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CompTIA A+ Essentials
220-601: Networks
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Before we discuss networking protocols and hardware, let's examine a few critical
concepts.
Addressing
Addressing is the assignment of IP addresses to hosts on a network. There are two
categories of IP addresses: public and private. An Internet Service Provider (ISP)
provides public IP addresses used over the Internet. You have to purchase public IP
addresses from an ISP. Private IP addresses are available free of charge and are used on a
LAN. You cannot use private IP addresses over the Internet.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the rate at which information travels from one location to another over a
channel. Bandwidth is typically measured in Megabits per second (Mbps), Kilobits per
second (Kbps), or bits per second (bps). The amount of information that can be sent at
any time depends on the available bandwidth at that time — the higher the bandwidth, the
greater the amount of information that can be passed from one location to another.
Status Indicators
Status indicators are used to determine whether a network device such as a Network
Interface Card (NIC) or a switch is working properly. You can diagnose network device
problems with status indicators. A NIC has two indicator lights: a link indicator and an
activity indicator that provide information on the status of the link and on network
activity, respectively. A switch has indicator lights that show whether the device is
working properly.
Network Architectures
Network architecture is a collective term that denotes a collection of protocols,
topologies, and access methods. Examples of network architectures include the Ethernet
and Token Ring topologies. The pages that follow provide more detail about these
architectures.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a group of standards used in a LAN. The naming standard is the same for
different Ethernet types. The first number of each standard indicates the transmission
speed in Mbps, the middle section indicates the signaling type, and the last section
indicates the transmission medium.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
For example, in a 100BaseTX model, the "100" indicates that the network can transmit
data at 100 Mbps. "Base" indicates that the network uses the baseband transmission
method — meaning only one signal is sent over the network medium at a time. "TX"
indicates that a twisted-pair cable is used as the network medium. T can also indicate
twisted-pair cable, and F, FL, FX, LX, and SX indicate fiber optic cable. In the Ethernet
standards 10Base2 and 10Base5, the "2" indicates thinnet coaxial cable and "5" indicates
thicknet coaxial cable.
Token Ring
Token Ring networks can be of Type 1 or Type 3. Type 1 networks normally use STP
cables and operate at 4 or 16 Mbps. Type 3 networks use UTP cables; they also operate at
4 or 16 Mbps.
Network Protocols
A network is an interconnection of computers that use the same or different network
protocols. A protocol is a set of rules that determine how computers communicate over a
network. Protocols are grouped according to their functions.
• TCP/IP
• NWLINK IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequence Packet Exchange)
TCP/IP
TCP/IP is a standard set of rules used for communication in large networks. TCP/IP is
managed through two different hierarchical structures. First is the IP address hierarchy,
which uniquely identifies a host such as a computer, printer, or router in a network.
Second is the TCP hierarchy, a transport-level protocol responsible for providing reliable
data delivery over the network.
TCP/IP is included with Windows 9x, Windows ME, Windows NT, Windows 2000, and
Windows XP. Communication over the Internet requires TCP/IP.
Three major fields have to be configured for TCP/IP: the IP address, the subnet mask,
and the default gateway. These are described on the pages that follow.
IP Addresses
An IP address is a 32-bit number that is a combination of four 8-bit numbers known as
octets. This 32-bit number is in the abc.abc.abc.abc format, where abc is a decimal
number in the range of 0 to 255. An example of an IP address is 202.10.100.1.
The subnet mask divides a large TCP/IP network into smaller networks. A subnet defines
all computers that have a common network prefix. IP addresses have a network section
that identifies the network to which the computer belongs and a node section that
identifies the network address of the computer. A network can be categorized into
classes, with each class being allowed to use a defined set of IP addresses.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Class A
Class A uses IP addresses ranging from 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255. The first octet, 1
to 126, identifies the network as a Class A network. The rest of the address identifies the
host on the network. Class A networks can have a maximum of 126 networks, and each
network can have 16,777,214 hosts, by using the default subnet mask 255.0.0.0.
Class B
Class B uses IP addresses ranging from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. The first two
octets, 128.0 to 191.255, identify the network as a Class B network. The rest of the
address identifies the host on the network. Class B networks can have a maximum of
65,534 networks, and each network can have 65,534 hosts, by using the default subnet
mask of 255.255.0.0.
Class C
Class C uses IP addresses ranging from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. The first three
octets, 192.255.0 to 223.255.255, identify the network as a Class C network. The rest
of the address identifies the host on the network. Class C networks can have a maximum
of 2,097,152 networks, and each network can have 254 hosts, by using the default subnet
mask of 255.255.255.0.
Default Gateways
The default gateway specifies the address of the router to which the host sends all TCP/IP
traffic. It also helps send TCP/IP traffic from a source computer to a target computer on a
different subnet. Every computer connected in a network has the same default gateway
address.
If a network consists of more than one subnet, data can still be sent to a target computer
in a different subnet by using a default gateway address. The address of the default
gateway is also required if the computer is connected to the Internet.
NWLINK IPX/SPX
IPX/SPX is the protocol used on Novell NetWare networks. To support the IPX/SPX
protocol, Microsoft created its own version, known as NWLINK. IPX/SPX requires a
network number and a frame type setting if possible.
The frame type is usually autodetected. If not detected, the frame type defaults to IEEE
802.2. IPX/SPX is included with Windows 9x, Windows ME, Windows NT, Windows
2000, and Windows XP.
NetBEUI/NetBIOS
NetBEUI is a modified version of the Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS)
developed by Microsoft for Windows networking. The NetBIOS protocol is a name
resolution protocol that searches for computers on a LAN by computer name. It is used
mostly in Ethernet and token ring networks.
NetBIOS sends a request as a network control block, which contains information such as
the request location and the name of the destination host. NetBIOS works in two modes:
NetBEUI is the default protocol for Windows 9x. It's a simple protocol for creating a
small network in a small amount of time, because it requires little configuration.
NetBEUI/NetBIOS is included with Windows 9x, Windows ME, Windows NT,
Windows 2000, and Windows XP.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Whenever there's a need for connecting two or more computers, you require a network.
The selected networking model may differ based on your requirements and the number of
computers you want to install on the network. There are two basic networking models:
peer-to-peer and client/server.
Peer-to-peer
A network that has no dedicated servers, where individual workstations can share data or
services with other workstations, is known as a peer-to-peer network. In a peer-to-peer
network each computer can function as a client or a server. All computers are considered
equal in functionality, and there is no central server controlling the access of resources.
Peer-to-peer networks are effective when the total number of participating workstations
doesn't exceed 20. As the network grows beyond this size issues such as security,
administration, and data backups tend to become problems. A peer-to-peer network
architecture is more suitable for small businesses where security isn't a concern.
Client/server
The client/server model uses a network operating system to manage the network and act
as a central authority for network resources. In a client/server network, there's at least one
centralized server running the network operating system that allows network
administrators to control the network. A client or workstation can make requests to the
server for resources, and the server can fulfill or reject those requests. This provides a
secure and organized network. Windows NT, Windows 2000, and Windows 2003
networks are client/server networks. Windows 2000 and 2003 use domains to provide
centralized control of security.
Network Cables
Cables connect two network devices and transfer information between them. Coaxial,
twisted pair, fiber optic, and Plenum/PVC cables connect network devices on a LAN.
You can use an RS-232 serial cable, Universal Serial Bus (USB) cable, or an IEEE
1394/FireWire cable to connect two computers directly. An external modem connects to
the serial port of a computer with an RS-232 cable.
USB and IEEE 1394/FireWire cables provide serial data transfers. A USB cable has only
one pair of wires for data transfer; it provides half-duplex data transmission. RS-232,
USB, and IEEE 1394/FireWire cables allow a serial port on one computer to be
connected directly to another computer with a null-modem cable, which is a cable with
specific pin contacts reversed.
You'll need an adapter to perform the pin reversal required for a direct connection. When
one of these adapters is used, it is possible to connect two computers through their serial
ports using a standard serial cable without reversing any pin contacts in the cable.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable was the most commonly used cable type in early computer networks. In
modern networks coaxial cable has been replaced by UTP, STP, fiber optic, and wireless
media.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
The metallic shield protects the cable from interference caused by fluorescent light
fixtures, motors, and other electromagnetic interference (EMI) sources. STP cables can
be used in any implementation where UTP cables are used, but are more expensive than
UTP. STP is generally preferred only when shielding from EMI is required.
• Single Mode fiber optic cable has a thin core-diameter of 5 or 10 microns. It uses
a laser to transmit one signal at a time. Practical transmission distances for single-
mode fiber optic range up to 50 km.
• Multi Mode fiber optic cable has a core-diameter of 50, 62.5, or 100 microns. It
transmits multiple signals using a light-emitting diode (LED). Practical
transmission distances for multi-mode fiber optic range up to 3,000 km.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) refers to fiber optic cable used in Token Ring
networks.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Networking Cables
The important concepts are:
Coaxial
The most commonly used cable type in early computer networks, but has been
replaced by other media.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Consists of four pairs of wires with no foil shield.
Shielded Twisted Pair
Consists of four pairs of insulated wires with a foil shield wrapped around the
wires.
Fiber Optic
Is available in two types: Single Mode and Multi Mode
Plenum/ Polyvinyl Chloride
Does not produce toxic fumes when it burns.
Exercise 1
Try creating a list of the networking cables, connectors, protocols, and architectures you
currently use or are considering installing or upgrading to.
In this lesson, you learned about networking concepts such as addressing and bandwidth.
You also learned about different network models, the different protocols or set of rules
used by networks, and how networks and shared resources are connected to each other.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
LAN/WAN
LAN-based Internet connectivity can be established in various ways. If it is a small
organization, you can use a dial-up connection and then distribute the Internet
connectivity among multiple computers. When you need to configure Internet
connectivity for a LAN, typically a computer or device is configured to act as a gateway.
The primary task of a gateway is to perform routing between networked computers and
the Internet. A gateway is simply responsible for sending and receiving data packets. You
can also configure dedicated connections such as ISDN, DSL, or cable-based Internet
connectivity for WAN connections.
ISDN
ISDN is a digital architecture that defines hardware and call-setup schemes for end-to-
end connectivity. This technology can carry video, voice, and data for transmission to the
specified destination. ISDN uses two separate channels for in-band and out-of-band
signaling.
ISDN lines have a faster call setup than LANs because both channels are separate. A
dedicated D channel is used for out-of-band signaling. Compared to normal telephone
lines, which use the same channel for in-band and out-of-band signals, ISDN is faster.
• Primary Rate Interface (PRI) — Consists of 23 B channels and one D channel (64
Kbps) in North America and Japan for a total bandwidth that is equivalent to one
T1 leased line, or 30 B channels and one D channel in Europe, Australia and most
of the rest of the world with the slightly higher capacity E1.
• Basic Rate Interface (BRI) — Consists of two B channels which provide a data
transfer speed of 64 Kbps and one D channel which provides the data transfer
speed of 16 Kbps.
• Broadband ISDN — Offers transfer rates of up to 633 Mbps and uses coaxial or
fiber-optic cables.
DSL
DSL describes the broad category of Internet access technologies that use telephone wire
to transmit signals to and from the Internet. There are several variants of DSL available in
the market. Asynchronous DSL is capable of downstream transfers of 8 Mbps and
upstream transfers of 1 Mbps. The other forms of DSL provide speeds from 144 Kbps to
1.5 Mbps downstream and 128 Kbps to 512 Kbps upstream. DSL connections use
standard RJ-11 connectors between the modem and the ISP. An advantage of DSL is that
the existing UTP telephone cables can be used to connect the DSL modem to an RJ-11
wall socket.
Cable
Cable modem-based Internet connections always use standard coaxial cable to establish a
direct connection to the Internet. A cable modem connects to a computer by using an RJ-
45 Ethernet cable or a USB cable.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Satellite
Satellite technology can cover large geographic areas because no cables are required for
its implementation. The disadvantage of satellite technology is that it is slower than
cable, ISDN, or DSL. The satellites and receiving dishes need to be aligned, or the signal
will be noisy and weak. A common problem with satellite communication is delay.
Signals take time to reach and then return from the satellite. This delay is known as
latency. Bad weather also affects communications using satellite technology. There are
two types of satellite-based connections: one-way and two-way. One-way uses a dial-up
modem and an ISP. In a one-way connection the computer connects to an Indoor Receive
Unit (IRU), which connects through a coaxial cable to the satellite dish. A two-way uses
two satellites to send and receive information. In a two-way connection, an Indoor
Transmit Unit (ITU) is used along with an IRU. A coaxial cable can be used with the
IRU, ITU, and satellite dishes.
Dial-Up Access
Dial-up access uses the telephone system to allow communication between computers.
Dial-up networking uses analog modems that convert the parallel digital signals
generated by a computer into serial analog signals suitable for transmission over
telephone wires. Dial-up connections can transmit data at speeds up to 56.6 Kbps.
For dial-up networking, you can use either an internal or external modem. An internal
modem is installed inside the computer's system case in an expansion slot on the
motherboard. It's equipped with its own interfacing circuitry. An external modem is
installed outside the computer. It connects to a serial port of the computer using an RS-
232 cable. An external modem uses the interfacing circuitry of the serial port.
Wireless
Wireless devices connect to the Internet through an access point. Wireless-based Internet
connectivity is used in hotels, airports, or restaurants where customers can use the access
points to connect to the Internet. This type of Internet connectivity is often a paid service.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth, defined by the IEEE as standard 802.15, is a wireless network protocol
intended to provide convergence between wireless-enabled devices such as computers,
printers, keyboards, mice, cellular telephones, and PDAs. Bluetooth is the best wireless
communication technology to communicate with multiple devices.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Infrared
Infrared technology is a wireless technology used to send and receive information by
using electromagnetic radiation in the infrared band. Infrared provides relatively short-
range communication up to 12 feet with a data transfer rate of less than 4 Mbps.
Infrared is the cheapest wireless technology. Modern laptops come with built-in support
for infrared. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is the authority that defines protocol
standards and specifications for short-range communication using infrared light.
Cellular
Cellular technology is a radio technology made up of many cells. A transmitter is used to
serve these cells, which provide radio coverage over a wide area. Several types of cellular
technology can be used, such as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
CDMA technology uses wide frequency channels to send messages that are decoded at
the receiving end. TDMA technology divides time slots among different users so they can
share the same radio frequency.
VoIP
Voice over IP (VoIP) technology is used to carry voice signals over IP telephony. This
technology allows you to make voice calls through a broadband Internet connection.
VoIP calls costs less than calls made through the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN), but VoIP voice quality is reduced.
Networking Technologies
The important concepts are:
VoIP
Allows you to make voice calls through a broadband Internet connection
Infrared
Used to send and receive information by using electromagnetic radiation
Dial-Up Access
Uses the telephone communication system to allow communication between
computers
ISDN
Uses two separate channels for in-band and out-of-band signaling
Exercise 1
Consider the electronic devices you use, for example a desktop PC, a laptop, a cell phone,
a PDA, a wireless keyboard and mouse, and so on. Determine what type of networking
technology each device employs.
In this lesson, you learned about the different types of network technologies used to
establish connectivity.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
To configure cable broadband on your computer, you need a cable modem, usually
provided by your ISP. A cable modem is pre-configured; you don't need to perform any
additional configurations.
Note: When a router has been used to connect two computers to a single broadband
connection, you can use the Web browser running on one of the computers to configure
the router.
The Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box opens. You can assign an IP
address to the computer by using dynamic IP address assignment, static assignment, or
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). In a Windows network, the IP address, subnet
mask, and default gateway must be specified to configure a host on the network. Select
the Use the following IP address radio button.
Enter the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway of the computer. We've
completed this step for you. Click OK to save the settings.
Finally, click OK to close the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box.
Note that a network administrator does not need to configure any settings if a Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server exists on the network. When you configure a
NIC, the client computer is set to dynamically obtain an IP address by default.
A client configured with APIPA will periodically attempt to locate a DHCP server. Once
the DHCP server is found, APIPA is not used.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
When a computer uses APIPA, Windows determines the IP address in reverse order.
APIPA addresses range from 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255, with a subnet
mask of 255.255.0.0.
To configure wireless access points, you should provide the IP address and gateway
address in wireless access point settings. You can use wireless access points as a router
and a DHCP.
Let's examine the terminology and technology involved with configuring wireless access
points.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Exercise 1
What range of IP addresses do you use, and what subnet mask or masks?
In this lesson, you learned to install and configure a NIC for network connectivity.
You also examined terminology and technology involved with configuring wireless
access points.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Troubleshooting a NIC
To configure a NIC on a Windows XP computer, attach the NIC to any available PCI slot
on the motherboard and install the appropriate network card drivers using the Device
Manager.
You should connect the NIC to a hub or a switch by using a patch cable. A patch cable is
a UTP cable used to connect two devices on a network. A patch cable can be a crossed
cable or a straight cable. If you're connecting similar devices, such as two computers, you
should use a crossed patch cable. If you're connecting dissimilar devices, such as a
computer and a hub or switch, you should use a straight patch cable.
To troubleshoot NIC problems, make sure the network patch cable is plugged into the
wall socket and the computer's NIC. You can check the cable itself with a LAN tester
tool or by replacing the cable.
Use Device Manager to check the status of a NIC. Device Manager is used to install
device drivers and verify that a device is functioning properly.
To troubleshoot NIC problems, you should check to see whether the link lights are
present on a network card.
To verify that the NIC is working properly on a computer, use a loopback device.
Note: If a user can't access the LAN from a computer configured to obtain IP addresses
automatically, you should first verify the IP address of the computer. If you run the
IPCONFIG command and observe that the computer is using an IP address in the
169.254.x.x range, the computer is unable to contact the DHCP server. If the problem
persists, the DHCP server could be down.
DNS
DNS is a distributed addressing system that resolves a domain name into its numeric IP
address. DNS allows you to use the Internet without the need to remember long lists of
cryptic numbers. Each domain is an independent namespace that corresponds to a
particular organization, and DNS servers manage requests for information regarding the
IP addresses of particular DNS domains.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
To configure DNS on a client computer, specify the DNS address provided by your ISP.
The procedure involves the following steps:
Step Action
1 Open TCP/IP Properties from the Local Area Connection Properties dialog
box.
2 In the General tab of the TCP/IP Properties dialog box, enter the DNS
server's IP address in the Preferred DNS Server field.
Note: If you are able to PING to a public IP address but are not able to PING the same IP
address by using a Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN), you should verify the DNS IP
settings.
DHCP
DHCP is a protocol that dynamically delivers IP address configuration information from
a central server. DHCP automatically assigns the IP address, subnet mask, and DNS
server address to the client computers. A DHCP client performs the following tasks to
configure TCP/IP addresses:
Step Action
1 The client starts and enables TCP/IP.
2 The client discovers that configuration of TCP/IP is set to automatic. The
TCP/IP stack sends a DHCPDISCOVER packet to request configuration
parameters from a DHCP server.
3 Each DHCP server on the network responds with a DHCPOFFER packet,
which contains an IP address the client can use.
4 The client accepts the first DHCPOFFER packet it receives and configures
itself with that IP address.
5 The client sends a DHCPREQUEST packet to the DHCP server to accept the IP
address. Clients that decline DHCPOFFER packets send DHCPDECLINE packets
to the appropriate servers.
6 The DHCP server responds with a positive acknowledgement, known as a
DHCPACK packet, if the IP address is unique on the network. If the DHCP
server discovers an IP address conflict, it responds with a negative
acknowledgement, known as a DHCPNACK packet. The DHCPNACK packet
revokes the IP address and forces the client to send a new request for an IP
address.
7 The client can use the IP address for a limited time, known as the address
lease period. When half of the lease time expires, the client will request
another address.
Network Devices
There are a number of things you can do to increase the performance of a network.
Upgrade slow networks by using faster devices to connect to the network is one of them.
Bridges
In the past, bridges were used to connect two different network segments in a LAN and
increase the performance of a network. Bridges operated at the data link layer of the
Open System Interconnect (OSI) model. But bridges have become obsolete and are not
used today.
Switches
Switches have replaced hubs, because switches provide faster transmission speeds. If you
are using hubs your network performance might be slower than it could be, and it's better
to use switches. Switches operate at the data link layer of the OSI model.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
Router
A router is a networking device used to forward IP packets to a host on a different
network. The process is known as routing. Routers operate at the network layer of the
OSI model.
MAC Address
A MAC address is the 48-bit physical address of a NIC. This is a unique address assigned
to the NIC by the vendor. To determine the MAC address of a computer, you can use the
IPCONFIG /ALL command from the command prompt.
Status Indicators
You can check the status of network devices such as NICs or switches by looking at their
status indicator lights. A NIC has two indicators: a link indicator and an activity
indicator. If the NIC is not properly connected to the network, the link indicator or
activity indicator may be off. If the NIC is properly connected to the network, the link
status will be green. A blinking activity indicator shows that data is being sent and
received over the network. An illuminated indicator light on a NIC card shows that the
network cable is connected properly to another Ethernet connection.
Troubleshooting a NIC
The important concepts are:
LAN tester tool
Checks that a patch cable is working
Device Manager
Helps install device drivers and verify that a device is functioning properly
Loopback device
Verifies that a NIC is working properly on a computer
Link indicator
Confirms that a NIC is properly connected to a network
Activity indicator
Shows that data is being sent and received over a network
Exercise 1
Try making a list of bridges, hubs, routers, and switches you have, where they are, and
how they're used.
Once you've done that, think about what tools you have available for configuring and
troubleshooting networks.
In this lesson, you have learned techniques to troubleshoot network problems. You
examined connection speed and strength, problems in the NIC, and access problems as
being potential trouble spots in a network.
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CompTIA A+ Essentials 220-601: Networks
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