Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Be not the slave of your own past.
Plunge into the sublime seas,
Dive deep and swim far,
So you shall come back with self-respect,
With new power,
With an advanced experience that shall explain and overlook the old.
-Ralph Waldo Emerson
No words can express my gratitude for the experiences I have gained through my career at UCO. Granddad,
thank you for instilling the virtues of discipline and determination in me as well as the vision to make the world a
better place for everyone by getting involved in my community – you will always be an inspiration. To you I dedicate
this work. Dad, your unwavering faith in my capabilities taught me the value of having confidence in those you love
even when they do not have the confidence themselves. Mom, your compassion helps me to keep in mind others and
avoid selfishness – from you I get my inherent outspokenness and determination for social justice. To my brothers,
thank you for seeing my potential and telling me you expected better out of me when I was willing to settle for less
than I am capable of doing with my life. Katelyn, your support and contribution to my life has always been
inexpressible in words. My appreciation of our relationship grows deeper each day as we look forward to the future
together.
Dr. Mohamad, you ignited in me a zeal for international relations that I will never let go of again. Your
passion for knowledge and understanding of the world we live in is contagious. Dr. Gatch, you were able to rekindle
in me the motivation to finish my education by always keeping an open door and an open mind. Your sense of humor
and enthusiasm with which you present yourself has made my time at UCO greatly rewarding. Dr. Hardt, I appreciate
the diligence, dedication, and care with which you approach your work. You deserve a raise and a vacation.
To Brittany Novotny, thank you for the opportunity of a lifetime and experiences that will shape the rest of
my life.
Overcome evil with good, falsehood with truth, and hatred with love.
Peace Pilgrim
Introduction
address shared fundamental needs thereby guaranteeing each individual the ability to pursue a
better life. Constitutionally mandated procedures of governance determine which strategies will
maintain an intention of alleviating shared burdens and problems which confront all citizens.
Recognizing the vast differences of individuals' morals, ethics, and personalities, social contract
theorists such as Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu discussed the necessity of codifying a just
society under a value system where all individuals are inherently free, equal, and within the same
degree punishable by law enforcement mechanisms (Nye 2002). In order to maintain justice,
liberal democracies govern society by creating a process of equalization and ensuring freedoms
amongst all people under the rule of law. The fundamental questions to those who study
democratic methods of governance are inquiries seeking to answer how, which, and why certain
practices expedite or hinder a society's evolution to utilize a governance system where all people
are free and equal in practice (Norris 2003). Efforts to achieve an utmost democratic society are
of vital importance to investigate as the analysis will inform people how to improve processes of
governance in the future. Thus far, the most flourishing democratic strategies pursue policies
and practices by government institutions which empower individual citizens (Newton 2001). If
the end goal of academia is promotion of democratic governance, then an understanding must be
reached in relation to how government institutions can best achieve the ideal of a self-governing
organization of authority. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has changed how people
interact with each other in the 21st century. There is meaning in the existence of civil society's
metrics can be measured through online contributions to political candidates and the frequency
of involvement with Internetworked Social Media (ISM) as carried out through CMC.
Understanding that progress toward just ideals are a series of small bold steps in practice,
the American Founding Fathers (Jefferson, Madison, Adams, etc.) set up a representative
democratic system of governance in America assuring majority rule, while at the same time
protecting minority rights. Democratic systems work and are the most stable when they embrace
diversity and enable protection and participation of all citizens in getting their voices heard by
those in power. Government administrative bodies through which liberal democracies are
formed must be inclusive to all persons to ensure they maintain legitimacy. When citizens see
unequal treatment without protection from injustice under the rule of law, then resistance to the
system begins and citizens make their thoughts known by defecting and no longer granting
legitimacy to the government (Huntington 1996). The social strife during the civil rights
movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is a prime model of how injustice perpetrated by
authority figures can cause disorder in the self-governing process and American culture at large.
The separation of government power in America makes certain the protection of citizens
as the main duties of government are divided into three federal branches; legislative (Congress),
judicial (U.S. Supreme Court), and executive (the Presidency). These three branches are
interdependent and accountable to each other through various legal mechanisms. For example, a
U.S. soldier who tortures a detainee could be punished for violating human rights of the detainee
if there is a ban on torture, which the soldier is subject to under law. This example proves even
those tasked to ensure the public's safety are also subject to the rule of law to prevent abuses of
power from occurring. The separation of powers and checks and balances ensure accountability
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for the system of government. By creating a structure with accountable actors, no matter their
station in life, democratic processes of governance gain credibility and thus are seen as more
legitimate authorities by citizens (Keohane 2005). Legitimacy derives from the ability to hold
accountable those who act outside of government standards of conduct, which incentivizes
compliance with the societal structure. There a various methods to incentivize compliance with
societal norms through the offering of benefits. Married couples are often given tax breaks as
the institution of marriage is seen as a stabilizing force that binds people in obligation to each
other. The state punishes can defection by utilizing law enforcement procedures since criminal
activity upsets societal structure through institutions such as the department of corrections to
Politicians are elected through a voting system whereby citizens cast ballots electing
those people viewed as upholding democratic values. If a politician behaves in a way found to
be dissatisfying by the population, the politician runs the risk of not being reelected or can be
prone to investigation or censure and even removal from office. Critical to vigorous
citizens, civil society, and public servants. Enabling means of communication is the first priority
to bring the community together as a whole and determine the shared needs of the collective. By
cultivating the shared experiences of the population, policymakers can craft and direct processes
individual level, each American is granted rights through the Constitution and more specifically,
the Bill of Rights which are the first 10 amendments of the United States Constitution. The
Constitution serves as a sounding board for the citizens' expectations of government behavior.
The framers' intentions were to be incredibly clear in what types of behaviors were acceptable by
6
governments and by the people. Trust between citizens and government is created as the citizens
see the government behaving in ways that meet the expectations outlined in the Constitution
Communication provides the transparency mechanisms necessary for individuals to verify the
conduct and behavior of others. If the administrative bodies of authority are seen as
untrustworthy because their actions violate Constitutional values, citizens' lose trust in the ability
of governance processes to uphold democratic values and virtues. However, there is recourse for
trust to be regained. If there is an executive branch breach of trust, the judiciary or legislative
branches must to step in and curtail the abuses of the executive. Only by correcting bad behavior
through a verifiable means can the citizens restore their trust to a tarnished branch of government
(Gilpin 2001).
society where defection runs rampant democratic values are cast aside and priorities of self-
sufficiency are held paramount. Democratic thinkers realized the exponential potential of
production when populations worked together and determined a system of governance must be
created that incentivizes cooperation while simultaneously punishing defection. Without trust
though, people lose their will to consensually hallucinate the identity of being Americans
because they no longer see the benefits from working together and coming back to the table once
their trust has been violated (Huntington 1996). They feel as though they are being manipulated
American identity. The ability to trust and buy into the system is of central urgency to the
state power they cannot participate in or if they feel as though they would gain more by working
7
alone (Holbert, et al 2004). Trust catalyzes the mutually cooperative construction of a shared
Trustworthiness in representing the citizens' agenda requires a means of open and clear
communication between policymakers and citizens. The media has often been referred to as the
fourth branch of government because through the media, citizens have been able to give their
feedback about the methods of governance practiced by the current administration (Ostry and
Nelson 1995). There are many methods of communication media occurs including; telegraph,
telephone, radio, newspapers, magazines, email, SMS (text messaging by cellular phone), etc.
Recently, with the massive growth of the use of the Internet, a transformation in the nature of
media has occurred (Barthel and Harrison 2009). Developments such as 'vloging' (video
blogging), Twitter, Facebook, microblogging, etc. mark a new area of Internetworked Social
Media (ISM) which consists of users generating and sharing their own content with each other in
dynamic and innovative ways (Barthel and Harrison 2009). Media has always enabled
individuals to construct a reality of shared experiences (Norris 2003). Now the producers and
directors have expanded leading to new trends in communication not studied before (Barthel and
Harrison 2009). Those interested in practices of governance are obligated to evaluate means of
communication as these mechanisms are central to how individuals interact with each other and
indicate the nature of systems they will create. In order to understand governance, one must be
deliberative with their analytical approach. Since democracies are a representation of those
people who are involved in the governance process, it is necessary to evaluate how these
individuals interact and thus sway the system of governance established (Bernhagen 2009, 182).
8
understanding how communication has shifted in the 21st century (Collins 2008). Changes in
interaction imply retroactive shifts in behaviors of politicians and governance procedure. The
recent exposure of confidential U.S. State Department cables by the website WikiLeaks clearly
shows why information management needs to be rethought by those trusted with the most
important state secrets of America. There are many features of how users interact through CMC
and ISM that have significant implications for how individuals approach connecting and
engaging with each other. The establishment of new online communities instead of in person
voluntary associations has important differences that must be noted. "Another advantage of
belonging to an online community is having 24-hour access. It is immediate and messages can
be saved for future reference. For some people, being able to write means they can present
themselves more clearly than in face-to-face meetings. Many people like having time to reflect
and respond thoughtfully" (Ghozati and Preece 2009, 238). Differences in form and style of
correspondence between CMC and 'in real life' interactions may contain explanatory value as to
why people are moving to associations using ISM through CMC instead of joining in person
Although the mechanisms and means of communication have altered the content has
remained the same. People are still fulfilling the same needs through contact, but have shifted
the means by which they network on a regular basis (Langman 2005). As policymakers evaluate
citizens needs more effectively and efficiently (Collins 2008). One must remember although the
means of communication are changing the actors and their needs have not. This observation
relevant. Members of civil society still retain a substantial role in the development of
democracy. These activists can engage the public in a more free way since they are not
constrained by the parliamentarian expectations put upon politicians. Individuals are expressing
themselves through groups and associations they voluntarily create – addressing shared needs
Voluntary associations have made themselves even more accessible through CMC and
ISM to the general public, which only serves to enhance their place in dialogues about the
democratic processes of governance. They are also gaining recognition and thus legitimacy by
increasing their interactions with citizens on many different fronts through a variety of media
outlets. Voluntary associations are cornerstone sustaining democratic virtues. As a step before
any system is collectively formed, individuals must come together to put aside their differences
and cooperate with each other for everyones' mutual benefit. Once accepting this assumption,
the grounds are ripe for the seeds of democracy to be placed. Robert Putnam indicated the
dynamics of interactions that create conditions for democracy to thrive can be defined through
the concept of social capital, "…the notion of social capital has been introduced as a direct
continuation of the thought of Alexis de Tocqueville and his vision of participatory, deliberation-
based democratic society" (Putnam 1993, 160). Those who want to form a virtuous society
hinging on democratic purposes must first get people to come to the table and participate. These
groups (such as the Chamber of Commerce, the Rotary Club, the American Civil Liberties
Union, etc.) are the doorway through which most people enter into political and civic life.
improve their community (Holbert, et al. 2004). New mechanisms of communication have
10
enabled people to create a shared experience through innovative forms of media. The most
favorable traits in governance allow for fluidity between individuals, "Empathy is the ability to
identify with and understand another person's situation and feelings. Our ability to empathize
affects how well we communicate our thoughts and feelings with others, and how comfortable
people feel communicating with us (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 233)." Without the ability to hear
others and be heard by them policymakers would be hamstrung in their efforts to address issues
facing the public. The power of shared experience is through the expression of empathy.
Without empathic communication, individuals are stuck – unable to express to each other their
most basic and fundamental needs. Communication is critically involved in and engaged with
governance which serves to keep everyone focused on the same collective goals. The role of
communication, regardless of the medium used, but so far it has received surprisingly little
work where empathy tends to be less obvious than in informal communication settings" (Ghozati
and Preece 2001, 236). To be clear, CMC are interactions and relations occurring via use of a
computer whereas informal communication settings take place 'in real life' between individuals
in the same physical location (Collins 2008). For example, tweeting with someone who
represents the US Chamber of Commerce is considered CMC using ISM while attending a
Empathy is the driving force behind collective action and justifies the existence of
government institutions through the mutual consent of citizens upholding democratic virtues.
Without a shared and collective identity and bonds democratic systems begin to languish.
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Motivation to work as a community comes from two directions. First, intentions and reasons to
act are shaped by the conditions of society giving people context for working together. A shared
need for safety may arise due to home burglaries. A homeowner's association may then decide
to allocate funds from membership dues to provide for extra security patrols or petition city
council for more police protection. Secondly, a sense of community can lead to creation of
shared values, such as the desire to establish public art. A board may be convened to raise funds
for such projects and to explain the importance of such a project to the majority of stakeholders –
the MAPS projects in Oklahoma City are another example of this type of motivational tendency
(Bernhagen 2009, 88). CMC maintains capacity for empathic enumeration, "…postings had a
strong empathic content and echoed the definitions of empathy given by psychotherapists,
person…The overall feeling conveyed in the messages is of mutual understanding and caring
developed from shared experience" (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 244). The statistical analysis of
experiencing empathy through CMC shows, "A chi-square test comparing the two types of
messages (empathic, hostile) posted in the support communities with those sent in other
communities indicates that the difference between the two types of communities is significant
(chi square = 398.6, df= 4, p <.001)" (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 246). This statistical analysis
shows there is less than 1% of probability that empathy is not experienced online. To say this
with more clarity, it can be stated that there is a greater than 99% chance of the likelihood that
empathy can be experienced through CMC. This is not to say that over 99% of the content of
communication is empathic in nature, but rather there is greater than 99% likelihood empathic
articulation can occur through this means of interface. Since CMC maintains a capacity for
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virtues. All instances of empathic existence must be studied and evaluated. Shared experiences
are powerful because they translate into real world tangible action and production (Langman
2004). People once exposed to the advantages of cooperation people will go leaps and bounds to
work together in dynamic ways to progress the advancement of everyone resulting in mutual
benefits for all participants. Creating systems of governance means letting voices be heard that
can improve the status quo and implement progress toward the ideal. The United Methodist
Church (UMC) Volunteers in Mission (VIM) projects show how ideals can become tangible.
UMC unites people under the shared identity of being Methodist to catalyze them into acting for
the benefit of others. Missioners often go to other countries to work on projects that will
improve the lives of fellow Methodists, such as building houses in Mexico or a library for deaf
children in Africa. UMC uses CMC and ISM to bring even more people into the fold – allowing
individuals to jump onto projects and join VIM teams from around the world through their
website. Societal structures are formed under the assumption of the necessity of collective action
give rise to orientations that make people believe in democracy as a desirable goal. People's
beliefs are thus the intervening variable between social structure and collective action. Ignoring
this, democratization processes cannot be adequately understood" (Bernhagen 2009, 128). While
the missioner example differs in origination, the concepts remain applicable to governance as
missioners are acting upon a shared identity to achieve a collective goal from a shared
experience.
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from such vulnerability. Democratic government institutions allow people to calculate their risk
before interacting by providing means of creating credibility through verification and reputation.
Trust is the ability to know there is recourse for defection to be punished (Yamagishi 2005). In
the American political economy, people must trade with each other due to the nature of
capitalism individuals have specialized and are now reliant on the production of other individuals
prerequisite for empathy or vice versa, and lack of common ground a cause of hostility" (Ghozati
and Preece 2001, 252). Agents should keep in mind cooperation can happen organically due to
the value of reciprocity and the nature of iterated interactions (Axelrod 1984, 21). All
empowering interactions tie together to form the network with which societal structure can instill
democratic virtues in citizens, more to this point, "Social trust, then, generated by learning and
experience from an active and vibrant civil society, is an important component of political
participation. To the extent that participation in the new democracies depends on social learning,
progress toward achieving the levels found in the established democracies will necessarily be
slow and dependent upon the accumulation of trust over successive generations" (Bernhagen
2009, 197). Contracts exist as a means for individuals to legally bind each other to the terms of
an agreement. These documents and the courts that enforce them keep people honest in their
dealings because breeching contracts results in a long adjudication process and potential
significant financial loss. Typically, people will run a cost-benefit analysis and understand
remaining cooperative under the terms of the contract is more advantageous than any potential
benefit they may get from weaseling out of obligations. Benefits of compliance must outweigh
14
incentives to defect in order for contracts to remain an effective source of legal obligation.
These types of arrangements allow for predictability and transparency of other's actions.
The extent to which people utilize their networks with CMC shows the connectivity and
engagement potential of new modes of communication, "Trust and reciprocity aid contract
enforcement and increase predictability and stability of cooperation. They allow individuals to
overcome the classic dilemmas of collective action, and transform individual preferences to
collective interests" (Bernhagen 2009, 162). Government institutions help to foster cooperation
suspend their risk and engage with each other to gain mutual benefit, they can see the
advantageous nature of cooperation (Chen and MacKie-Mason 2006). Trust is created when
space manifests for individuals to interact with each other and institutions only get involved in
governance influence how social life manifests. Civil society holds a central role in the
themselves in social activities people increase their likelihood of participation in political life
threefold; 1. Socialize individuals into cooperative behavior 2. Provide them with a number of
skills necessary to effectively shape politics at the local and national level; and 3. Expand their
formal and informal networks, which they may use for other, political or social, purposes"
(Bernhagen 2009, 162). Not only are people getting their thoughts and ideas expressed, but they
15
are also setting a shared agenda. These associations allow people to come together and decide
on a shared vision then disseminate their views to the community at-large (Bernhagen 2009,
162). Acting as a liaison between social and civil society ISM serves to utilize the connections
between people. "Civic health requires an active interest in the life of the community, city, state,
Citizenship 2010) – ISM and CMC foster the development and expansion of civic health by
keeping citizens engaged with each other and encouraging participation by increasing familiarity
with issues.
Accountability and reciprocity are critical needs for citizens to fulfill through government
institutions to maintain legitimacy for the political system. Associations bring people together
and governmental institutions give them a means by which to act, "The appeal of civil society
and social capital is based largely on their functionality for institutional quality, both in the
sphere of political and economics…they maintain their functionality only if applied in the
sensitive and context-conscious manner" (Bernhagen 2009, 163). All communication between
individuals must be taken into context. The context with which evaluations occur ought to be the
political and social system which the individual participants have set up and live their lives
under. In studying America, academics ought to look to founding documents of the country as
the contracts set up between individuals specifying the powers and authority of government
actors. Democratic virtues are being attained through a process and all acts are progress toward
the ideals and virtues set forth in documents such as the United States Constitution (Fearon and
Laitin 2000).
important point that democracy cannot be taken for granted; indeed, it is a process that requires
16
continuous input to remain vital and vigorous. One crucial element in maintaining a democracy,
therefore, is the active participation and support of a large majority of the population. With the
decline in social capital, the conditions for such popular participation and support are
increasingly adverse" (Sorsenson 2008, 48). However, as argued previously, there has not been
a rapid decline in social capital; people have simply changed how they interact with each other
instead opting for methods of computer mediated communication (Collins 2008). The nature and
content of communication have remained the same in its empathic and empowering nature
emphasizing the emancipative values of democracy, but the mechanism has shifted. Just because
a social scientist is looking at the wrong form of association does not mean associations no
longer exist – they may be present in a new adapted form of emerging communication
Individual expressions of reciprocity and empathy through CMC are significant because
political participation increases. As members of civil society express their agenda, people are
able to more rapidly buy in through CMC by volunteering their time in real life (for example,
ProjectOKC – a volunteer organization in Oklahoma City based online to help the community
offline), consuming more media covering the agenda that is being expressed, or by donations
financially to the cause seen as uniting everyones' shared experience (Chen and MacKie-Mason
2006). All actors are buying into the answer being offered by an agenda created through
consensus as agreed upon using CMC via ISM. These members of civil society are able to more
easily move within CMC because they have clearly delineated themselves as the cheerleaders of
the community in the expression of the will of the people talking and engaging through ISM and
CMC in various forms. Whether it's writing a blog or writing a check there are massive
17
implications for the time and speed at which CMC occurs and content spreads through ISM.
Participation in political life increases and gets expedited due to the interaction and engagement
between individuals and members of civil society through CMC (Norris 2003). CMC is only
significant because the nature of correspondence has changed. Communication holds a central
role because the content of interactions is a key factor in the emergence of cooperation. A
cooperative society, not a coercive one, must be founded in order for democratic systems to be
Cooperation has the effect of creating space where conflict can be resolved (Axelrod
1984) without resorting to violent ends. There is not a balance between conflict and harmony in
relations, but instead the emphasis would be more properly placed on a dichotomy between
conflict and cooperation (Keohane 2005). A harmonious system is utopian and unattainable
because there will always be variance that founders of societies cannot anticipate. However,
what people can do in founding their societies is determine strategies that will best deal with
variances in unpredictable behavior by incentivizing strategies that encourage and develop the
use of cooperative acts. Even in the direst of circumstances robust strategies of cooperation are
sustainable. The point of the matter is beginning with an intention of long-term interaction
amongst people (Tov and Diener 2009). Once one takes into account the repeated nature in of
citizens' daily lives, then there is freedom in the creation of a strategy that is empowering to
individuals. CMC and ISM create cooperative social attitudes that can spread through democratic
systems of governance.
The strongest strategy to enhance cooperative acts amongst people utilizes the concept of
empathy and reciprocity. Empathy has already been rigorously examined in its implications for
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democracy. Reciprocity, however, must be more thoroughly studied. Even when one assumes
the world is a place full of rational acting self-egoists, the existence of cooperation still occurs
even though it is not anticipated. Given this pessimistic assumption about the world, the
expectation would be all individuals would be in conflict, driven by the most extreme conditions,
and would be in a natural state to compete with each other to the end of using violence in order
to satisfy their most basic human needs. Instead, there is the emergence of capitalism – a
fundamentally cooperative economic strategy for allocating scare resources amongst unlimited
wants (Gilpin 2001). Capitalism and democratic virtues such as freedom, liberty, and equality
wise to construct a model for analysis. Prisoner's dilemma is used in an analysis done by Robert
Axelrod where TIT FOR TAT is empirically proven through a series of interactions in a
computer tournament based on game theory to be the most robust strategy for the organic
dilemma two criminals are given incentives to cooperate with the prosecutor in lieu of spending
more time in jail. However, if both prisoners' rat each other out and cooperate with the
prosecution, then neither of them get the reduced sentence for their crime, but instead will get the
each other and cooperating with the prosecution because they have no communicative means by
which to come to cooperative ground (Axelrod 1984). However, in the current day and age,
(Norris 2003). TIT FOR TAT is a strategy that will cooperate on the first turn once then
becomes a reflexive strategy by mirroring any following movements of the other actor. This
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means there may not be a maximization of potential benefits of interaction, but instead an
emphasis on mutual benefits that enable both actors to move together toward improving each
other's lives (Collins 2008). Creation of cooperative dispositions is the intention of democratic
importance, "TIT FOR TAT benefits from its own non-exploitability because three conditions
are satisfied: i. The possibility of encountering TIT FOR TAT is salient, ii. Once encountered,
TIT FOR TAT is easy to recognize, iii. Once recognized, TIT FOR TAT non-exploitability is
easy to appreciate" (Axelrod 1984, 53-54). There are many features this strategy utilized and
thus, there is mass appeal, "What accounts for TIT FOR TAT's robust success is its combination
of being nice, retaliatory, forgiving and clear. Its niceness prevents it from getting into
unnecessary trouble. Its retaliation discourages the other side from persisting whenever
defection is tried. Its forgiveness helps restore mutual cooperation. And its clarity makes it
intelligible to the other player, thereby eliciting long-term cooperation" (Axelrod 1984, 54).
Government institutions enable the actors to recognize each other by providing a forum for
interaction and verification of behavior (Bernhagen 2009). CMC and ISM also share these traits.
government practice are a central focus of ISM and CMC. Verification is critical to lending
credibility toward the system and ensuring emphasis on reciprocal behavior, "The critical
requirement is that violations can be detected before they can accumulate to such an extent that
the victim's provocability is no longer enough to prevent the challenger from having incentive to
defect" (Axelrod 1984, 185). People are reliant upon patterns of behavior they can detect
through recognition because they construct their reality and decision-making process on
interactions that have already occurred, "Just as the future is important for the establishment of
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the conditions for cooperation, the past is important for the monitoring of actual behavior. It is
essential that the players are able to observe and respond to each other's prior choices. Without
this ability to use the past, defections could not be punished, and the incentive to cooperate
would disappear" (Axelrod 1984, 182). Predictability enhances the process of tracking
reciprocal deeds and is aided by transparency as people are able to verify each other's actions and
behavior (Curin and Meijer 2006). Want to make sure an employee is of good character? In the
world of CMC and ISM employers now look up job candidate Facebook profiles to verify an
individuals' portrayal of themselves in an interview. ISM and CMC create a world in which
there is vast information available about people without having to do much investigative work -
the only process of governance that ensure individual rights during processes of equalization
amongst all citizens due to the emphasis on justice, equality, liberty and fairness (Nye 2002). All
humanity together toward greater ends by working together. These values must be instilled by
the people and kept at the fore front of any actions taken in the name of governance (Nye 2002).
American Identity construction begins at a young age and continues throughout an individual's
lifetime. Children say the pledge of allegiance every day as a reminder of the values that bring
people together. How people are politically socialized impacts how they view the function
politics and each other. "It is self-evident that democratization is not an automatism that guides
itself without agents. Instead, it is the outcome of the intentional collective actions, involving
strategies of power elites, campaigns of social movement activists, and mass participation. Thus,
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any explanation of democratization intending to illuminate the role of social conditions must
make plausible how these conditions shape actor constellations" (Bernhagen 2009, 88).
An emphasis on intention brings appreciation for the marriage of empathy and reciprocity
because they both derive from an intention of cooperation (Rosenberg 2003). Cooperation will
always be attained because through cooperation are strategies of human empowerment. Humans
will always strive to create dynamic administrative bodies, "Human empowerment nurtured
the regime, attempting to replace autocracy with democracy. In democracies, emancipative mass
emancipative values tend to transform political institutions" (Bernhagen 2009, 133). This is why
democracies thrive – their institutions are transformative in nature because of the fundamental
recognition of human liberty engrained within the peoples' expectation of government conduct,
progression toward a consolidated democratic state involves synergy and synthesis of actions
(Bernhagen 2009, 133). People will continually to seek out more emancipative orientations for
the exertion of state authority. Citizens will always desire for government to enhance their self-
sufficiency because these are the expectation one derives from the Constitution of the United
States.
The values system is what will stick with people and allow them to act as a collective
(Axelrod 1984). CMC and ISM growth are exponential in nature as the consciousness is shared
amongst humanity – the power in its message only gains strength over time. "Emancipative mass
beliefs appear to be the single most important cultural factor in helping to attain, consolidate, and
consciousness can be shared by those who have empathic awareness with individuals who do not
until empathy is retained by all individuals (Rosenberg 2003). Communication is the first step
and as people are able to associate and communicate with each other more easily through CMC
interactions gain importance (Norris 2003). People participate by engaging each other online,
but also in how political fundraising is changing (Chen and MacKie-Mason 2006). Those
candidates running for office who wish to be successful fundraisers must have an intermediary
presence through internetworked social media (ISM) conducted with computer mediated
changing, but the implications remain the same, "An effective civil society-a dense network of
associations, interest groups, civil rights groups, and so forth-is the best basis for the
Showing how reciprocity and empathy work together, an interesting realization occurs
"The foundation of cooperation is not really trust, but the durability of the relationship. When the
conditions are right, the players can come to cooperate with each other through trial-and-error learning
about possibilities for mutual rewards, through imitation of other successful strategies with a weeding out
of the less successful ones. Whether the players trust each other or not is less important in the long run
than whether the conditions are ripe for them to build a stable pattern of cooperation with each other"
(Axelrod 1984, 182).
Empathy and reciprocity are the two components of communication seen as the most valuable
for compelling people to act in a cooperative manner. Actors of communication have always
been important, especially actions taken by members of civil society. Members of civil society
have associated themselves in a way to indicate their intention for collective action with the goal
of improving society as a whole. All participants in social life impact in positive or negative
manners the processes of democratic governance (Fung 2003). Some people may choose to
protesting outside of such conferences. The World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle comes
to mind when discussing this contrast in strategies. CMC has the capacity to bring together
people with all different intentions and values. The point is there is room for improving
participation in democratic processes through ISM and CMC. People have begun utilizing
online donation systems to contribute to candidates they endorse because a shared agenda is
created through the ISM. Participation is caused by interactions online in matters of CMC and
ISM and their implications for political life. Governance in practice serves the same functions of
CMC and ISM. This process moves us closer toward empowering individuals – the ultimate
goal of democracy. The goal overall is to inform the best practices for expediting the realization
of ideas into democracy. This means determining what type of content and engagement further
substantiate and shore up participation in these means of communication as they are seen to be
significant amongst social scientists. The variables still remain to be tested and theorized, but
CMC and ISM replicate the same functions of government institutions and overlay how
individuals interact with each other. Dynamic creation by users of content and agenda setting are
the groundwork for political participation. Getting individuals to begin this process can be
volatile, but beneficial trends ought to be identified, fostered, analyzed, and engaged. By
following the most successful paths down the rabbit hole, one can determine which strategies of
connection foster better relationships of empowerment and more fully recognize the
emancipative powers of CMC and ISM. The best paths to investigate at this point are forms of
ISM that have a high amount of users, such as Facebook, to ensure there is a robust sample size
to make applicability of theories and models easier to ascertain. The variables on how to
measure connection and engagements on such a site are still a bit murky, but there is some work
24
being done to make sure this data is more clearly identifiable and less corruptible in the future.
An easier way of tracking engagement is to narrow the scope. By only looking at ISM and CMC
as used by political candidates as the independent variable, one can track fundraising
audience is engaged with the empathic or reciprocal nature of the candidate's content. However,
if there is a lack of online contributions, one could expect the candidate is not properly
harnessing the empathic and reciprocal nature of ISM and CMC methods and thus is not getting
as much engagement and connection with users. This creates an empirically based and easily
measureable model under which to test the hypothesis linking connection through CMC and ISM
to political participation in a verifiable way. All of the talk about empathy and reciprocity
pertaining to political participation may be normatively satisfying, but it also must be empirically
there must be citizen participation. Participation is central to keeping the system afloat as
government agents do their best to meet the needs of the citizens equally (Cornwall and Coelho
2004). Democratic systems are formed on the recognition of all individuals and their equal place
government supposedly of the people. To be founded on liberty and virtue all citizens must be
engaged in the political system which so dramatically impacts every aspect of daily life
(Sorenson 2008). There is not always satisfaction with processes of governance and in all cases
citizens must be prepared to offer feedback. Computer Mediated Communication only enables
Empirical evaluation of participatory measures using ISM and CMC are necessary prove
governance through ISM and CMC. One of the most commonly used platforms for networking
online is Facebook. Through Facebook fan pages political campaigns can track and look into
dynamics of people following them. Fan pages track data of followers such as their age, race,
and gender as well as other analytics and send weekly updates to the email associated with the
campaign. Campaign managers can then use information related to engagement on the fan page
to derive which content gains the most traction with the public. As of now, the best indicator of
easily managed and tracked whereas CMC content engagement remains a vague and amorphous
variable. Research is ongoing into the field of tracking robust content engagement. However,
one may correlate engagement in campaigns through ISM such as Facebook 'likes' of campaign
fan pages to online contributions with more ease. Similarity of platform (both interactions occur
through ISM and CMC) allow for applicability of these variables to each other.
To bring this concept into tangibility in academia requires collecting data from the field
of campaigns that have incorporated ISM and CMC into their fundraising strategies. Brittany
Novotny recently ran for the Oklahoma House of Representatives against incumbent
Representative Sally Kern in House District 84. Ms. Novotny began her campaign by
establishing a network of support through ISM – particularly her campaign's Facebook fan page.
Through connecting and collaborating with people on this page, Ms. Novotny was able to shore
up her support and move online correspondence into tangible offline benefits for the campaign,
namely through driving contribution traffic and recruitment of staff and volunteers. In sum, the
Novotny campaign captured $17, 450 from April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 in total online
26
contributions. On the campaign's Facebook fan page during this period there were an aggregate
1,725 unique 'likes.' The timeframe of April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 was chosen because
this timeframe provides the most robust set of data as well as is the most relevant to how the
campaign was able to use ISM in order to foster tangible outcomes. Evaluating IMS and CMC
fluctuations allow campaigns to track viability of differing content expressed by the campaign
through the Facebook fan page. The financial impact of coverage of the campaign by external
media outlets also became clear by tracking trends on online contributions and Facebook fan
In doing statistical analysis (see appendices for data tables and charts) and determining
the impact of ISM and CMC (independent variable) on financial contributions (dependent
variable) several trends became apparent. By running a regression, r-squared was calculated to
be 0.3901 overall between unique Facebook 'likes' and online campaign contributions. This r-
square value means Facebook 'likes' have a 39.01% likelihood of being related to online
contributions. The previous timeframe from April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 were the units
of analysis used meaning there were 217 observations. Using each 24 hour period as a unit of
analysis allowed for ease in comparison by tracking daily financial flows in contributions and
daily unique 'likes.' 217 observations allowed for a viable sample size allowing for stout data
comparison. This entire analysis means there is practical material to be studied in the
implications of these relationships. Campaigns provide ground to study strategies for increasing
participation in civic life as people who express interest in campaigns are likely to become
politically involved in the long-run. Engaging participative mechanisms are critical to create
Additionally, traditional media drove traffic into the campaign resulting in increased
campaign contributions. A regression was run on the impact of media coverage upon campaign
contributions. There were eight 72-hour periods of media coverage during the timeframe
studied. Of these eight media coverage periods, three have a t-stat score of greater than 1. Any
t-score of greater than 1 have an impact on the model. The three news stories with robust
implications for the Novotny campaign were published by The Huffington Post, KWTV-9, and
The Oklahoman/CNN (which happened during the same 72-hour time frame). The evidence
indicates that the null hypothesis – ISM and CMC do not have an effect on amount of online
contributions – can be rejected as a relationship is shown through analysis of the data collected.
The Huffington Post coverage had a p-value of 0.000 when run with a 95% confidence
level showing there is absolute significance in the robustness of the relationship between
Huffington Post coverage driving traffic to the campaign's Facebook fan page and online
contributions. During the time period used for The Huffington Post coverage, the unadjusted
coefficient was determined to have a value of $1,052.09. With the Novotny campaign's coverage
in Huffington Post every new unique like on the Facebook fan page was highly valuable in
tangible financial benefits. The p-value lets allows this conclusion to be reached with
confidence. The standard error of The Huffington Post coverage was $216.44 making the
adjusted value of each new Facebook 'like' to $808.65. During this 72-hour period from June 9,
2010 to June 12, 2010, there were an aggregate $7,111 raised solely through online contributions
and 543 unique daily likes on the campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation during this
time period was approximately 39% meaning the coverage by Huffington Post could account for
KWTV-9 reporting of the Novotny campaign had a p-value of 0.208 when run with a
95% confidence level showing there is probably a about 79.2% likelihood of a relationship
between KWTV-9 coverage motivating interest toward to the campaign's Facebook fan page and
online contributions. During the time period used for the KWTV-9 coverage, the unadjusted
coefficient was determined to have a value of $229.11. With the Novotny campaign's coverage
in KWTV-9 every new unique like on the Facebook fan page was of some value in tangible
financial benefits, but not as substantial as The Huffington Post period. The standard error of the
KWTV-9 coverage was $181.33 making the adjusted coefficient of each new Facebook 'like' to
$47.78. During this 72-hour period from September 9, 2010 to September 12, 2010, there were
an aggregate $1,150 raised solely through online contributions and 6 unique daily likes on the
campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation during this time period was approximately 88%
meaning the coverage by KWTV-9 account for about 88% of the variation within ISM and
online fundraising.
During the period from September 14, 2010 to September 18, 2010 reporting of the
Novotny campaign had a p-value of 0.030 when run with a 95% confidence level showing there
is absolute about 97% relationship between The Oklahoman and CNN coverage stirring attention
toward to the campaign's Facebook fan page and online contributions. During the time period
used for the coverage from The Oklahoman and CNN, the unadjusted coefficient was determined
to have a value of $430.18. With the Novotny campaign's coverage every new unique like on the
Facebook fan page was of some value in tangible financial benefits, but not as substantial as The
Huffington Post period. The standard error of this coverage was $196.69 making the adjusted
29
coefficient of each new Facebook 'like' to $233.49. During this 72-hour period from September
14, 2010 to September 18, 2010, there were an aggregate $3,775 raised solely through online
contributions and 44 unique daily likes on the campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation
during this time period was approximately 81.7% meaning the coverage by CNN and The
Oklahoman accounted for about 81.7% of the variation within ISM and online fundraising.
Overall Reach and Implications of ISM and CMC on the Novotny Campaign
On Facebook, the Novotny campaign reached a total of 1,725 unique 'likes'. The
Facebook audience demographics offer great insights to how CMC is used and by whom. The
largest chunk of the Facebook audience consisted of women who are from 25-34 years old. This
information is collected by Facebook and distributed to the campaign along with an array of
other data in weekly 'insight' reports. By providing this information, campaigns are able to
analyze content and target messaging and content to users within their audience. Targeted
marketing of message fosters higher engagement and participation in the campaign process as
people are encouraged to interact with each other through CMC with ISM. The campaign was
able to target content at various audiences and create an array resonating messages for diverse
sets of people.
campaign's message through online donations the Novotny campaign could bypass traditional
fundraising methods. Since Ms. Novotny was freed from the obligation to make fundraising
phone calls to retain contributions she was better able to get out to the people of House District
84. Ms. Novotny knocked over 3,000 doors personally while on the campaign trail. Instead of
having to sit in the office all day soliciting donations the Novotny campaign was proficiently
increased in person access and online availability of Ms. Novotny through the use of CMC and
30
ISM. There were some donations by political action committees (PAC), but not nearly as much
as one would expect to see from a legislative campaign. In 2006 and 2008 there were high
instances of PAC financial contributions to campaigns (Hardt 2010). PAC money was not
pursued by the campaign due to a viable social media presence. Using ISM through CMC
translated into practical implications for managing the campaign. The candidate and staff were
able to spend minimal time fundraising through usage of a successful ISM strategy. Instead,
most of the labor of the candidate and staff became oriented toward a grassroots field campaign
supplemented with a direct mail program – all highly funded through online contributions.
Shifting the focus of labor allowed individuals on staff to specialize in messaging and
coordination of in district work, not funding and financial issues, which are often the highest
ISM and CMC were only part of the equation of the Novotny campaign's efforts to win
the HD 84 legislative seat. Having a strong online presence with CMC and ISM is important,
but must be part of a comprehensive and coordinated campaign messaging strategy. The
Novotny campaign worked closely with operatives within the Oklahoma Democratic Party and
participated in the Party's "Campaign in a Box" (CIB) program. CIB aims to coordinate all
forms of messaging into a one stop shop. The Party will aid a campaign through CIB with a
direct mail program, online presence, and field strategy. Participating in CIB would not have
been feasible without the financial support of online contributors. The collaboration and
coordination between the Oklahoma Democratic Party and the Novotny campaign lead to the
distribution of a 5 piece mail program to 5,000 addresses and a Get Out the Vote effort aimed at
1,200 addresses to which door hangers were distributed by volunteers and interns. These
frequent interactions have the ability to create trust and increase participation as observed by
31
Putnam and Axelrod. While the Novotny campaign was not successful in securing victory over
Representative Kern, there was great success in formulation of media strategies allowing
adequate fundraising to occur. The Novotny campaign was even able to substantially out
fundraise the opposition without going to traditional sources for contributions. Through proper
funding, appropriate channels of information dissemination could be pursued that at times prove
difficult for campaigns without financial freedom. At the very least, the campaign was greatly
successful in getting people engaged and participating in the local political process by increasing
Throughout the campaign, many references were made to the demographics of Novotny
supporters as being a small elite group of well to do individuals whom reside out of state.
However, the demographics show most of the following of the Novotny campaign through CMC
and ISM came from within Oklahoma and even Oklahoma City. Individuals indicate their
location to Facebook, which is then given to the campaign in reports from Facebook's aggregated
data related to the campaign page. From these reports, followers of the Novotny campaign
consist of 1,567 users from Oklahoma City in the same timeframe used for previous statistical
comparisons. The old adage that 'all politics is local' is still applicable even when discussing
communication mechanisms that are world-wide. All communication and implications derived
from it must be kept in the context which they occur for proper understanding. The Novotny
campaign simply was not a campaign bankrolled and supported by out of state forces. The
reason the campaign gained this much support is due not only to the inflammatory nature of the
opponent's remarks in the past (especially about the LGBT community), but also the uplifting
and empowering message of the Novotny campaign. Not once did messaging on the Novotny
creating jobs, improving education, and building transportation infrastructure that can build a
Best Practices of Campaigns Wishing to Use ISM and CMC for Fundraising
The question for social scientists at this point derives from explaining variations over
time in trends between usage of ISM via CMC and online contributions. During the Novotny
campaign, there were eight periods of traditional media coverage lasting 72-hours each, but the
statistics indicate only three of these periods produced measureable benefits for the campaign
through financial donations. There are substantial differences in how these traditional media
sources made available their content about the Novotny campaign online. Coverage from The
Huffington Post was the most significant for the campaign whereas stories done by the Journal
Record had no effect upon ISM and thus online contributions. This discrepancy can be
explained in a variety of ways. First, accessibility to online content offered by media seems to
be one of the largest factors. The Huffington Post is only published online and contains
embedded links and information, which allows users to easily share ideas and stories with each
other. On the other hand, the Journal Record maintains a locked site meaning access to their
content is gated and requires a subscription. People are not willing to overcome cumbersome
thresholds to share online media content. The payoffs simply are not there. Expedited ease of
use and sharing of user generated content is central to the fluidity with which information is
shared through ISM and CMC. Secondly, the audience sizes between The Huffington Post and
the Journal Record are dramatically different. The Huffington Post is an internationally known
resource for obtaining newsworthy political information online. The Journal Record is a paper
published in Oklahoma and the publishing company is just starting to generate online content.
This means their audiences will be different in scope and preferences. Readers of the Journal
33
Record tend to be more conservative Oklahomans interested in local business issues and get their
copies of the paper physically mailed to them through the United States Postal Service.
However, readers of The Huffington Post tend to be liberal in their political dispositions and
come from an array of backgrounds and geographical locations. All of these factors may contain
explanatory value as to why there is variance from the impact of Huffington Post coverage
Knowing how different media pays off in donations enables managers of campaigns to
prioritize daily tasks. From knowing this information, one can make the decision to have a
candidate talk to a media outlet with a strong online presence since the interview will produce a
flow of online donations. However, the best use of time when it comes to media outlets without
a strong online presence may be to find another way to reach their audience. For example,
instead of meeting with a journalist from a specialized business newspaper a candidate may be
more diligent with their time by attending a meeting of business people, such as Rotary in order
to make in person networking connections that can pay dividends in fundraising and resource
capturing. This all ties in with how democratic systems are formed and governed based on those
most active in civil society. Since people construct strategy based off of track records of success
looking at management techniques in the present can be indicative of future trends (Axelrod
1984). Targeting participation in the most effective ways to maximize the benefits of each
interaction is the priority of utmost importance with time constrained campaigns. Knowing how,
which, and why certain engagement techniques work provide roadmaps in decision-making
Genuine communication and dialogue through ISM and CMC are what creates 'stickiness'
in interactions between individuals online. If a candidate uses their page to spam followers with
34
a load of information about the campaign and fundraising/volunteering asks, then they will risk
alienating their followers. ISM and CMC must be used deliberately by the candidate of the
campaign in order to engage those indicating their participatory predispositions through their
power manifests from the ability of persons to recognize the humanity in each other. ISM and
CMC are dynamic and innovative in that they encourage dialogue and engagement instead of
'read and respond.' Campaign staffers and candidates must understand this and use these
technologies not only to be heard by their followers, but also to hear their needs and concerns.
More successful ISM strategies have the candidates themselves posting and running online
content as people want to speak to candidates – not staffers. ISM and CMC create accessibility
to candidates and a sense of authentic interaction. After all, candidates are wishing to be hired to
represent the needs of the people – they must use CMC and ISM to express their capacity to
listen and take in the concerns of others not constantly babble about their own opinions and
message.
Conclusion
ISM and CMC allow for the expression of appreciation to honesty and authenticity
during iterated interactions. By recognizing cooperative acts legitimacy and credibility are
constructed to those who are seen as worthy of confidence (Keohane 2005). Humanity sets up
expectations of behaviors then verifies proper conduct through transparency. In a world of ISM
and CMC transparency only becomes more paramount allowing for the exponential growth of
trust and validation of honest behavior. The fact of the matter is that it's harder to keep a cap on
dishonest behavior. With the spread of information, one must work hard to keep secrets in the
dark. Now less energy must be exerted in being honest and the payoffs are higher. Assurances
35
must be made that actors will respect each other and keep in mind participation in society
through the protection of their reputations (Axelrod 1984). Communication tools such as
Facebook enhance cooperative behavior because of the emphasis put upon connections between
individuals. More to this point, an emphasis on system structure is noted, "The advice dealing
with how this mutual cooperation can be promoted comes in three categories: making the future
more important relative to the present; changing the payoffs to the players of the possible
outcomes of a move; and teaching the players values, facts, and skills that will promote
cooperation" (Axelrod 1984, 126). ISM and CMC provide for the expansion of all three
interactions between people such as showing common connections, similar interests, and shared
experiences through different features available on profiles. Users can also tell if someone has
edited their profile or interactions in order to be viewed more favorably. In a world in which
transparency and trends are becoming more ample the manipulation or selection of information
by individuals to control their image is a cutting off one's nose to spite their face (Curtin and
Meijer 2006). If people can tell there has been tampering with information, then they
automatically assume the worst and make judgments about individuals beyond the original
information hidden. The ability of CMC and ISM to change payoffs with interactions is clear
through the case study of the Novotny campaign. People are now using ISM and CMC for a
variety of activities from attaining employment to interacting with distant family members. As
people socialize with each other more it becomes less possible to dehumanize and exploit each
other for selfish gains. The highest needs for content resonance with ISM and CMC seem to be
authenticity, reciprocity, and connection. People need to know the interactions they are having
are genuine because if they are not people will back out of interactions and end their
36
participatory behavior. The goal ought to be fostering and protecting honest expression through
incentives while punishing defection that comes in the form of manipulation and lying. The
website Reddit contains both incentives and punishments of reputation through their concept of
'karma.' Ebay allows dynamic interaction and feedback by allowing purchasers to share their
reputations must be translatable to 'real world' implications in order to foster accountability and
Empathy and reciprocity in ISM and CMC could be seen during the Iranian election as
users of Twitter all over the world changed their locations in order to cloak activists physically in
Tehran who were using Twitter from police brutality and censorship. People wanted to continue
to get information about what was happening internally in the country and they knew if a police
crackdown occurred, then people would be less likely to use ISM for communication so they
muddied the waters for investigators and as a result kept lines of communication open. The
implications for democratization are great. People will continue to pursue paths of
empowerment no matter the government institutions under which they live because all of
humanity desires to be free from coercion. CMC and ISM stand as a path by which democratic
ideals of equality, liberty, and freedom can be instantaneously spread throughout the world. By
learning and understanding each other through long-term interactions a capacity is created to
perceive each other not as enemies, but cells in the same body of humanity. Our ability to
recognize each other's humanity is inexplicably tied to the ability to communicate our thoughts,
Participation will only develop as people are given methods to help each other and once
they have a reason to care about the wellness of others. Shifting perceptions about behaviors and
37
conduct by comprehending each other's similarities and differences will impact the nature of
interaction. Associations will always develop as people strive to work together once they
understand the benefits of cooperative action (Fung 2003). Even if associations shift in where
they communicate an absence of ability to measure engagement fully does not mean an absence
of existence. All interactions take time to understand through study and more analysis is needed
about how people interact with each other through CMC and ISM. What can be easily said
though is there is a relationship between online ISM networks of political campaigns and online
contributions. Who knows what the implications of this shift may be in the future as smaller
unknown candidates are able to get financial support without relying on traditional institutions
such as PACs.
In the end, all of American democratic identity boils down to a shared experience based
on the codification of expectations and intentions starting with the Declaration of Independence
and the United States Constitution (Fearon and Laitin 2000). In attempting to live up to
expectations a variety of institutions and supplemental legislation has been passed aiming to
stabilize the American system of democratic governance. The government cannot be fully
representative and fair to all citizens without active participation in politics by all shareholders
(Holbert 2004). Until all citizens have the ability to express their concerns and desires for the
goals of government action the system is not fully equal or representative. Participation without
representation is crucial as protection is needed during processes of progress, as the old saying
goes, "the squeaky wheel gets the oil." CMC and ISM allow people to clearly enumerate and
stipulate how government is or is not adequately governing or what they want to see done (such
is the case with SeeClickFix – a website where people can report problems within their
community such as potholes in roads). Consensus cannot always be reached, but consensus is
38
not the goal of American democracy. American democratic values intend to create collaborative
and cooperative space where ideas and policies are allowed equal treatment to compete for
validity and legitimacy by the populace. Those societies that allow for such communication to
occur can anticipate the peaceful development and progress toward more democratic systems of
governance (Sorenson 2008). Governments wishing to censor and limit communicative abilities
will find themselves on the wrong side of history staving back the progression of fundamental
human rights to liberty, freedom, and justice. People will eventually attain their full rights, but
with resistant governments the process is longer and may result in more violence and bloodshed.
that individuals belong to a larger system of which participation is beneficial, so there are
incentives to improve the system (Axelrod 1984). These improvements will not happen without
articulation. ISM and CMC have been utilized in community based situations that are not
through these means can create means of assuring citizens physical safety in times of crisis.
Now as people communicate there is less hierarchy and chain of command thinking – the
whole process has flattened (Cornwall and Coelho 2004). People are able to engage their leaders
personally through ISM such as Facebook instead of calling a legislative assistant or attending an
event where time to interact with their leader may be limited. The shift of most importance is the
demographic one – the group most interested in the Novotny campaign (young women) has a
notoriously bad voter turnout rate in Oklahoma. CMC and ISM could potentially lead to shifts in
39
voter turnout as people gain more faith in the credibility and trustworthiness of online
interactions over time. Understanding and compression of ISM and CMC and their relationship
to democratic practices to enhance the processes of governance are prevalent and relevant to
citizens' everyday lives (Collins 2008). Now it is not a matter of 'want to' for politicians and
civic activists to use ISM and CMC in their day to day communication – it is a matter of 'have to'
because citizens are increasing their expectations of interactions due to their experience with
these new forms of media. Those involved in governance must go where people are associating
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42
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.633597665
R Square 0.401446001
Adjusted R Square 0.39015253
Standard Error 359.0991121
Observations 217
ANOVA
df F Significance F
Regression 4 35.54673117 1.02796E-22
Residual 212
Total 216
Total Iteration 6
Engagement 203
Likes 18
Correlation of donation
amount to likes 0.225493808