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Final Exam Review – Urinary &

Reproductive Systems
Functions: Homeostatic regulation of the volume and composition of the body
fluids:

1. filters the plasma

2. eliminates water soluble wastes, especially nitrogenous wastes
such as ammonia, urea,(ammonia and urea come from amino
acids) uric acid (comes from DNA & RNA)
3. reabsorbs useful substances into the blood
4. excretion of water soluble metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs, salts,
electrolytes and water

Regulates:

1. water and electrolyte balance within body fluid compartments

2. pH of the blood
3. solute concentration and water volume of the body fluids
4. erythrocyte production by releasing erythropoietin
5. blood pressure by the release of rennin

Detoxification of free radicals and drugs (works with liver in this

function).

Kidney 1. location – posterior wall of abdominal cavity, between T12-L3, it

is retroperitoneal.
2. anatomy of the Kidney:
a. hilum – area of kidney where the renal artery, renal vein,
ureter, nerves, and lymphatics enter or exit the kidney.
b. renal pelvis – region of kidney that receives urine from the
major calyces and carries the urine to the ureter.
c. major and minor calyces
d. renal papilla
e. capsule

Internal anatomy of the kidney:

a. renal medulla: composed of the renal pyramids
b. renal cortex: outer area of kidney and the renal columns

3. Renal Blood Vessels:

a. Renal arteries – branches of the abdominal aorta. The
kidneys at rest receive 15-30% of the cardiac output.
b. Renal veins – carry blood back to inferior vena cava after it
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has been filtered by the kidney.

c. Afferent arterioles – carry blood to the glomerulus where
the filtration occurs.
d. Efferent arterioles – carry blood away from the glomerulus.
e. Peritubular capillaries – surround the convoluted tubules
and reabsorb and secrete substances into or out of the filtrate.
f. Vasa recta – carry blood into the medulla. These vessels
follow the nephron loop (loop of Henle). These vessels are
important in producing concentration gradients between
interstitial fluid

Nephron this is the functional unit of the kidney

Each kidney contains about one million nephrons.
Nephrons function to remove wastes and to regulate concentrations of
water and electrolytes of the filtered blood.

Blood Flow Thru the

Kidney:

Blood Flow Thru the Renal Artery ---> segmental artery ---> interlobar artery ---> arculate
Kidney artery ---> interlobular artery ---> afferent arteriole ---> glomerulus
Continued: (filtration of the plasma occurs here) ---> efferent arteriole --->
peritubular capillaries ---> vasa recta ---> interlobular veins --->
arcuate veins ---> interlobar veins ---> renal vein ---> inferior vena
cava
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Pathway of Filtrate glomerulus (filtration occurs here)  Bowman’s (glomerular) capsule

Through the Nephron,  proximal convoluted tubule  descending limb of nephron loop
Kidney & Urinary (Loop of Henle)  ascending limb of loop of Henle  distal convoluted
System: tubule (DCT), numerous DCTs combine to form  collecting ducts that
travel through renal pyramids and empty through pores in the renal
papillae  minor calyx  major calyx  renal pelvis  ureter  ureter
 urinary bladder  internal urethral sphincter  external urethral
sphincter  urethra  exterior of the body

Ureter  Muscular tube which carries urine from renal pelvis to urinary
bladder.
 At entrance to bladder a valve prevents backflow of urine from
the bladder to the ureter and kidney.
 Actively moves urine by peristaltic contractions.

Urinary Bladder Muscular organ for the storage of urine.

 lined with transitional epithelium (cells look round when
empty but flatten out when bladder fills and stretches)
 muscular wall is composed of smooth muscle that is called the
detrusor muscle
 parasympathetic nervous system stimulates contraction of
detrusor muscle of the bladder and relaxation of internal
urethral sphincter
 the external urethral sphincter is skeletal muscle and is under
voluntary control

Urethra tube which carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the
body

Micturiton urination
A. As the bladder fills, stretch receptors are stimulated causing
discomfort.
B. When you decide to urinate, sacral parasympathetic fibers
stimulate the following:
1) detrusor muscle to contract.
2) the internal urethral sphincter relaxes
C. External urethral sphincter is a skeletal muscle and therefore
is under voluntary conscious control. When it is relaxed,
urination occurs.

URINE FORMATION
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Glomerular Filtration: this is the first step in urine formation.

Water and dissolved substances filter out of the glomerular capillaries
(which are very permeable) into Bowman’s (glomerular) capsule
producing the filtrate.
1. the glomerular blood pressure forces fluid out of the
leaky capillaries of the glomerulus, while the osmotic
pressure exerted by the plasma proteins pulls fluid into the
glomerulus from the Bowman’s capsule.
The glomerular filtration pressure is the net of these two
opposing pressures.
2. filtrate consists of water and dissolved particles very
similar to plasma with the exception of proteins, molecules,
and cells that are too large to pass through the glomerulus
into Bowman’s capsule.
3. filtration rate is directly proportional to filtration pressure
(BP)
4. glomerular filtration rate (GFR) – the amount of filtrate
formed in the kidneys per minute—normally about 125
ml/minute (this amounts to 180 liters /day!)

Regulation of GFR Two Mechanisms:

1. Renal Autoregulation – kidneys respond to a decrease in
glomerular filtration (low blood pressure) in the following way:

Regulation of GFR a. a decrease in Na+ (Cl-) is perceived by macula densa

(continued) (specialized epithelial cells in the wall of the distal
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convoluted tubule).
b. the macula densa signals smooth muscle in afferent
arteriole to relax.
c. dilation of afferent arteriole occurs.
d. increased blood flow into glomerulus.
e. increased GFR results.

2. macula densa signals juxtaglomerular cells (in afferent

arteriole) to secrete an enzyme called renin into the plasma.
a. renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.
b. angiotensin I is converted into angiotensin II by
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in the plasma
and in the endothelium of the lungs (pulmonary
circulation).
c. angiotensin II causes:
i. vasoconstriction of efferent arteriole (raises
systemic blood pressure)
ii. aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex
which causes:
1. increased reabsorption of Na+ from distal
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts.
2. H2O follows by osmosis (need ADH)
3. increased blood volume
4. increased blood pressure
iii. increased thirst, increasing fluid intake
iv. release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) from
posterior pituitary  increased water
reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules
and collecting ducts
v. all the above result in an increase blood pressure
which increases the glomerular filtration pressure
and increases GFR.

Renin-Angiotensin- Angiotensinogen  renin > angiotensin I  angiotensin converting enzyme >

Aldosterone angiotensin II  aldosterone release from adrenal cortex  increased
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Mechanism: Na+ reabsorption from distal convoluted tubules

Tubular Reabsorption there are many substances that are present in the glomerular filtrate
but are either absent or in a much lower concentration in the urine;
therefore they must have been reabsorbed into the blood.

Important reabsorbed substances:

1. glucose is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule by

active transport.

Carrier molecules are necessary for glucose transport.

With normal blood glucose levels, usually all the filtered glucose
is reabsorbed.

Tubular maximum (T-max) - the maximum amount of

a substance that can be transported by the nephron.

Clinical Application:

If T-max for glucose (or any transported substance) is exceeded,

then the substance will appear in the urine.

 in diabetes mellitus there is a large increase in blood

glucose concentration 
 therefore the concentration of glucose I the glomerular
filtrate is increased 
 when glucose concentration exceeds T-max, glucose
appears in the urine 
 glucose in the urine is called glucosuria. This indicates
diabetes.

2. ATP is required since this is an active transport process. This

process uses 5% of our total resting energy expenditure!!!

3. There are different symporters for glucose, amino acids, and

other metabolites. Each transporter has a maximum rate at
which it can reabsorb. This is called the tubular maximum (T-
max).

The renal threshold is the plasma concentration of a substance

at which it begins to appear in the urine.

4. By the end of the proximal convoluted tubule the following

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have been reabsorbed:

 100% of filtered nutrients
 80-90% of HCO3-
 65% of Na+ and H2O
 50% of Cl- and K+ have been reabsorbed.

5. water is reabsorbed by osmosis.

 water reabsorption is associated with the reabsorption of
sodium and other electrolytes (most of which occurs in the
PCT).
 as H2O leaves the filtrate, the filtrate becomes more
concentrated. This creates a concentration gradient for K +,
Cl-, HCO3- and urea. These substances are reabsorbed by
diffusion.
 water that enters the distal convoluted tubule and collecting
duct is reabsorbed only if ADH is present.

6. electrolytes – negatively charged electrolytes like HCO3-, PO4-,

and Cl- move with Na+ because of opposite charges
(electrochemical attraction).

7. amino acids are reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule

Tubular Secretion is occurring when a substance that is not present in glomerular filtrate,
but is found in the urine. This is a process in which substances are
transported from the plasma of the peritubular capillaries into the
renal tubules.

Regulation of Urine 1. antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the pituitary gland

Concentration & in response to an increase in the tonicity of the blood.
Volume:
The feedback mechanism of blood is hypertonic and works as
follows:
a. an increased tonicity is perceived by neurons in the
hypothalamus.
b. ADH is released by the posterior pituitary into blood and
reaches kidney.
c. ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted
tubules and collecting ducts that are normally
impermeable to water, and water moves rapidly from the
tubules into the blood, decreasing urine volume and
increasing the tonicity of the urine.
d. the body retains water preventing dehydration and
maintaining blood pressure.

2. If the blood has too much water (hypotonic) then the opposite
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occurs:
1. ADH secretion decreases
2. distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts are
impermeable to water
3. there is an increased volume of hypotonic urine
4. excess water is urinated, blood volume decreases.

Urine Composition: varies greatly with temperature, humidity, diet, activity, water
consumption.

1. urine is usually about 95% water

2. important wastes that need to be removed from the body
include urea, ammonia, uric acid
3. electrolytes that are founded in the urine: H+, Na+, K+, H+
4. volume of urine also varies with fluid intake; sweating, etc. 
amount is usually between 0.6-2.5 liters/day.

Renal control of pH: A. In proximal convoluted tubules, the response the decreased pH
is as follows:
1. CO2 diffuses from peritubular capillaries into the cells of the
proximal convoluted tubule
2. CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydrase > H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-
3. H+ is secreted, HCO3- diffuses into blood
4. blood pH will increase toward normal.

The opposite will occur if the blood pH increases.

B. In the collecting ducts:

Secretion or reabsorption of H+ by primary active transport (can

pump against a 1000 fold concentration gradient).

Evaluation of Kidney A. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) – in renal disease, BUN rises
Function: sharply because the kidneys are not effectively excreting it in
the urine.

B. Plasma creatinine – this is a metabolite of creatine, if it rises

above 1.5 mg/dl, this indicates poor kidney function.

 Clinical Application: increased BUN and Creatinine indicate

poor kidney function.

MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
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SYSTEM:
ORGANS: Testes, scrotum, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral (Cowper’s)
glands, penis

Testes 1. tunica albuginea – white fibrous capsule that sends septa inward to
divide the testes into lobules. Each lobule contains 1-3 highly
coiled seminiferous tubules.

2. seminiferous tubules – lined with cells that produce spermatozoa.

They also contain sustentacular (Sertoli) cells that function to
protect and promote the development of sperm cells.

3. blood-testes barrier – tight junctions between the Sertoli cells

prevent the immune cells from attacking the spermatozoa. The
sperm would be recognized as foreign and destroyed.

4. interstitial cells (of Leydig) – these cells that are located in groups
between the seminiferous tubules. There function is to produce
testosterone in response to ICSH.

5. rete testis – tubes that receive sperm from the seminiferous

tubules and transport them to the efferent ductules.

6. efferent ductules – tubes that transport sperm from the rete testis
to the epididymis.

7. epididymis – receives sperm produced in the testis via the efferent

ductules. It is a single, tightly coiled duct. If uncoiled, it would be
18 feet long.

Functions:
 maturation of the sperm.
 sperm also develop motility here.

Ducts that carry sperm from the epididymis out of the body.

8. ductus (vas) deferens – muscular tube that carries sperm from the
epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. A section of the ductus
deferens is severed during a vasectomy.
9. ejaculatory duct – a tube that is formed by the union of the duct of
the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens. This
enters the urethra within the prostate gland.
10. urethra – a common tube that receives urine from the bladder or
seminal fluid from the ductus deferens and transports them out of
the body.
Pathway of sperm seminiferous tubules (within the testes)  rete testis  efferent
through the male duct ductules  epididymis  ductus (vas) deferens  ejaculatory duct
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system: (within prostate)  urethra  exterior of body

Blood Supply of the 1. Testicular artery (branch of the abdominal aorta).

testes: 2. Testicular vein – formed from the pampiniform plexus.

Scrotum sac that contains the testes.

The testes descend from the pelvic cavity into the scrotum through the
inguinal canal. After the testes have descended into the scrotum, the
inguinal canal contains the spermatic cord. If the inguinal canal
opening (inguinal ring) is weakened or too large, part of the intestine
can pass into the canal and even into the scrotum. This condition is
called an inguinal hernia.

Spermatic Cord 1. ductus (vas) deferens – conveys sperm from epididymis to the
contains: ejaculatory duct.
2. testicular artery and vein (pampiniform plexus)
3. lymphatic vessels
4. testicular nerve
5. cremaster muscle – extension of the internal oblique muscle.
Elevates testes when it is cold, relaxes and lowers testes when it is
warm. Important in temperature regulation which is critical for
the normal production of sperm.

Seminal Vesicles Its secretions constitute about 60% of the semen. This secretion is
basic (alkaline) to help neutralize the acidic pH of the urethra and the
female reproductive system. This secretion contains fructose, the
energy source for sperm motility.

Location: posterior to the urinary bladder.

The ductus deferens unites with the duct of the seminal vesicle to form
the ejaculatory duct.

Prostate Surrounds the urethra at the base of the urinary bladder. Secretes an
alkaline solution that contains prostaglandins.

Bulbourethral Produces small amount of an alkaline mucus. Provides minor

(Cowper’s) glands: lubrication for intercourse and neutralizes the acidity of the urethra
and female reproductive system.

Penis: Contains three masses of erectile tissue. Functions to deposit semen in

the vagina.

Structure:
Composed of three columns of erectile tissue that are surrounded
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by fibrous connective tissue called the tunica albuginea. These

erectile tissues contain numerous tiny blood sinuses called
lacunae.
Erectile tissue is comprised of the following:
a. corpus spongiosum – erectile tissue that surrounds the
urethra. Is softer than the corpora cavernosa that are on
the dorsal surface of the penis. The bulb is attached to the
perineal membrane. The corpus spongiosum becomes
enlarged at the distal end and this portion is called the
glans penis. The glans is covered by loose flap of skin
called the prepuce.

b. corpora cavernosa – two dorsal masses of erectile tissue.

These are attached to the pubic arch. The female clitoris is
also composed of this type of erectile tissue.

SPERMATOZOA:

Structure of a Sperm: 1. acrosome – located on the tip of the sperm head. It contains
enzymes for digesting the wall of the ovum.
2. head – contains 23 chromosomes (DNA).
3. midpiece/body – contains numerous mitochondria.
4. tail – a flagella, needed for sperm motility which is critical for the
sperm to move through the female reproductive system.

Spermatogenesis The process in which sperm are produced.

1. spermatogonial cells are outside the blood-testis-barrier (BTB)

undergo mitosis.
2. type B spermatogonial cells are transported through the BTB,
divide mitotically and produce primary spermatocytes.
(2N=diploid)
3. primary spermatocytes undergo first meiotic division forming
two secondary spermatocytes (n).
4. secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiotic division each
forming two spermatids (total of four).
5. spermiogenesis – the transformation of the spermatids into
mature sperm.
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SUMMARY OF MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS:

Organ Function
Testes production of sperm, testosterone

Epididymis sperm maturation, they become motile

Vas deferens muscular tube which transports sperm to ejaculatory duct during
ejaculation

Seminal Vesicle secretes alkaline fluid rich in fructose.

Ejaculatory Duct tube formed by the junction of vas deferens and seminal vesicle,
transports semen into the urethra
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Prostate Gland At base of urinary bladder and surrounds urethra. Secretes alkaline
fluid.

Bulbourethral Gland secrete alkaline mucus for minor lubrication, neutralize acidic pH or
urethra and female reproductive system

Seminal Fluid alkaline pH, fructose to supply energy for sperm, volume 2-6 ml, 120
million sperm/ml
External Organs:

Scrotum Sac that holds the testes; controls temperature of testes. Contains
cremaster muscle which can elevate/descent the testes.

Penis conveys sperm and urine through the urethra; contains erectile tissue
which allows it to be inserted into the vagina during intercourse to
deposit semen.

HORMONAL CONTROL A. Controlled by hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and testes.

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OF MALE B. Hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone

REPRODUCTIVE (GnRH)
FUNCTION:  in response to GnRH, the anterior pituitary secretes ICSH and
FSH
 LH in men is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone
(ICSH)
 ISCH stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to secrete
testosterone
 FSH stimulates the production of sperm cells in the
seminiferous tubules.
C. Testosterone
 most is produced by the interstitial cells, but some is also
produced by the adrenal cortex.
 at puberty, testosterone production increases rapidly.

Actions of testosterone:
1. stimulates spermatogenesis
2. suppresses secretion of GnRH
3. development of the male secondary sex characteristics:
 growth of body hair: axillary, pubic, facial
 enlarged larynx and thickened vocal cords – deeper
voice
 muscular development – tremendous increases in
physical strength
 bone development
4. production of RBC’s  increased hematocrit
5. increased secretion of growth hormone
6. increases libido

Testosterone is controlled by a negative feedback:

GnRH (hypothalamus)  increases ICSH from the anterior

pituitary  increases testosterone production and release
from the interstitial cells in the testes  increased
testosterone feeds back to the hypothalamus  decreases
GnRH  decreases ICSH  decreases testosterone  cycle
repeats

FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
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SYSTEM:

ORGANS OF THE FEMALE ovary, uterine (Fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, accessory glands
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Ovary the female gonad

1. functions:
a. produce ova (eggs)
b. produce female sex hormones – estrogen and progesterone

2. structure:
a. tunica albuginea – connective tissue capsule of the ovary
b. cortex – outer region of the ovary where the primordial
follicles are located and the ova develop.
c. medulla – central region of the ovary where the blood vessels
are located.
d. ligaments
 ovarian ligament holds ovary to the uterus
 suspensory ligament attaches ovary to the pelvic wall
e. blood supply: ovarian artery and vein

Uterine Tubes also called oviduct or Fallopian tube

1. infundibulum – adjacent to the ovary, flared end with many

projections called fimbriae.
2. ampulla – middle portion of the tube. This is where
fertilization must occur for the embryo to implant in the uterus.
3. isthmus – narrow portion that conveys ovum or embryo into
the uterus.
4. The wall contains smooth muscle and the tube is lined with a
ciliated epithelium. Muscular contractions and the cilia move
the ova toward the uterus.

Uterus thick, muscular organ that is connected to the oviducts superiorly and
to the vagina inferiorly

1. Functions:
a. provides a location for the growth of the embryo and fetus
b. provides nutrition for the embryo/fetus
c. muscular contractions expel the fetus during birth
2. Structure of the Uterus: (size: height = 7 cm)
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a. fundus – the broad superior portion

b. body (corpus) – midportion
c. isthmus – point at which the body narrows
d. cervix – inferior portion that communicates with the vagina via
the cervical canal
internal os – opens into the uterus
external os – opens into the vagina

cervical glands – produce a thick mucus. This prevents the

entrance of microbes from the vagina into the uterus.

This mucus thins around the time of ovulation so that sperm

can enter the uterus and Fallopian tubes.

Clinical application:
The Pap smear looks at the squamous cells of the external
surface of the cervix to detect precancerous or malignant
changes indicating cervical cancer.
e. lumen within the uterus is triangular: the opening of the
oviducts superiorly, the internal os inferiorly.

3. layers of the uterine wall:

a. perimetrium – the serosa. The membranous outer covering.
b. myometrium – the smooth muscle that comprises most of the
thickness of the wall.
c. endometrium – the simple columnar epithelium that lines the
inside of the uterus and the glands, connective tissues and
blood vessels associated with it. It serves as the site of
attachment for the developing embryo.

Layers of the endometrium:

 stratum functionalis – superficial 2/3 that is shed
during each menstrual cycle.
 stratum basalis – deep 1/3 that regenerates a new
stratum functionalis during each menstrual cycle.

4. blood supply to the uterus:

a. uterine artery (from internal iliac artery)
b. arcuate arteries penetrate into the myometrium
c. spiral arteries penetrate through inner myometrium into the
endometrium

Vagina 1. Functions:
a. discharge of menstrual fluid during menstruation
b. receives penis and semen during intercourse
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c. serves as the birth canal

2. Structure:
a. adventitia – outer connective tissue layer that attaches the
vagina to surrounding structures
b. muscularis – middle layer
c. mucosa – epithelium is stratified squamous non-keratinized –
this protects the underlying tissues.

Vulva the external genitalia

1. mons pubis – mound of adipose tissue that overlies the pubic

symphysis.
2. labia majora – pair of thick folds of skin and adipose tissue
inferior to the mons. These are covered with hair and are
homologous to the scrotum in the male.
3. labia minora – medial and internal to the labia majora. Much
thinner, hairless. Function: to cover and protect the vestibule.
4. vestibule – the area enclosed by the labia minora. Contains the
urethral and vaginal openings.
5. clitoris – composed of erectile tissue like the penis but lacks a
corpus spongiosum and does not enclose the urethra. Internally,
two corpora cavernosa (crura) attach to the pubic bones. The
glans portion of the clitoris protrudes slightly from the prepuce,
the anterior point where the labia minora meet.

Accessory Glands greater vestibular (Bartholin) glands – located on either side of the
vaginal orifice with a short duct that opens into the vagina. Keeps the
vulva moist and provides most of the lubrication for intercourse. The
male bulbourethral glands only provide a minimal lubrication.
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Secondary Sex A. Distribution of body fat – thighs, gluteal area, breasts.

Characteristics: B. Pitch of the voice
C. Pelvic bone structure
D. Hair growth in the axilla and pubic regions
E. Breast development – mammary glands develop with increased
fat deposition.
1. Non-lactating breast consists of adipose and callagenous tissue.
Contains little mammary gland.
2. Suspensory ligaments attach the breast to the dermis and to
the fascia of pectoralis major.
3. During pregnancy, the mammary glands greatly hypertrophy.
4. Lactiferous ducts drain into lactiferous sinuses near the
nipple.

Clinical Application:
Breast cancer will occur in approximately 1 of 9 women in the
United States.

Signs and Symptoms:

A palpable lump, puckering of skin, orange peel skin, changes in skin
texture, discharge from nipple.

Most tumors are first detected by breast self-exam.

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Mammograms detect tumors much smaller than can be detected by

breast self examination.

If your grandmother, mother, and/or sisters have had breast cancer,

it is even more important that you get regular exams and at an
earlier age.

Pathway of Ovum: Mature (Graafian) follicle ruptures releasing the ovum 

infundibulum (fimbriae) move the ovum into the oviduct  cilia and
gentle muscle contractions of oviduct transport the ovum through
oviduct from the infundibulum  ampulla  isthmus  uterus 
internal os  cervical canal  external os  vagina  exterior

Summary of the
Female Reproductive
System Organs:

Organs: Functions:

Ovary produce mature ova, secrete estrogen and progesterone

Uterine (Fallopian) transport the ovum toward the uterus

Tubes

Uterus receives embryo and sustains in during development, contractions

expel the fetus during birth

Vagina conveys uterine secretions (menstruation), receives penis during

intercourse, birth canal

Labia Majora enclose and protect external reproductive organs

Labia Minora protects structures in the vestibule and the openings of the vagina and
urethra

Clitoris (corpora erectile tissue that acts as sensory organ during sexual arousal and
cavernosa) intercourse

Female Sex Hormones: A. GnRH hypothalamus  increases secretion of FSH and LH

(Estrogen & (luteinizing hormone)
Progesterone)
FSH  stimulates the formation of a mature (Graafian) follicle

LH  stimulates ovary to increase its secretion of estrogen

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B. Increased Estrogen causes:

1. enlargement of female reproductive organs (at puberty)
2. development of the mammary gland (at puberty and to a
much greater degree, during pregnancy)
3. fat deposition in the breasts, thighs, hips (this is genetically
determined and fat deposition varies)
4. distribution of body hair in axilla and pubic regions
5. increase in libido

Female Reproductive A. Oogenesis – the process of meiosis in the ovary that results in the
Cycles: formation of a single ovum.

Meiosis II only occurs if the oocyte is fertilized by sperm.

Only one ovum is formed during meiosis, the other chromosomes

are thrown away as polar bodies.
Meiosis I Meiosis II
Primary Oocyte > Secondary Oocyte > Zygote 
Embryo
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B. Menstrual Cycle
 GnRH is released from hypothalamus
 GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH
 FSH stimulates ovary to produce a mature follicle containing
a single ovum
 LH promotes the production and release of estrogen that
stimulates the development of the stratum functionalis of the
endometrium of the uterus.
 as the follicle develops in response to FSH, follicular cells
secrete increasing amounts of estrogen which causes an
increase in thickness of the endometrium, preparing it for
possible implantation of the developing embryo.
 at about the 14th day of the cycle, there is a rapid rise in
estrogen secretion.
 this creates a positive feedback that causes the hypothalamus
to release more GnRH.
 the increased GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary releases a
very large amount of LH (LH surge) and FSH.
 the LH surge causes a further increase in estrogen secretion.
 the LH surge causes the mature follicle to swell with follicular
fluid and rupture, releasing the ovum – ovulation.
 the remnants of the ruptured follicle becomes a temporary
endocrine structure called a corpus luteum that secretes
larger quantities of estrogen and progesterone during the 2nd
half of the menstrual cycle.
 blood progesterone levels rise most sharply.
 progesterone increases the vascular and glandular nature of
the endometrium. It also stimulates endometrium to store
glycogen and fats which will provide nutrition for the embryo.

If Fertilization and  the corpus luteum degenerates.

Implantation do NOT  the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease.
Occur:  the stratum functionalis of the endometrium sloughs off.
 the stratum functionalis and blood from the damaged capillaries
pass through the vagina as the menstrual flow.
 low levels of estrogen/progesterone stimulate the release of
GnRH from the hypothalamus.
 cycle repeats.

Terminology:  a Zygote is formed when one sperm and one ovum join nuclei.
 the offspring is called an embryo until the end of the 8th week.
 after week 8 until birth, the conceptus is called a fetus.