2). The term yield strength envelope is commonly “brittle-ductile transitions”, but are more accurately referred
used (e.g. Goetze and Evans 1979), but since the upper part to as brittle-plastic transitions (Section 1.3, 1.5).
of the envelope is governed by cataclastic failure, LSE is a However, saw-tooth LSEs such as those in Fig. 9. 2 can
better term. LSEs are a powerful way of describing the be- be criticized because the validity of Byerlee’s law has not
98 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
been established at mid to lower crustal pressures, and the entation of the stress tensor (Sections 9.10.7-9.10.8). Pa-
high stresses predicted by extrapolation of the law to these laeopiezometers are calibrated by experiments and theory,
conditions are unrealistic (Ord and Hobbs 1989). Moreover, but there are large variations in calibrations of the same pa-
the semibrittle deformation regime is not recognised, prob- laeopiezometer. Furthermore, different palaeopiezometers
ably because of the paucity of published flow laws. More yield considerably different values when applied to the same
realisitic possibilities for the shape of the LSE at mid crustal rocks. The latter variations can potentially lead to further tec-
depths are either a vertical line of constant stress with a value tonic insights (Section 9.10.9). Determination of the mean
equal to the stress at the base of the seismogenic zone (Hobbs stress is considered in the separate Section on geothermoba-
et al. 1986), or non-linear, pressure-dependent functions de- rometry (Section 9.11).
rived from Mohr-Coulomb constitutive laws for permanent
deformation (Ord 1991). The experimental basis for the lat-
ter laws is very limited, and they have the disadvantage of 9.10.2 Recrystallized grain size
predicting strain-dependent values of stress. The size of grains recrystallized during deformation (d, mm)
can be related to differential stress ( MPa) by an expression
of the form:
9.10 Palaeopiezometry
9.10.1 Methods and calibration where m and are constants, which can be determined ex-
perimentally or derived theoretically (e.g. White 1979). Val-
Palaeopiezometry is the determination of past stress fields, ues of m and are given in Table 9.5, and the calibrations
which can provide major constraints on tectonic models. Mi- for quartz are plotted in Fig. 9.3. The differential stresses
crostructural methods have concentrated mainly on measur- for quartz predicted by different calibrations differ by up to
ing differential stress (Sections 9.10.2-9.10.6), and the ori- four orders of magnitude, for at least seven possible reasons,
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 99
100 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
9.10.3 Subgrain size Three different approaches have been proposed to relate twin-
ning in carbonates to differential stress. Two of these (Jam-
Subgrain size can be related to stress by an expression ison and Spang 1976 and Laurent et al. 1981, 1990) take
of the form: no account of the fact that grain size is known to have an
effect on the twinning, and are therefore less suitable than
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 101
the approach of Rowe and Rutter (1990), who have calib- a non-twinning deformation mechanism. In principle, grain
rated three twinning palaeopeizometers from laboratory ex- size distribution could have an effect on this palaeopiezo-
periments, which all appear to be independent of temperature, meter because stress distributions in grains are strongly in-
strain rate and strain. fluenced by the size of neighbouring grains (Newman 1994),
but this has not yet been evaluated or demonstrated. This
Twinning incidence, palaeopiezometer has been calibrated only for calcite (other
carbonates twin at different stress levels), and since the cal-
is the proportion of grains with optically visible twins in ibration experiments were carried out at 400°C and above, it
any grain size class. It can be related to differential stress is probably not appropriate for low temperature deformation
(MPa) and grain size (d, mm) by the following equation: (Burkhard 1993). The best results will be obtained in samples
that have experienced a single, coaxial strain event (the con-
ditions of the experimental calibration), otherwise the method
In practice, stresses are calculated from for each grain size will overestimate stress (Rowe and Rutter 1990).
class and plotted against grain size: they should lie on lines There is some experimental evidence that twinning in
of constant slope for different values of The standard error pyroxene could be used as a palaeopiezometer: Tullis (1980)
in the experimental calibration was 31 MPa. suggests that the minimum stress needed for twinning in
pyroxenes is 100 MPa.
Twin density,
is the number of twins per mm. This is calculated by the
slope of the relation between number of twins in a grain size 9.10.6 Deformation lamellae
interval and grain size. appears to be independent of grain
size, and is related to with a standard error of 43 MPa, by:
The appearance of deformation lamellae (Section 4.7) in ex-
periments is characteristic of flow laws with an exponential
relationship between stress and strain rate, which occur at
Maximum twin volume, relatively high stresses. This observation leads to the sug-
gestion that there may be a critical differential stress for the
is the maximum volume proportion (%) of twinned ma- formation of deformation lamellae, dependent on the type of
terial in a grain size class. In the experiments, the area frac- bonding and crystal structure of the material (Blenkinsop and
tion of twins was taken as equal to the volume fraction, and Drury 1988). Values of 100-200 MPa have been suggested
was measured from a two-dimensional thin section. is for quartz. However, it is possible that the critical stress
related to with a standard error of 41 MPa, by : may be inversely temperature-dependent, so that at present
deformation lamellae in quartz should only be taken as qual-
itative indicators of relatively high stress levels (Drury 1993).
Spacing of deformation lamellae (s, mm) may constitute a
As with the previous palaeopeizometers, there are a number
palaeopiezometer (Koch and Christie 1981, McLaren 1991).
of potential problems. Clearly if twinning is the only deform-
The relation derived by Koch and Christie is ( MPa):
ation mechanism, the amount of twinning measured by any of
the three parameters will be a function of strain. The method
thus assumes that after twinning, equilibrium is reached with
102 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS 103
9.10.7 Principal stress orientations from de- (e.g. Turner 1953, Weiss 1954). Twinning in calcite occurs
formation lamellae on the e planes in the direction of the plane contain-
ing the pole to the twin and the c-axis (Fig. 9.4). and
Techniques of using deformation lamellae in quartz to de- are therefore at 45° to the twin plane in the plane of the c-axis
duce principal stress orientations were developed by Carter and the pole to the twin - a similar geometry to that used for
and Friedman (1965) and Carter and Rayleigh (1969). Of the quartz deformation lamellae method. However, in con-
the three methods proposed by Carter and coworkers, the “ar- trast to that method, is in the opposite quadrant from the
row” method is the easiest and yields consistent results. The c-axis (Fig. 9.4). A similar construction can be applied to f
orientations of the c-axis and deformation lamellae are first twins in dolomite, but here is in the same quadrant as the
measured from individual quartz grains. The plane containing c-axis (Fig. 9.4).
the pole to a lamella and the c-axis is constructed (Fig. 9.4). A development of this technique is to use the right dihedra
and are located within this plane at 45° to the lamella
method to determine the and orientations that are com-
plane. is distinguished from by the fact that the c-axis
patible with the largest numbers of twins. The value of the
lies closest to An arrow from the c-axis to the lamella maximum number of compatible twins (the MAX number)
pole will point from to (Fig. 9.4). Unique and gives a measure of the degree to which the data can be fitted
orientations can be derived by eigenvector analysis from a by a single stress orientation (Pfiffner and Burkhard 1987).
number of such measurements (e.g. Spang and Van der Lee This method has the advantage that it does not assume a fixed
1975). This construction implies that the deformation lamel- angle between and the twin plane. A further development
lae form in a plane of maximum resolved shear stress with a is the determination of principal stress orientations and ab-
maximum shear stress direction parallel to the projection of solute magnitudes by assuming homogeneous stress distribu-
the c-axis onto the lamellae plane. The evidence presented in tion and a critical resolved shear stress for twinning (Laurent
Section 4.7 shows that recovery is an integral part of lamellae
et al. 1981, 1990).
development, so that a simple analogy with a slip system for
It is possible to calculate a finite strain tensor by incorpor-
the formation of lamellae may not be entirely valid. However,
ating the shear strain necessary for twinning into the orient-
the strength of the method is based on its empirical success
ation analysis (e.g. Groshong 1972, 1974, 1984). A com-
(Pavlis and Bruhn 1988, Drury 1993), even if its theoretical
puter program to carry out the analyses is described by Evans
basis remains unclear. The principal stress axes from deform-
and Groshong (1994). The measurements necessary for the
ation lamellae are in good agreement with those calculated
determination include the c-axis orientation, twin set orienta-
from the carbonate twin method from the same samples (e.g.
tion, average thickness and number of twins, and grain width.
Spang and Van der Lee 1975). It is possible to consider other
25 grains in two perpendicular thin sections should be meas-
angular relationships between and the lamella plane, but
ured.
some results suggest that the stress axes do not change ap-
Twins which do not fit the calculated strain or stress fields
preciably from the 45° constraint (Spang and Van der Lee
are a problem in all these methods. Two basic philosophies
1975). It is also possible to analyze for the principal stresses
to deal with this problem have been adopted. The first is to
without using a fixed angular relationship between and the
recognize that some twins will inevitably develop in incom-
lamella plane, by using the right dihedra technique (cf. An-
patible orientations due to stress inhomogeneity. The propor-
gelier 1984).
tion of such twins (negative expected values, NEV, Groshong
1972) can be used to test the homogeneity of the sample, and
9.10.8 Principal stress orientations and strains the incompatible grains can be removed from the data set.
from twins Alternatively, the incompatible twins are presumed to reflect
different superimposed stress fields, and they can be used to
Twins have been used to deduce principal stress orientations separate out a number of different stress fields (e.g. Lacombe
by assuming that the twin plane is a shear plane and the twin et al. 1990). This method has been criticized by Burkhard
direction is parallel to the maximum resolved shear stress (1993) because it has yielded unrealistic results, and the as-
104 CHAPTER 9. FROM MICROSTRUCTURES TO MOUNTAINS
9.11 Geothermobarometry
9.11.1 Methods and calibration
The determination of past temperature and mean stress (geo-
thermobarometry) is traditionally the domain of thermody-
namics and mineral chemistry. However, there are a num-
ber of promising new developments in the application of mi-
crostructures to geothermobarometry, which are particularly
robust because they are calibrated from naturally deformed
samples.
In addition to these new, quantitative approaches, experi-
ments and thermodynamic results allow some generalizations
about the minimum temperatures for plasticity. Plasticity in
the form of twinning can occur even at room temperature in
calcite, but appears to require a temperature of 300°C in dolo-
mite. Plasticity (sensu lato) in quartz and mica is generally
restricted to temperatures greater than 200°C. The onset of
plasticity in feldspars is commonly taken as 450°C, but this
value is not well constrained. The common mafic minerals
(clinopyroxene, amphibole, orthopyroxene and olivine) may
be plastic from 500°C or above. These numbers must how-
ever be treated with great caution, because there are many
other variables involved in the mechanism transitions (not-
ably stress/strain rate, see Section 1.3), and because of the
problems of extrapolating from experiments to nature (Sec-
tion 9.1).
9.11.3 Sutured quartz grain boundaries were limited to to and maximum strains of
31%. Ultimately the validity of a temperature - only depend-
The geometry of sutured grain boundaries (Section 4.8)
ence of D rests on the empirical evidence.
formed by grain boundary migration depends on the temper-
ature during deformation. With increasing temperature, the
length of segments, serrations or lobes increases (Fig. 9.6, 9.11.4 Subgrain boundary orientation in
Kruhl and Nega 1996). The geometry of a grain boundary can quartz
be characterized by its fractal dimension, D, which is best
The orientation of subgrain boundaries in quartz appears to
measured by the “divider” method (Kruhl and Nega 1996).
be controlled by the phase present during deformation (Sec-
A grain boundary is divided into linear segments (“strides”)
tion 4.6). The presence of chessboard patterns, indicating
of individual length r. The length of the grain boundary L
both basal and prism-parallel sub-grain boundaries, is restric-
is equal to the product of the number of segments and their
ted to deformation in the field (Kruhl 1996). This
length. The process is repeated over a range of values of r.
means temperatures above 573°C at 0 MPa, and 825°C at
For a fractal grain boundary, L is related to r by:
1000 MPa (Gross and Van Heege 1973). Chessboard patterns
can only be seen in grains with c-axes subparallel to the plane
of the section (high interference colours) and must be distin-
D is derived from the gradient of a log-log plot of L against guished from three types of pseudochessboard pattern (Kruhl
r. Kruhl and Nega (1996) established the relation shown 1996).
in Fig. 9.7 empirically from measurements of natural su-
1. Two sets of prismatic subgrain boundaries visible in
tures with known temperatures of deformation. The relation
grains with c-axes at high angles to the section (i.e. low
between T (°C) and D is approximately:
birefringence).
2. Rectangular kink band boundaries that are not crystallo-
graphically orientated.
D values of sutures produced in experimental deformation
appear to be affected by the experimental strain rate as well 3. Two sets of rhombohedral subgrain boundaries in grains
as temperature (Takahashi et al. 1997). However, the extent with c-axes subparallel to the section, which can be dis-
to which strain rate may be important in natural deformation tinguished by their inclined extinction positions.
is unknown, especially because the experimental strain rates
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This page intentionally left blank
Index
(Bold numbers refer to plates or figures)
127
128 INDEX
instantaneous stretching axis, axes 65, 73, 7.15, 7.17 sub-critical propagation 9, 94
interconnected weak layer 96 thermally-induced 15, 16
internal asymmetry 76, 7.19 transgranular 10, 2.5, 12, 13, 16
internal strain energy 4, 48, 52, 55 wing 13, 2.10
interpenetrating grain contacts 2, 25, 3.1, 3.4, 33 microcrystallite 81, 82
intracrystalline plasticity 1, 3, 4, 14, 19, 22-24, 30, 39-51, 57, microfault 2, 7, 17, 18, 2.14-2.16, 7.23, Plates 3, 45
60, 62, 63, 75, 90, 93, 97 microfold 77, 7.22
intracrystalline deformation bands 2, 41 microfracture 1, 2, 4, 7, 80, 85, 86, Plate 4
island and channels 24 mirror 20
isostrain criterion 96 mist 20
isostress criterion 96 surface features 2, 19, 20
velocity hackle 20
jog 79 Wallner line 20
microlithon 29, 30
kink, band 2, 14, 30, 41, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 50, 62 microphenocryst 22
microslickolite, 27, 28, 3.6
landslide 23 microstylolite 1, 2, 27, 28, 3.5, Plate 14, 3.6
lattice preferred orientation 58, see crystallographic fabric characteristics 27
lechatelierite 80-85 filling 24-28
lineation 66, 7.1, 7.2, 75 formation and propagation 27, 28
lithospheric strength envelope 90, 97, 98, 9.2 teeth, walls, crown 27, 3.5, 28
load bearing framework 96 microvein 1, 2, 7, 35-38
low angle boundaries 41 free-face growth 35
lower stability limit 92 fibrous 33, 35, 37, 38
laminated 35
magmatic flow 3, 59-63, Plate 36 opening vector 35
magmatic microstructures 59, 62 migmatite 63
magmatic shear zones 62, 77, 78 millipede texture 54
magnetic anisotropy 60, 62 mimetic crystallization 54
Martensitic-like transformation 52, 57 mode of failure 4
mean stress 94 molar entropy 24
megacryst 62 molar internal energy 24
metatextite 63 molar volume 24, 92-94
mica beard 32 mosaicism 81-83, Plate 48, 85-89
mica fish 74, Plate 42 mylonite 5, 6, 62
microboudins, asymmetric 76, 7.20, 7.21, Plate 6 protomylonite 6
microcrack 2, 7, 2.1, 2.5, 2.6, 10-16, 33 ultramylonite 6
axial 12, 17, 2.14, 19, 63,91
characteristics and observation 10-12 necking down 33, 35, 3.14
circumgranular 10-12 neosomes 63
classification 10-12 new grains 47, 50
cleavage 13, 19 non-magmatic deformation 63, 64
cone 12 non-systematic fibre growth 37, 3.17, Plate 22
dynamic propagation 7 normal slip crenulation 70
elastic mismatch 13, 14, 2.11, Plate 5
en-echelon 17, 2.15 oblique grain shape fabric 78
en passant 17, 2.15 ophitic texture 62
extension 12, Plate 2 order-disorder transformation 52
extension force 7 Ostwald ripening 54
flaw-induced 2.6, 13, 2.10 overgrowth 1, 2, 4, 13, 32, 33, 3.10, Plate 18, 3.11, 4.11
grain boundary 13
impingement 2.6, 12, 13, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9 P-foliation 19, Plate 6, 79
intragranular 10, 2.5, 12, 13, 2.9, 18, 19 P-shear, fracture 19, 20
microfault- induced 14, 19 paleopiezometry, palaeopeizometer, 98-101
microscopic feather fracture 14, 15, 2.12 deformation lamellae 101-103
modes I, II, III 7, 2.2, 12 dislocation density 100, 101
phase transformation-induced 16 general problems 104
plastic mismatch 14, 2.12, 2.13 maximum twin volume, 101
refracturing 13, 2.11 principal stress and strains 103, 104, 9.4
130 INDEX
recrystallized grain size 98-100, 9.3 pseudotachylites 2, 5-7, 22, 23, Plates 9-11, 83, 92
subgrain size 100, 101 characteristics 22
twinning - differential stress 100, 101 misidentification 23
twinning density, 101 origin 22, 23
twinning incidence, 101
particle size distributions 10, 22, 92 rate and state dependent frictional sliding 92
perlitic texture Plates 47, 48 reaction rims 2, 57
permeability 91 reaction zoning 57
phase transformation microstructures 2, 57, 58, 80-92 recovery 2, 41, 47, 82
phenocryst 60-62 recrystallized grain size 49, 50
phenomenological coefficient 93 reentrant zoning 54
phyllonite 6 relict minerals 2, 57
pinching off 33, 3.14 rheology 90
planar deformation feature 47, 8.2, 80-89 rhomb dodecahedra 54
decorated 81,82 ribbon grain 2, 4.13, 52-54, 5.1
non-decorated 81, 82 ridges and grooves 20
sub-lamellar structure 81, 88 Riedel, conjugate Riedel shear 2.17, 19, Plates 6, 7, 20, 72,
plastic, plasticity 3, 14 79
poikiloblast 54 fractures 15
Poisson’s ratio 97 risers 20, 2.19, 79
polymineralic deformation 94-97 congruous/incongruous 20, 2.19
pore fluid, pressure 3, 22-24, 91 rolling structures 77
porosity 12, 13, 18, 87, 88, 93 roughening transition 32
reduction 19, 32
porphyroblasts 1, 2, 54-57 S-, C- and 5, 20, 62, 63, 66, 70-73, Plates 40, 41
characteristics 54, 55 characteristic and classification 70-72, 7.11, 7.13, 7.14
growth mechanisms 55 curvature of S-foliation 73
internal, external foliations 54, 75, 7.18 formation and evolution 72
intertectonic 55-57, 5.3, 5.4, Plate 31 shear on C-or 19, 73
plate 33 shear sense from 73
posttectonic 55-57, 5.3 scaly clays 22
pretectonic 55-57, 5.3, Plate 30 scanning electron microscope 2.6, 19, 2.18, 2.19, 25, 30, 50,
relationship to deformation 55-57, 5.3 79, 82, 88
shear sense indications 75, 7.18 schlieren 60
syntectonic 55-57, 5.3, Plate 32 secondary recrystallization 54, 55
porphyroclast, porphyroclast systems 5, 14, 67-70 sector zoning 54
characteristics and classification 67, 68, 7.4 semibrittle 3, 14, 19
complex type 67, 7.4, 7.8 sensitive tint plate 2.6, 12, 17, 50, Plates 1-4, 45, 79
67-70, 7.4, 7.7, 7.9, 7.10, 74 separatrix 68, 69
deflection, embayments 68-70, 7.7, 7.9 shape preferred orientation 47, 66
faces of a tail 69, 7.9 shatter cones 23
in-plane 67, 68 shear band 70
67, 7.4 shear modulus 97
mantle 67 shear sense 65-79
mechanisms of formation 68, 69 criteria 65-79
67-69, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.9 for faults 79, 7.23, Plate 45
stair-step 67, 68 in rocks containing melt 77-79
tail, wing 67 observation plane 65, 71
power law 93-97 shock-induced microstructures 3, 80-89, 8.1
breakdown 94 shock mechanisms and metamorphism 23, 80
pre-exponential constant 93-97 shock wave barometry and thermometry 85-88
pre-lithification deformation 2, 22 calibration 85-87
pressure shadows and fringes 1, 2, 4, 32, Plate 19, 33, 3.12, problems 87, 88
63, 65, 73,74 slickenfibre 20, 2.19, 79
last increment of growth 73, slickenline 20
kinematics in shear zones 73, 7.15 slickenside 20, 92
shape 73, 7.16, 7.17 slip 39
process zone 9, 28 direction 39, 51
prod mark 20, 2.18 plane 39, 4.1, 51
INDEX 131
Plate 1. Alteration-enhanced microcracking. The plagioclase crystal in the light blue colour is fragmented along cleavage planes without significant rotation
or displacement of the fragments. Alteration of the feldspar to more sodic compositions (and ultimately to laumontite) occurs along the microcracks, showing
that chemical reaction and deformation were linked in alteration-enhanced microcracking. The fractal dimension of the particle size distribution (PSD) is
~2.0, which is characteristic of this type of cataclasis. (Chapters 2.2.1, 2.3.6).
XPL, ST, 4.3 mm, Biotite granite, Cajon Pass drillhole, California, U.S.A.
Plate 2. Extension microcrack. Grain boundaries between the yellow and pink grains in the wallrock can be matched across the microcrack, demonstrating
extension in the plane of the section. The microcrack is filled by angular fragments of quartz, biotite and feldspar in random orientations which can not be
matched with adjacent grains in the wall-rock. These textures suggest that the fragments were transported in a single, chaotic manner from some distance,
probably in a fluid matrix. The fractal dimension of the PSD is approximately 2.8, slightly higher than typical for extension microcracks. (Chapter 2).
XPL, ST, 2.2 mm, Granodiorite, Cajon Pass drillhole, California, U.S.A.
Plate 3. Microfault. The great variety of colours of the fragments (mostly quartz) in the matrix under the sensitive tint plate shows that they have been
rotated and probably derived from grains at least outside the field of view. Many fragments are equant and sub-angular, suggesting some wear during shear.
The fractal dimension of the PSD is approximately 2.6, a common value for fragments in shear fractures, and also the value predicted by the constrained
comminution model. (Chapters 2.2.2, 2.4).
XPL, ST, 4.3 mm, Granite, Cajon Pass drillhole, California, U.S.A.
136 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 4. Selective microfracture of larger fragments. Angular, randomly orientated fragments were produced by microfracture during cataclasis. A large
feldspar grain at lower right is separated into two fragments by a microfault. The fractal dimension of the PSD is approximately 2.9. (Chapter 2.2.2).
XPL, ST, 4.3 mm, Granite, Cajon Pass drillhole, California, U.S.A.
Plate 5. Elastic mismatch strains. Intracrystalline plastic strains around the ends of an inclusion of biotite are dramatically shown by the areas of quartz in
extinction, compared to the birefringent host grain elsewhere. The strained area has the same geometry as the area of high stress predicted from modelling
the elastic stress field around a weak inclusion, suggesting that the elastic stresses resulted in lattice distortion. See Fig. 2.11. (Chapter 2.3.7).
XPL, 0.5 mm, Chilimanzi granite, Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe.
Plate 6. Riedel shears, asymmetric boudin and P-foliation in a sinistral gouge zone. Riedel shears trend from top right to bottom left, and cut across a P-
foliation which trends in the opposite direction. The two features surround an asymmetrical boudin. All three features give a sinistral shear sense. Compare
with Figs. 2.17, 7.20. (Chapters 2.7, 7.13.4).
PPL, 2 mm, Tarskavaig thrust zone, Tarskavaig, Isle of Skye, Scotland, U.K.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 137
Plate 7. Y-Shear in a gouge zone. The central dark line parallel to the top/bottom edges of the photomicrograph is a Y-shear. Above and below are Riedel
shears similar to those in the previous plate, which give a sinistral sense of shear. Compare with Fig. 2.17. (Chapters 2.7, 7.13.4).
PPL, 2 mm, Tarskavaig thrust zone, Tarskavaig, Isle of Skye, Scotland, U.K.
Plate 8. Foliated cataclasite. The foliation (planar feature from upper right to lower left) is defined by bands of quartz and calcite. Calcite-filled microfractures
at high angles to the foliation demonstrate the brittle component of the deformation. (Chapter 1.3).
XP, 1 mm, Foliated cataclasite, Punchbowl fault zone, California, U.S.A.
Plate 9. Pseudotachylite. Dark, fine grained matrix containing clasts fills a triangular-shaped veinlet branching from a narrow vein of the same material
parallel to a fault surface. The veinlet cross-cuts an older foliation in the wall rock. Sub-angular fragments of wall rock in the veinlet have a large range of
sizes. All these features are typical of pseudotachylite. See Plates 10, 11. (Chapter 2.11).
PPL, 2 mm, Pseudotachylite in grey gneiss mylonite, Buhwa, Zimbabwe.
138 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 10. Pseudotachylite. The same view as plate 9 in crossed polars. The opacity of the matrix suggests a glassy nature. Slight alteration to a very fine
grained, moderately birefringent phyllosilicate picks out a weak foliation in bands which are concave towards the apex of the veinlet. These bands suggest a
primary flow foliation. See Plates 9, 11. (Chapter 2.11).
XL, 2 mm, Pseudotachylite in grey gneiss mylonite, Buhwa, Zimbabwe.
Plate 11. Pseudotachylite. Branching veins contain an opaque, fine grained matrix suggesting glass. Poorly sorted, sub-rounded fragments define a weak
foliation parallel to a feint colour banding in the matrix. The foliation and banding are folded about an axis parallel to the margin of one vein, suggesting a
flow foliation. See Plates 9, 10. (Chapter 2.11).
PPL, 2 mm, Pseudotachylite in tonalitic granulite, Bollingen Islands, Antarctica.
Plate 12. Truncated Ooid. Concentric banding in the elliptical ooid is truncated at the upper and lower surfaces by quartz grains along approximately planar
surfaces. The length of the original ooid can be estimated as approximately 0.6 mm: its present length is 0.3 mm. (Chapter 3.4).
XPL, 1 mm, Bargate Stone, U.K.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 139
Plate 13. Strain cap. The porphyroclast of feldspar at centre has foliae of muscovite wrapped around the top and bottom surfaces. Flakes of muscovite
distributed sparsely through the matrix around the porphyroclast define a weak foliation. The presence of muscovite in the matrix suggests that the muscovite
was concentrated in the strain cap by diffusion of the other matrix components away from the strain cap. (Chapter 3.5).
XPL, 1 mm, Mylonite, Moine thrust zone, Scotland, U.K.
Plate 14. Microstylolite truncating crinoid fragment. The microstylolite has a filling of opaque iron oxides/hydroxides and truncates the crinoid fragment,
showing material removal. See Fig. 3.8. (Chapter 3.6).
PPL, 1 mm, Crinoidal limestone, Derbyshire, U.K.
Plate 15. Microstylolites. The wider stylolite is approximately planar, and the narrow stylolite is sinusoidal. Both are zones of concentrated opaque minerals,
which are found in low concentrations throughout the adjacent rock, showing that they have been concentrated by removal of the more soluble carbonates
along the stylolites. Shell fragments are truncated by the stylolites. The amplitude of the sinusoidal stylolite suggests approximately 0.3 mm of shortening
perpendicular to the stylolite trace. (Chapter 3.6).
PPL, 2 mm, Carboniferous limestone, Somerset, U.K.
140 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 16. Incipient crenulation cleavage. A early fabric defined by muscovite and chlorite is folded into open folds. A weak second fabric is seen on the
fold limbs, defined by muscovite and chlorite alignment parallel to the axial surfaces of the folds, and by concentrations of opaque minerals which are found
elsewhere throughout the rock, suggesting that diffusive mass transfer has contributed to the formation of this cleavage by removal of the more soluble
phases from the fold limbs. (Chapter 3.7.2.2).
PPL, 2 mm, Albite chlorite schist, Perthshire, U.K.
Plate 17. Advanced crenulation cleavage and fabric transposition. Two distinct types of layers are visible in this rock. Layers consisting of strongly aligned
biotite also contain a few small elongate grains of quartz parallel to the biotite fabric (S2, not labelled). Layers between the S2 domains contain larger,
equant quartz grains and a higher proportion of quartz, which defines a compositional banding (S1, not labelled) of quartz layers alternating with biotite
layers, which also have a strong fabric parallel to S1. S1 is folded into tight to isoclinal asymmetric folds; small scale fold hinges can be seen in some of
the biotite grains and in the compositional layering. Depletion of quartz in the S2 layers shows that it has diffused away from the S2 domains. S1 has been
almost completely transposed into S2. (Chapter 3.7.2).
XP, 1 mm, Biotite schist, Cornwall, U.K.
Plate 18. Precipitation and solution textures in hydrothermal quartz. This SEM-CL false colour image shows a zoned quartz crystal with euhedral concentric
growth zones shown by different colours disrupted by solution. The complex zonation patterns show variations in fluid chemistry during growth. (Chapter
3.9).
SEM-CL, 0.9 mm. Hydrothermal quartz vein cross-cutting the Ventersdorp Contact Reef, Klerksdorp goldfield, Witwatersrand, South Africa.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 141
Plate 19. Pressure fringe. Fibrous quartz overgrows euhedral faces of pyrite crystals. The quartz fibres are perpendicular to several faces, showing a typical
face-controlled geometry. (Chapter 3.9).
XPL, 1 mm, Quartz-sericite schist, Sabi mine, Zvishavane, Zimbabwe.
Plate 20. Blocky microvein filling. Blocky grains of calcite filling this microvein suggest a single opening and filling event. (Chapter 3.12).
XPL, 2 mm, Mylonite, Freda Rebecca mine, Bindura, Zimbabwe.
Plate 21. Syntaxial vein filling. The photomicrograph shows one side of a syntaxial quartz and calcite vein filling. A narrow band of partly fibrous quartz
lines the vein adjacent to the dark wall rock. Some fibres overgrow quartz grains in the wall rock, and the quartz grain size increases away from the wall,
showing that the quartz grew syntaxially. The calcite consists of curved but unstrained calcite fibres, which also coarsen away from the wall rock. The
calcite fibres grow towards a median suture which is parallel to the vein wall. A second group of fibres growing from the opposite side of the vein meets
the first group at the median suture, but the two groups are not continuous. The continuity between the vein quartz and the wall rock, the increase in grain
size away from the wall, and the joining of two separate groups of fibres at the median suture are all distinctive features of syntaxial growth. The curved but
undeformed nature of the fibres shows that the curvature is a primary growth feature. Since the fibres grow towards a median suture, wall rock control of
their orientation is unlikely, and the fibres probably tracked the incremental opening vector, which rotated with respect to the vein. See Fig. 3.17a. (Chapter
3.12).
XPL, 4.3 mm, Quartz-calcite vein, locality unknown.
142 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 22. Non-systematic (stretched) fibres. Individual quartz fibres stretch all the way across the microvein. There is no symmetry or suture, and the sides
of the fibres have interlocking teeth. They are subdivided into tablets perpendicular to their length, each of which represents a growth increment. These are
the typical features of non-systematic growth histories. See fig. 3.17e. (Chapter 3.12).
XPL, 4 mm, Semi-psammite, Anglesey, U.K.
Plate 23. Tracking fibres. Undeformed biotite fibres grow obliquely across the microvein, and remain parallel through a small jog in the margin (centre).
These observations suggest that the fibres were tracking an incremental opening direction that was oblique to the margin, since the change in the margin
orientation at the jog has no effect on the fibre orientation. (Chapter 3.12).
XPL, 1 mm, Serpentinite, Sabi mine, Zvishavane, Zimbabwe.
Plate 24. Deformation twins in calcite. Characteristic features of deformation twins are variable thickness, pinching out, and bending of individual twins.
These twins are type 2 of Burkhard’s classification, and therefore formed between 150 and 300°C. Also see Fig. 4.11. (Chapters 4.3, 9.11.2).
XPL, 0.25 mm, Limestone, Mushandike, Zimbabwe.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 143
Plate 25. Grain boundary migration. Advanced stages of grain boundary migration. As well as highly convoluted grain boundaries, blue grains can be seen
entirely surrounded (in the plane of the section) by the yellow grain. Also see Figs. 4.17, 4.18. (Chapter 4.8).
XP, ST, 0.5 mm, Deformed granitic rock, Unknown locality.
Plate 26. A strong grain shape fabric defined by hornblende and biotite shows no evidence of internal strain features, and formed by solid state diffusive
mass transfer. The fabric in the mafic minerals has controlled the shape of the quartz grains, imparting a similar fabric. Also see Plate 27. (Chapter 5.3).
PPL, 4 mm, Hornblende schist, Makaha greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
Plate 27. Grain boundary control in a two-phase aggregate. Quartz grain boundaries are controlled by muscovite grains. Boundaries between two quartz
grains are perpendicular to muscovite basal planes, and often pinned at the ends of the muscovite grains (centre). Both these effects are due to the higher
surface energies between quartz and mica than between quartz grains. The resultant quartz grains are elongate parallel to the muscovite fabric. Also see
Plate 26. (Chapter 5.3).
XP, 2 mm, Mica-garnet schist, Miami district, Zimbabwe.
144 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 28. Decussate texture. Randomly orientated, interlocking, elongate actinolite crystals show a good example of this texture, produced by diffusive mass
transfer processes in crystals with anisotropic growth rates. (Chapter 5.4).
XPL, 2 mm, Biotite-actinolite schist, Arcturus mine, Zimbabwe
Plate 29. Snowball texture in garnet. Inclusions trails of quartz define an internal foliation that curves through more than 180°. The external foliation is
defined by a strong grain shape fabric in adjacent muscovite. See Fig. 7.18. (Chapters 5.6, 7.8).
XPL, 4 mm, Muscovite-garnet schist, Makaha greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
Plate 30. Pretectonic porphyroblast. The andalusite porphyroblast contains randomly orientated opaque inclusions. An external fabric defined by biotite
wraps around the porphyroblast. This is the typical texture of pre-tectonic porphyroblasts (Fig. 5.3c). Asymmetric quartz pressure shadows (light areas)
occur on either side of the porphyroblast. See Plate 44 for another example from this rock. (Chapter 5.6).
PPL, 2 mm, Biotite-andalusite schist, Sharriva greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 145
Plate 31. Intertectonic porphyroblasts. The two biotite porphyroblasts contain an internal fabric of relatively large quartz grains. The external fabric
is continuous with but has a smaller grain size The strong fabric localized on the limbs of folds in and the folds themselves, are not present in
the biotite porphyroblasts. The porphyroblasts grew after was formed, but before reached its present grain size and was folded, showing the diagnostic
features of intertectonic porphyroblast (Fig. 5.3b). (Chapter 5.6).
PPL, 2 mm, Metapelite, Longman Mountains, Sichuan province, China.
Plate 32. Syntectonic porphyroblast. The external foliation is continuous with the internal foliation, which is curved within the staurolite porphyroblast.
This is the typical texture of a syntectonic porphyroblast (Fig. 5.3c). (Chapter 5.6).
XPL, 4 mm, Staurolite schist, Dindi greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
Plate 33. Post-tectonic porphyroblast. The kyanite porphyroblast at centre grows across a strong biotite-muscovite fabric. The internal fabric and the
external fabric are continuous, and is undeformed around the porphyroblast, indicating post-tectonic growth (See Fig. 5.3d). (Chapter 5.6).
PPL, 2 mm, Kyanite staurolite schist, Reynolds range, Arunta block, Australia.
146 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 34. Corona. The central hornblende grain is surrounded by an intergrowth of orthopyroxene, plagioclase and magnetite, a typical texture produced by
prograde reaction of hornblende. (Chapter 5.7).
PPL, 1 mm, Mafic granulite, Northern Marginal Zone, Chief Bota, Zimbabwe.
Plate 35. Symplectite. Intergrowth between orthopyroxene (clear) and plagioclase (clouded appearance). Vermicular intergrowth of the two phases occurs
because diffusion distances during the reaction were too small to allow an equilibrium microstructure
to form. (Chapter 5.7).
PPL, 2 mm, Mafic granulite, Datong-Huai’an, China.
Plate 36. Magmatic grain shape fabric. The three large euhedral plagioclase phenocrysts and several smaller ones define a grain shape fabric trending from
upper right to lower left. The phenocrysts are completely unstrained and set in a matrix of pyroxene. Undeformed igneous zoning can be seen in the largest
phenocryst. No evidence for deformation is seen in the hand specimen, which also shows the alignment of euhedral phenocrysts. The complete lack of
microstructural evidence for strain demonstrates that the fabric is magmatic. (Chapter 6.4).
XPL, 2 mm, Basalt, Bembezi river, Zimbabwe.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 147
Plate 37. Magmatic/submagmatic grain shape fabric. Euhedral plagioclase and biotite crystals define a grain shape fabric parallel to the top/bottom of the
plate. The only other evidence for deformation is slight undulatory extinction in quartz. Primary, undeformed zoning is visible in the dark plagioclase crystal
on the right. The biotite and feldspar crystals define a moderate grain shape fabric in the hand specimen. There is no evidence for recrystallization (e.g.
a quartz aggregate shape fabric). The deformation was either magmatic, with a later non-magmatic deformation that created undulatory extinction in the
quartz, or sub-magmatic. In either case, the fabric was created with melt present. (Chapter 6.5).
XPL, 4 mm, Tonalite, Fort Rixon, Zimbabwe.
Plate 38. Sub-magmatic fabric. The euhedral outline of the feldspar megacryst is parallel to a biotite and hornblende grain shape fabric. A euhedral feldspar
megacryst alignment is a conspicuous feature of the outcrop from which this specimen was collected. The feldspar megacryst is recrystallized along its
margins, and slight bending of the feldspar twins is visible. This granite is part of a suite that is syntectonic with a major deformation event. The shape fabric
and the intracrystalline deformation features can therefore be interpreted as submagmatic. (Chapter 6.5).
XPL, 2 mm, Razi Granite, Mavizhu, Zimbabwe.
Plate 39. Curved foliation. Foliation defined by muscovite lies at angle of about 45° to the upper edge of the plate. It curves smoothly to become parallel to
the lower edge of the plate, which is the orientation of the shear plane. The clockwise rotation shows a dextral sense of shear (Fig. 7.1). (Chapter 7.2).
XPL, 1 mm, Granite, Mushandike, Zimbabwe.
148 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 40. fabric or extensional crenulation cleavage. A penetrative S-foliation from upper left to lower right is defined by hornblende grains. S is
deflected into a narrow inclined in the opposite direction. The sinistral shear sense is clear from the curvature of S into (See Figs. 7.12, 7.13).
(Chapter 7.5).
XP, 1 mm, Hornblende Schist, Unknown locality.
Plate 41. S-, C- and Three fabrics are visible. The pervasive S-foliation inclined from upper right to lower left is defined by muscovite and quartz
grain shapes and compositional banding. Discrete shears parallel to the top and bottom edges are C-surfaces. A few discrete shear surfaces are inclined to
the shear plane from upper left to lower right; these are surfaces. Both S-C porphyroclastic fabrics and banded fabrics and
are visible (see Fig. 7.11 for definitions of and The dextral shear sense is clearly given by the curvature of S towards C- and (See
Figs. 7.12, 7.13). (Chapter 7.5).
PPL, 1 mm, Mylonite in grey gneiss, Buhwa, Zimbabwe.
Plate 42. Mica fish. The lozenge shape of this single crystal of biotite is typical of mica fish. Short tails of biotite extend from the end of the fish, and appear
to have formed by microfracture along basal cleavage planes. The basal cleavage is parallel to the long axis of the fish. Recrystallization occurs along the
left and right margins of the fish. The shear sense is clear from the left-stepping tails, and the clockwise rotation from the long axis of the fish to the shear
plane (parallel to the top/bottom edges of the plate). Also see Plate 43. (Chapter 7.7).
XPL, 0.5 mm, Mylonite, Shamva greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
COLOR PLATE SECTION 149
Plate 43. Hornblende fish. The single hornblende crystal has a similar geometry to the mica fish in the previous plate. The dextral shear sense is clear from
the stair stepping of the tails and the obliquity of the fish long axis to the shear plane. Also see Plate 42. (Chapter 7.7).
XPL, 2 mm, Granite mylonite, Zivuku, Zimbabwe.
Plate 44. Asymmetrical pressure shadow. This andalusite porphyroclast gives a dextral shear sense from the left-stepping tails. The clear areas are
pressure shadows of quartz which also step up to the left. Plate 30 shows another example from this rock. (Chapter 7.6).
PPL, 2 mm, Biotite schist, Shamva greenstone belt, Zimbabwe.
Plate 45. Matching of grains across a microfault. The use of the sensitive tint plate allows grains of similar colour to be matched across the microfault,
showing a sinistral separation of ~ 0.1 mm in this section. The microfault matrix contains fragments of different colours from the adjacent grains, suggesting
rotation or transport from other grains, as well as a quartz cement which is continuous with the wall grains (Fig. 7.23). (Chapter 7.13).
XPL, ST, 1 mm, Barrios quartzite, Cantabrian zone, Villamanin, Spain
150 COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 46. Multiple sets of PDFs in quartz. The central grain shows at least three sets of PDFs, visible from slight contrasts in optical properties. The typical
planar, sharp and parallel (within individual sets) geometries of PDFs contrasts with the non-planar appearance of deformation lamellae, shown in Fig. 4.13.
(Chapter 8.4).
XPL, 0.45 mm, Aruonga Impact crater, Chad.
Plate 47. Suevite. Two types of clast can be distinguished. The large clear clast on the left has prominent circular features which are ballen structure. The
right hand clast is feldspar. The dark matrix anastomoses around the clasts, defining a weak fabric. (Chapter 8.6).
PPL, 1 mm, Suevite, Bosumtwi Impact crater, Ghana.
Plate 48. Suevite. The same view as the previous plate in cross polarized light. The clear clasts are non-birefringent. The boundaries between individual
ballen are filled by a birefringent phase, probably a clay mineral, suggesting that the ballen structure formed in a similar way to perlitic texture by hydration
of a glass. Traces of albite twins can be seen in the feldspar clast, which has the mottled extinction characteristic of mosaicism. However, in view of the
evidence for alteration, the mosaicism can not be unambiguously attributed to shock. (Chapter 8.6).
XPL, 1 mm, Suevite, Bosumtwi Impact crater, Ghana.