The concepts of City and Urban

Definitions of the term City and Urban abound and attempts at synthesis appear in the literature
every now and then. But none of these definitions can claim to be the “official” or “standard” one simply
because definitions vary from country to country in the Philippines, for example, the official definition of
urban areas as developed by the National Statistics Office (NSO) is as follows:

1. In their entirety, all cities and municipalities have a population density of at least 1,000 persons
per square kilometer
2. Poblaciones or central districts of municipalities and cities which have a population density of at
least 500 persons per square kilometers
3. Poblaciones or central districts (not included in 1 and 2) regardless of population size, which have
the following:
a. Street pattern, i.e. network of streets in either parallel or right angle;
b. At least six establishments (commercial, manufacturing, recreational, and/or personal
services); and
c. Any of the three of the following:
i. A town hall, church or chapel with religious services at least one a month;
ii. A public plaza, park or cemetery;
iii. A market place, or building where trading activities are carried out at least once
a week;
iv. A public building like a school, hospital, puericulture and health centers or
library.
4. Barangays, having at least 1,000 inhabitants, which meet the conditions set forth in 3 above, and
where the occupation of inhabitants is predominantly non-agricultural.

The impracticality of adopting a worldwide standard definition has led to the established practice of
adopting the particular country’s definition of “urban” when cross-country comparisons are being
made (Pernia 1993,2). Nevertheless, the following definition of city or urban by Hartshorn is worth
quoting:

"A concentration of people with a distinctive way of life in terms of employment patterns and
lifestyle…[with] a high degree of specialized land uses and a wide variety of social, economic and
political institutions that coordinate the use of facilities and resources (Hartshorn 1992,3)

From the above definition a number of operative phrases, which characterize an urban area, can be
identified and which find correspondence in the Philippine definition:

1. Concentration of people. Various countries have adopted different minimum population

sizes to designate as urban, ranging from a low of 200 as in the cases of Denmark and
Sweden, to a high of 30,000 as in Japan (Hartshorn 1992, quoting UN sources). In the
Philippines, concentration is expressed (and rightly so) in terms of density, and, to a lesser
degree, population size (criteria 1,2 and 4).
2. Distinctive employment patterns. In contrast to rural occupations, urban production
activities are dominated by manufacturing and services, or secondary and tertiary sectors. The
Philippines census definition reflects this observation by considering a barangay as urban
when more than half of total employment, therein is accounted for by non-agricultural
activities (criterion 4)
3. Distinctive Lifestyle. Compared to his rural counterpart, the urban dweller exhibits a faster
pace of living because he/she operated in an environment that demands more discipline,
firmer scheduling, and more precise deadlines. This is the only feature not captured in the
NSO definition.
4. Specialized land uses. There is a discernible segregation of residential, industrial,
commercial, and institutional uses in urban areas. Segregation and spatial structuring of land
 uses are achieved in part through the design of the circulation system. Or conversely, the
street pattern has evolved from the necessity to link together spatial segregated land-use areas.
5. Wide Variety of institutions. The presence of economic, social, religious, cultural and
administrative buildings and institutions are sufficient condition to make an area urban.

Under RA 7160 (LGC 1991), the requisites for the creation of a city are:

1. A minimum income of 20 million pesos, and

2. Any of the following:
a. Minimum land area of 10,000 hectares, or
b. A minimum population of 150,000.

Local Government Code (1991) further classifies Philippine cities using the same variables of income and
population size:

 Highly urbanized city – A population of not less than 200,000 and an income of 50 million pesos
 Component City – a population and income below those of a highly urbanized city
 Independent City – a chartered city with a population and income below those required for a city
but whose charter makes it independent from the province.

OVERBOUNDED CITIES – town or cities classified as completely urban may still contain a sizable
rural hinterland and a town that is classified as rural does have an urban core or poblacion.
UNDERBOUNDED CITIES –when cities or towns overstep their legal boundaries and their built-up
areas extend beyond their city limits.
True-bound Cities – cities whose urban areas fit their legal boundaries.

Urban Development & Urbanization

Urban development pertains to the process of occupation and use of land or space for such activities
as residential, industrial, commercial, and the like, necessary to carry out the functions of city life.
Urbanization. Urban development entails the building and rebuilding of more or less permanent
structures over land that is withdrawn or converted from its original use, resulting in the creation of a
built environment where people in large numbers tend to move and concentrate themselves.
Urban area or urban space is the built environment that is thus adapted as human settlement with a
high degree of concentration.

Cities or urban areas, which are the product of urban development process, perform at least three main
functions:

1. Providing an environment for a peculiar type of human settlements,

2. Providing the locus of, and conditions for faster economic growth, and
3. Facilitating the integration between these two functions.

State Intervention derives justification from a number of social, economic and environmental conditions
arising from the following:

1) The failure of the market mechanism to provide for social goods and to deal satisfactorily with
negative externalities of urban activities.
2) There is inequality in almost every respect and the market tends to reinforce these inequalities.
3) Strong social classes, usually the land owning classes, dominate the weaker classes.
Government policies and actions can be grouped under any or a combination of the following functions of
the state:
a) As supplier or provider of public or social goods and services; only when:
i. There is an existence of natural monopolies
ii. When decreased cost is attained by enlarged scale of production
iii. When externalities are created by market transactions
iv. When goods provided are pure public goods
v. When merit goods are involved.
b) As regulator or facilitator of the operations of the market;
c) As an arbiter between contending social groups or classes; and
d) As social engineer.

Evolution and Trends

The Legacy of the past:

The ancient world: Fertile Crescent 4000 BC

Urban planning @ the development of city-kingdoms at Assyria by the Sumerians
The Greeks – Athens, the Parthenon
The medieval, Renaissance and Baroque Periods
The Industrial City-reform movements, the garden city concept
The Americas

Models of Urban Development in the Philippines:

Prototypes of Urban development:

MODEL I Urban development through influx of Population

a) Squatter Resettlement
b) Insurgency victims
c) Victims of natural calamities
d) Persons displaced by major infrastructure projects
e) Alternatives to resettlement
MODEL II Urban Growth through inflow of capital
a) Remittances from OCWs
b) Investment in local tourist potentials
c) Location of major institutions
d) Location of regional government centers
MODEL III Urban growth through agricultural modernization
MODEL IV Urban growth through Industrial location expansions
MODEL V Cities in towns and social equity Issues
MODEL VI Metropolitanization

The Need for planning

Shaping the pattern of growth to achieve a sensible and attractive land-use pattern

Avoiding both oppressively dense development or overly scattered and fragmentary development
 Encouraging a pattern of development that gives residents ready access to recreational, cultural,
school, shopping and other facilities
Having a street pattern that is convenient to use and through which traffic flows without excessive
congestion. An adequate road system with utility facilities.
Separating incompatible land uses and activities.
Providing a system of pathways so that pedestrian and bicycle traffic is separated from automobile
traffic.
Providing housing for the lower-income residents
Preserving historic buildings and other landmarks
Implementing street improvements and other changes to help downtown businesses compete
successfully with establishments in outlaying areas.
Creating conditions that encourage existing industry to remain and expand and new firms to locate
within the community.
Guide and manage development to minimize environmental damage
Improving region wide sewage disposal and water systems
Coordinating between the planning efforts of the various municipalities in the region to avoid
duplication of capital faculties and interference effects.

The planning/policy-making/management cycle

The cycle of activities involved may include the following:
1. Survey and analysis
a. Estimation of current and projected needs
b. Survey of existing situation
c. Analysis of economic and development potentials
d. Evaluation of results of past interventions (feedback)
e. Responses from the public
2. Development of strategies and policies
a. Clarification of goals and objectives
b. Identification of key issues/problems
c. Identification of alternative strategies/policies
d. Analyzing costs and benefit alternatives
e. Identification of the likely consequences of adopting the various alternative courses of action
f. Prioritization of alternatives
g. Selection of alternatives which achieve the optimum balance between goal achievement and
resource utilization
3. Implementation
a. Identification of implementing agencies
b. Mobilization of the necessary resources
c. Specification and coordination of activities
d. Specification of programs and projects
e. Preparation of program budgets
f. Specification of terms for implementation
g. Specification of performance measures and targets
h. Supervision of routine operations and maintenance functions
4. Monitoring and evaluation
a. Regular monitoring of performance against targets
b. Ex-post evaluation of performance and impact
c. Feedback of results into previous stages through an effective information system
Instruments of urban planning & Management
The following could be categorized in terms of function: regulatory mechanisms, fiscal
mechanisms (taxation & subsidies), and direct public provision or ownership. They could
also be categorized in terms of subject area or elements: land/land use, public services
and infrastructure.

Public ownership of land (including open-market, land acquisition, compulsory acquisition, land
nationalization)
Legal regulations of private land ownership/tenure.
Legal powers to control private use and development of land
Legal powers and fiscal penalties to control public nuisances (pollution, etc)
Legal control over vehicles and transportation.
Government provision of infrastructure
Government construction of housing
Government construction of other public buildings and facilities.
Direct government provision of public services (water, refuse collection, transport, etc) or
contracting of these services from other agencies/private sector
Regulation of private provision of public services (transport, commercial activities, etc)
Taxation of land and land development
Recovery of costs of public services from beneficiaries
Subsidies for public or private provision of public services.

Choices and Conflicts

Major areas of potential conflicts:
1. Between politicians.
2. Politicians/administrators
3. Administrators/professionals
4. Between administrators
5. Between professionals
6. External consultants/internal
7. Between departments
8. Central government/local government
9. Statutory body and voluntary body
10. Donor agency/national government
11. Public authorities/community
12. Within communities.

Criteria for evaluating performance

1. Improving standard of living has been achieved
2. There is Distribution and equity
3. Environmental sustainability is enforced
4. Fundamental rights, freedoms and personal needs are considered
5. There is Effectiveness and the ability to implement
6. Conflicts and uncertainty are resolved
CAPITAL FACILITIES PLANNING
Capital facilities is the single most powerful tools to shape the community’s development
and implement the comprehensive development plan. This includes roads, bridges,
schools, parking structures, public buildings water supply, waste disposal facilities, sewer
and solid waste systems.

Strategies:
1. Making projection and forecasts of population needs and economic conditions
2. Analysing future revenue and expenditure requirements
3. Evaluatiing costs and benefits associated with alternative investments
4. Assessing various fiscal policies and methods of financing capital facitilities

Planning Framework Considerations:

1. External factors that may influence public programs

2. Total public service needs and demands
3. An inventory of the present capital facilities of the community
4. An evaluation of the present and future plans of various government levels and
private enterprises for the provision of public facilities and services.

Forecasting Community Growth and Change

1. Population projects are the fundamental component in forecasting capital facility

requirements
2. Economic projects assists in estimating future traffic flows, water and sewage
disposal requirements, etc.
3. Land use Studies determines the type of development, and land suitability.

Revenue Analysis

Revenue analysis separates sources of revenue into categories like property tax, fees and
licenses projected over a number of years.

Evaluation Criteria

1. Fiscal impacts. Explicit consideration of initial cost of development and

subsequent cost for operation, maintenance and repairs of the capital facility.
Other fiscal impacts:
a. Changes in revenue. Capital projects may generate new revenues for the
locality.
b. Impact on energy requirements. Estimated changes in energy requirements
should be included as part of the project’s operating and maintenance cost
impacts.
c. Legal liability are potential costs of undertaking a project such as for flood
damages resulting in the diversion of a natural stream course.
2. Health and safety effects. Data on the estimated number of persons affected and
the severity of effect should be provided on :
a. Reductions/increase in traffic accidents
b. Elimination of health hazards arising from sewer problems or poor water
quality
c. Long-term health hazards like asbestos in public buildings.
3. Community Economic effects. Economic effects should include the likely impact
of the project on:
a. Property values
b. Tax base
c. Employment opportunities
d. Personal income
e. Business income
f. Stabilization or revitalization on declining neighborhoods
4. Quality of life and quality of service. Beneficial and adverse effects on the quality
of life –environmental, aesthetic and social considerations. Although perhaps not
resulting in major health problems, the potential for noise, air or water pollution
should be taken into account. Increased travel times and other inconvenience to
the public should also be evaluated.
5. Disruption and inconvenience. Some projects can involve lengthy disruptions of
service and inconvenience to users. Repairs or constructionof bridges, streets,
water and sewer lines can involve rerouting of traffic, temporary interruption of
services, or even relocate households
6. Distributional effects. Capital projects can deliver financial gains or losses to
individuals or firms. Where appropriate, these costs and benefits should be broken
down by: age groups, economic status, neighborhood or districts, residential or
commercial areas, handicapped persons, etc.
7. Project feasibility. Projects should be evaluated on:
a. Compatibility and compliance with the comprehensive plan
b. Degree of public support for or opposition to the project
8. Implications of project deferral. Impacts to deferring the projects:
a. Costs
b. Beneficiaries
c. Availability of inter-governmental assistance
9. Risk and uncertainty.
a. Cost estimates
b. Effects of the quality of service
10. Inter-jurisdictional relations. Special coordinations may be required if the project
has significant adverse or beneficial effects on other jurisdictions or agencies that
serve the same area.
11. Advantages accruing from other proposals. If two or more projects could be
undertaken together at a lower cost than if done separately, the combined effort
might rate at a higher priority.
URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Transportation planning is a process that has as its goal the determination of needed
improvements or new facilities in order to meet transportation needs of a specific region
or areas. A comprehensive process encompassing travel demand, facility construction,
and comprehensive needs assessment.

Theoretical Foundations of Transportation Planning

1. Land use. Difference of patterns of land development result in varying demands

for transportation: conversely, the type of transportation systems configuration
influences the pattern of land development. The urban environment,
transportation systems and land use patterns all interact with changes in one
produces changes in other parts.
2. Delivery of Goods and Services. Transportation is the result of a derived demand
attributable to the need for goods and services in specific splaces at specific times.

Urban Ecosystem Analysis

What is Urban Ecosystem Analysis?

Plants, animals, soils, and water are functional elements of the city or suburban
landscape, just as in rural forest areas or wild lands. These natural resources
perform important services for the urban environment and even provide cost
savings to cities. Urban Ecosystem Analysis (UEA) is a process developed by
AMERICAN FORESTS for measuring the dollar value of urban ecology. The
analysis maps local ecology and estimates the economic value of important
ecosystem services such as
1. Storm water runoff reduction,
2. Air pollution reduction and
3. Energy conservation.