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University of Central Oklahoma | College of Liberal Arts

Internetworked Social Media and Campaign


Fundraising: A Review of Literature and Case Study
Citizen Use of Internetworked Social Media to Increase Social Capital and Foster Cooperative
and Collaborative Democratic Systems of Governance

Amanda Snipes | asnipes1@gmail.com


12/6/2010
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Be not the slave of your own past.
Plunge into the sublime seas,
Dive deep and swim far,
So you shall come back with self-respect,
With new power,
With an advanced experience that shall explain and overlook the old.
-Ralph Waldo Emerson

No words can express my gratitude for the experiences I have gained through my career at UCO. Granddad,
thank you for instilling the virtues of discipline and determination in me as well as the vision to make the world a
better place for everyone by getting involved in my community – you will always be an inspiration. To you I dedicate
this work. Dad, your unwavering faith in my capabilities taught me the value of having confidence in those you love
even when they do not have the confidence themselves. Mom, your compassion helps me to keep in mind others and
avoid selfishness – from you I get my inherent outspokenness and determination for social justice. To my brothers,
thank you for seeing my potential and telling me you expected better out of me when I was willing to settle for less
than I am capable of doing with my life. Katelyn, your support and contribution to my life has always been
inexpressible in words. My appreciation of our relationship grows deeper each day as we look forward to the future
together.
Dr. Mohamad, you ignited in me a zeal for international relations that I will never let go of again. Your
passion for knowledge and understanding of the world we live in is contagious. Dr. Gatch, you were able to rekindle
in me the motivation to finish my education by always keeping an open door and an open mind. Your sense of humor
and enthusiasm with which you present yourself has made my time at UCO greatly rewarding. Dr. Hardt, I appreciate
the diligence, dedication, and care with which you approach your work. You deserve a raise and a vacation.
To Brittany Novotny, thank you for the opportunity of a lifetime and experiences that will shape the rest of
my life.

Overcome evil with good, falsehood with truth, and hatred with love.
Peace Pilgrim

With Love and Gratitude,

Amanda Snipes, 2010


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Introduction

Under the assumptions of liberal democracy, society frames government institutions to

address shared fundamental needs thereby guaranteeing each individual the ability to pursue a

better life. Constitutionally mandated procedures of governance determine which strategies will

be practiced and manifest through policies of government institutions. These approaches

maintain an intention of alleviating shared burdens and problems which confront all citizens.

Recognizing the vast differences of individuals' morals, ethics, and personalities, social contract

theorists such as Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu discussed the necessity of codifying a just

society under a value system where all individuals are inherently free, equal, and within the same

degree punishable by law enforcement mechanisms (Nye 2002). In order to maintain justice,

liberal democracies govern society by creating a process of equalization and ensuring freedoms

amongst all people under the rule of law. The fundamental questions to those who study

democratic methods of governance are inquiries seeking to answer how, which, and why certain

practices expedite or hinder a society's evolution to utilize a governance system where all people

are free and equal in practice (Norris 2003). Efforts to achieve an utmost democratic society are

of vital importance to investigate as the analysis will inform people how to improve processes of

governance in the future. Thus far, the most flourishing democratic strategies pursue policies

and practices by government institutions which empower individual citizens (Newton 2001). If

the end goal of academia is promotion of democratic governance, then an understanding must be

reached in relation to how government institutions can best achieve the ideal of a self-governing

organization of authority. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has changed how people

interact with each other in the 21st century. There is meaning in the existence of civil society's

expression of empathy and reciprocity through CMC as a means of enhancing democratic


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methods of governance by enabling participation in the governance process. These participation

metrics can be measured through online contributions to political candidates and the frequency

of involvement with Internetworked Social Media (ISM) as carried out through CMC.

Understanding that progress toward just ideals are a series of small bold steps in practice,

the American Founding Fathers (Jefferson, Madison, Adams, etc.) set up a representative

democratic system of governance in America assuring majority rule, while at the same time

protecting minority rights. Democratic systems work and are the most stable when they embrace

diversity and enable protection and participation of all citizens in getting their voices heard by

those in power. Government administrative bodies through which liberal democracies are

formed must be inclusive to all persons to ensure they maintain legitimacy. When citizens see

unequal treatment without protection from injustice under the rule of law, then resistance to the

system begins and citizens make their thoughts known by defecting and no longer granting

legitimacy to the government (Huntington 1996). The social strife during the civil rights

movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is a prime model of how injustice perpetrated by

authority figures can cause disorder in the self-governing process and American culture at large.

The separation of government power in America makes certain the protection of citizens

as the main duties of government are divided into three federal branches; legislative (Congress),

judicial (U.S. Supreme Court), and executive (the Presidency). These three branches are

interdependent and accountable to each other through various legal mechanisms. For example, a

U.S. soldier who tortures a detainee could be punished for violating human rights of the detainee

if there is a ban on torture, which the soldier is subject to under law. This example proves even

those tasked to ensure the public's safety are also subject to the rule of law to prevent abuses of

power from occurring. The separation of powers and checks and balances ensure accountability
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for the system of government. By creating a structure with accountable actors, no matter their

station in life, democratic processes of governance gain credibility and thus are seen as more

legitimate authorities by citizens (Keohane 2005). Legitimacy derives from the ability to hold

accountable those who act outside of government standards of conduct, which incentivizes

compliance with the societal structure. There a various methods to incentivize compliance with

societal norms through the offering of benefits. Married couples are often given tax breaks as

the institution of marriage is seen as a stabilizing force that binds people in obligation to each

other. The state punishes can defection by utilizing law enforcement procedures since criminal

activity upsets societal structure through institutions such as the department of corrections to

house people found to be violators of laws.

Politicians are elected through a voting system whereby citizens cast ballots electing

those people viewed as upholding democratic values. If a politician behaves in a way found to

be dissatisfying by the population, the politician runs the risk of not being reelected or can be

prone to investigation or censure and even removal from office. Critical to vigorous

representation of the population's agenda is the necessity of clear communication amongst

citizens, civil society, and public servants. Enabling means of communication is the first priority

to bring the community together as a whole and determine the shared needs of the collective. By

cultivating the shared experiences of the population, policymakers can craft and direct processes

of governance that enhance democratic virtues of freedom, equality, and liberty. On an

individual level, each American is granted rights through the Constitution and more specifically,

the Bill of Rights which are the first 10 amendments of the United States Constitution. The

Constitution serves as a sounding board for the citizens' expectations of government behavior.

The framers' intentions were to be incredibly clear in what types of behaviors were acceptable by
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governments and by the people. Trust between citizens and government is created as the citizens

see the government behaving in ways that meet the expectations outlined in the Constitution

(Martin and Varmey 2003). It functions as a roadmap and a means of verification.

Communication provides the transparency mechanisms necessary for individuals to verify the

conduct and behavior of others. If the administrative bodies of authority are seen as

untrustworthy because their actions violate Constitutional values, citizens' lose trust in the ability

of governance processes to uphold democratic values and virtues. However, there is recourse for

trust to be regained. If there is an executive branch breach of trust, the judiciary or legislative

branches must to step in and curtail the abuses of the executive. Only by correcting bad behavior

through a verifiable means can the citizens restore their trust to a tarnished branch of government

(Gilpin 2001).

Trust is of importance because it enables people to cooperate with each other. In a

society where defection runs rampant democratic values are cast aside and priorities of self-

sufficiency are held paramount. Democratic thinkers realized the exponential potential of

production when populations worked together and determined a system of governance must be

created that incentivizes cooperation while simultaneously punishing defection. Without trust

though, people lose their will to consensually hallucinate the identity of being Americans

because they no longer see the benefits from working together and coming back to the table once

their trust has been violated (Huntington 1996). They feel as though they are being manipulated

and exploited instead of empowered by their mutual investment in innovative cooperation in

American identity. The ability to trust and buy into the system is of central urgency to the

materialization of cooperation and individuals will not consent to be governed by a system of

state power they cannot participate in or if they feel as though they would gain more by working
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alone (Holbert, et al 2004). Trust catalyzes the mutually cooperative construction of a shared

identity under which citizens unite.

Connection Through Empathic Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)

Trustworthiness in representing the citizens' agenda requires a means of open and clear

communication between policymakers and citizens. The media has often been referred to as the

fourth branch of government because through the media, citizens have been able to give their

feedback about the methods of governance practiced by the current administration (Ostry and

Nelson 1995). There are many methods of communication media occurs including; telegraph,

telephone, radio, newspapers, magazines, email, SMS (text messaging by cellular phone), etc.

Recently, with the massive growth of the use of the Internet, a transformation in the nature of

media has occurred (Barthel and Harrison 2009). Developments such as 'vloging' (video

blogging), Twitter, Facebook, microblogging, etc. mark a new area of Internetworked Social

Media (ISM) which consists of users generating and sharing their own content with each other in

dynamic and innovative ways (Barthel and Harrison 2009). Media has always enabled

individuals to construct a reality of shared experiences (Norris 2003). Now the producers and

directors have expanded leading to new trends in communication not studied before (Barthel and

Harrison 2009). Those interested in practices of governance are obligated to evaluate means of

communication as these mechanisms are central to how individuals interact with each other and

indicate the nature of systems they will create. In order to understand governance, one must be

deliberative with their analytical approach. Since democracies are a representation of those

people who are involved in the governance process, it is necessary to evaluate how these

individuals interact and thus sway the system of governance established (Bernhagen 2009, 182).
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Evaluation of the Internet as a means of communication is a great foundation for

understanding how communication has shifted in the 21st century (Collins 2008). Changes in

interaction imply retroactive shifts in behaviors of politicians and governance procedure. The

recent exposure of confidential U.S. State Department cables by the website WikiLeaks clearly

shows why information management needs to be rethought by those trusted with the most

important state secrets of America. There are many features of how users interact through CMC

and ISM that have significant implications for how individuals approach connecting and

engaging with each other. The establishment of new online communities instead of in person

voluntary associations has important differences that must be noted. "Another advantage of

belonging to an online community is having 24-hour access. It is immediate and messages can

be saved for future reference. For some people, being able to write means they can present

themselves more clearly than in face-to-face meetings. Many people like having time to reflect

and respond thoughtfully" (Ghozati and Preece 2009, 238). Differences in form and style of

correspondence between CMC and 'in real life' interactions may contain explanatory value as to

why people are moving to associations using ISM through CMC instead of joining in person

voluntary associations (Fung 2003).

Although the mechanisms and means of communication have altered the content has

remained the same. People are still fulfilling the same needs through contact, but have shifted

the means by which they network on a regular basis (Langman 2005). As policymakers evaluate

communication there is significance because government institutions can expedite solutions to

citizens needs more effectively and efficiently (Collins 2008). One must remember although the

means of communication are changing the actors and their needs have not. This observation

allows previous studies of significance in relation to governance and democracy to remain


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relevant. Members of civil society still retain a substantial role in the development of

democracy. These activists can engage the public in a more free way since they are not

constrained by the parliamentarian expectations put upon politicians. Individuals are expressing

themselves through groups and associations they voluntarily create – addressing shared needs

and concerns of the community left unresolved by the state.

Voluntary associations have made themselves even more accessible through CMC and

ISM to the general public, which only serves to enhance their place in dialogues about the

democratic processes of governance. They are also gaining recognition and thus legitimacy by

increasing their interactions with citizens on many different fronts through a variety of media

outlets. Voluntary associations are cornerstone sustaining democratic virtues. As a step before

any system is collectively formed, individuals must come together to put aside their differences

and cooperate with each other for everyones' mutual benefit. Once accepting this assumption,

the grounds are ripe for the seeds of democracy to be placed. Robert Putnam indicated the

dynamics of interactions that create conditions for democracy to thrive can be defined through

the concept of social capital, "…the notion of social capital has been introduced as a direct

continuation of the thought of Alexis de Tocqueville and his vision of participatory, deliberation-

based democratic society" (Putnam 1993, 160). Those who want to form a virtuous society

hinging on democratic purposes must first get people to come to the table and participate. These

groups (such as the Chamber of Commerce, the Rotary Club, the American Civil Liberties

Union, etc.) are the doorway through which most people enter into political and civic life.

Creation of Community by Fostering Citizen Connection

By bringing people together voluntary associations form a thriving populace eager to

improve their community (Holbert, et al. 2004). New mechanisms of communication have
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enabled people to create a shared experience through innovative forms of media. The most

favorable traits in governance allow for fluidity between individuals, "Empathy is the ability to

identify with and understand another person's situation and feelings. Our ability to empathize

affects how well we communicate our thoughts and feelings with others, and how comfortable

people feel communicating with us (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 233)." Without the ability to hear

others and be heard by them policymakers would be hamstrung in their efforts to address issues

facing the public. The power of shared experience is through the expression of empathy.

Without empathic communication, individuals are stuck – unable to express to each other their

most basic and fundamental needs. Communication is critically involved in and engaged with

governance which serves to keep everyone focused on the same collective goals. The role of

empathic expression is elemental, "Empathy appears to be a key ingredient in human

communication, regardless of the medium used, but so far it has received surprisingly little

attention in computer-mediated communication, probably because most studies have focused on

work where empathy tends to be less obvious than in informal communication settings" (Ghozati

and Preece 2001, 236). To be clear, CMC are interactions and relations occurring via use of a

computer whereas informal communication settings take place 'in real life' between individuals

in the same physical location (Collins 2008). For example, tweeting with someone who

represents the US Chamber of Commerce is considered CMC using ISM while attending a

conference held by the US Chamber of Commerce is an informal communication setting using

traditional networking – both interactions are conducted through voluntary association.

Empathy is the driving force behind collective action and justifies the existence of

government institutions through the mutual consent of citizens upholding democratic virtues.

Without a shared and collective identity and bonds democratic systems begin to languish.
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Motivation to work as a community comes from two directions. First, intentions and reasons to

act are shaped by the conditions of society giving people context for working together. A shared

need for safety may arise due to home burglaries. A homeowner's association may then decide

to allocate funds from membership dues to provide for extra security patrols or petition city

council for more police protection. Secondly, a sense of community can lead to creation of

shared values, such as the desire to establish public art. A board may be convened to raise funds

for such projects and to explain the importance of such a project to the majority of stakeholders –

the MAPS projects in Oklahoma City are another example of this type of motivational tendency

(Bernhagen 2009, 88). CMC maintains capacity for empathic enumeration, "…postings had a

strong empathic content and echoed the definitions of empathy given by psychotherapists,

particularly the characteristics of knowing, feeling, and responding compassionately to another

person…The overall feeling conveyed in the messages is of mutual understanding and caring

developed from shared experience" (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 244). The statistical analysis of

experiencing empathy through CMC shows, "A chi-square test comparing the two types of

messages (empathic, hostile) posted in the support communities with those sent in other

communities indicates that the difference between the two types of communities is significant

(chi square = 398.6, df= 4, p <.001)" (Ghozati and Preece 2001, 246). This statistical analysis

shows there is less than 1% of probability that empathy is not experienced online. To say this

with more clarity, it can be stated that there is a greater than 99% chance of the likelihood that

empathy can be experienced through CMC. This is not to say that over 99% of the content of

communication is empathic in nature, but rather there is greater than 99% likelihood empathic

articulation can occur through this means of interface. Since CMC maintains a capacity for
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empathic expression, practitioners and analysts of democratic processes of governance must

evaluate the nature of ISM through CMC.

The emergence and expression of empathy is substantial in its relationship to democratic

virtues. All instances of empathic existence must be studied and evaluated. Shared experiences

are powerful because they translate into real world tangible action and production (Langman

2004). People once exposed to the advantages of cooperation people will go leaps and bounds to

work together in dynamic ways to progress the advancement of everyone resulting in mutual

benefits for all participants. Creating systems of governance means letting voices be heard that

can improve the status quo and implement progress toward the ideal. The United Methodist

Church (UMC) Volunteers in Mission (VIM) projects show how ideals can become tangible.

UMC unites people under the shared identity of being Methodist to catalyze them into acting for

the benefit of others. Missioners often go to other countries to work on projects that will

improve the lives of fellow Methodists, such as building houses in Mexico or a library for deaf

children in Africa. UMC uses CMC and ISM to bring even more people into the fold – allowing

individuals to jump onto projects and join VIM teams from around the world through their

website. Societal structures are formed under the assumption of the necessity of collective action

– an evaluation of the robustness of a democratization trend can be evaluated, "…structures must

give rise to orientations that make people believe in democracy as a desirable goal. People's

beliefs are thus the intervening variable between social structure and collective action. Ignoring

this, democratization processes cannot be adequately understood" (Bernhagen 2009, 128). While

the missioner example differs in origination, the concepts remain applicable to governance as

missioners are acting upon a shared identity to achieve a collective goal from a shared

experience.
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Trust and Transparency in Democratic Society


The establishment of empathy requires leg work and initial interest in seeing benefits

from such vulnerability. Democratic government institutions allow people to calculate their risk

before interacting by providing means of creating credibility through verification and reputation.

Trust is the ability to know there is recourse for defection to be punished (Yamagishi 2005). In

the American political economy, people must trade with each other due to the nature of

capitalism individuals have specialized and are now reliant on the production of other individuals

to satisfy their needs. Therefore, it is in policymakers' interest to create appreciation for

democratic values of transparency and accountability, "Establishing common ground may be a

prerequisite for empathy or vice versa, and lack of common ground a cause of hostility" (Ghozati

and Preece 2001, 252). Agents should keep in mind cooperation can happen organically due to

the value of reciprocity and the nature of iterated interactions (Axelrod 1984, 21). All

empowering interactions tie together to form the network with which societal structure can instill

democratic virtues in citizens, more to this point, "Social trust, then, generated by learning and

experience from an active and vibrant civil society, is an important component of political

participation. To the extent that participation in the new democracies depends on social learning,

progress toward achieving the levels found in the established democracies will necessarily be

slow and dependent upon the accumulation of trust over successive generations" (Bernhagen

2009, 197). Contracts exist as a means for individuals to legally bind each other to the terms of

an agreement. These documents and the courts that enforce them keep people honest in their

dealings because breeching contracts results in a long adjudication process and potential

significant financial loss. Typically, people will run a cost-benefit analysis and understand

remaining cooperative under the terms of the contract is more advantageous than any potential

benefit they may get from weaseling out of obligations. Benefits of compliance must outweigh
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incentives to defect in order for contracts to remain an effective source of legal obligation.

These types of arrangements allow for predictability and transparency of other's actions.

Predictability and transparency, as observed by Axelrod, make reciprocity robust by creating

advantageous cooperative attitudes.

The extent to which people utilize their networks with CMC shows the connectivity and

engagement potential of new modes of communication, "Trust and reciprocity aid contract

enforcement and increase predictability and stability of cooperation. They allow individuals to

overcome the classic dilemmas of collective action, and transform individual preferences to

collective interests" (Bernhagen 2009, 162). Government institutions help to foster cooperation

by providing means of verification for interactions between individuals. When individuals

suspend their risk and engage with each other to gain mutual benefit, they can see the

advantageous nature of cooperation (Chen and MacKie-Mason 2006). Trust is created when

space manifests for individuals to interact with each other and institutions only get involved in

cases of defection and to meet the need of verification.

Trust Creates Social Capital and Increases Citizen Participation


Participation in social life is indicative of participation in political life as processes of

governance influence how social life manifests. Civil society holds a central role in the

communication between policymakers and individuals (Langman 2004). By involving

themselves in social activities people increase their likelihood of participation in political life

because "The positive consequences of participation in organized activities are therefore

threefold; 1. Socialize individuals into cooperative behavior 2. Provide them with a number of

skills necessary to effectively shape politics at the local and national level; and 3. Expand their

formal and informal networks, which they may use for other, political or social, purposes"

(Bernhagen 2009, 162). Not only are people getting their thoughts and ideas expressed, but they
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are also setting a shared agenda. These associations allow people to come together and decide

on a shared vision then disseminate their views to the community at-large (Bernhagen 2009,

162). Acting as a liaison between social and civil society ISM serves to utilize the connections

between people. "Civic health requires an active interest in the life of the community, city, state,

and country through organization participation and leadership" (National Conference on

Citizenship 2010) – ISM and CMC foster the development and expansion of civic health by

keeping citizens engaged with each other and encouraging participation by increasing familiarity

with issues.

Accountability and reciprocity are critical needs for citizens to fulfill through government

institutions to maintain legitimacy for the political system. Associations bring people together

and governmental institutions give them a means by which to act, "The appeal of civil society

and social capital is based largely on their functionality for institutional quality, both in the

sphere of political and economics…they maintain their functionality only if applied in the

sensitive and context-conscious manner" (Bernhagen 2009, 163). All communication between

individuals must be taken into context. The context with which evaluations occur ought to be the

political and social system which the individual participants have set up and live their lives

under. In studying America, academics ought to look to founding documents of the country as

the contracts set up between individuals specifying the powers and authority of government

actors. Democratic virtues are being attained through a process and all acts are progress toward

the ideals and virtues set forth in documents such as the United States Constitution (Fearon and

Laitin 2000).

Accessibility to governance processes are significant for democratic stability "…the

important point that democracy cannot be taken for granted; indeed, it is a process that requires
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continuous input to remain vital and vigorous. One crucial element in maintaining a democracy,

therefore, is the active participation and support of a large majority of the population. With the

decline in social capital, the conditions for such popular participation and support are

increasingly adverse" (Sorsenson 2008, 48). However, as argued previously, there has not been

a rapid decline in social capital; people have simply changed how they interact with each other

instead opting for methods of computer mediated communication (Collins 2008). The nature and

content of communication have remained the same in its empathic and empowering nature

emphasizing the emancipative values of democracy, but the mechanism has shifted. Just because

a social scientist is looking at the wrong form of association does not mean associations no

longer exist – they may be present in a new adapted form of emerging communication

technology (CMC) and networks (ISM).

Governance through Emancipative Reciprocity and Empathic Messages

Individual expressions of reciprocity and empathy through CMC are significant because

political participation increases. As members of civil society express their agenda, people are

able to more rapidly buy in through CMC by volunteering their time in real life (for example,

ProjectOKC – a volunteer organization in Oklahoma City based online to help the community

offline), consuming more media covering the agenda that is being expressed, or by donations

financially to the cause seen as uniting everyones' shared experience (Chen and MacKie-Mason

2006). All actors are buying into the answer being offered by an agenda created through

consensus as agreed upon using CMC via ISM. These members of civil society are able to more

easily move within CMC because they have clearly delineated themselves as the cheerleaders of

the community in the expression of the will of the people talking and engaging through ISM and

CMC in various forms. Whether it's writing a blog or writing a check there are massive
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implications for the time and speed at which CMC occurs and content spreads through ISM.

Participation in political life increases and gets expedited due to the interaction and engagement

between individuals and members of civil society through CMC (Norris 2003). CMC is only

significant because the nature of correspondence has changed. Communication holds a central

role because the content of interactions is a key factor in the emergence of cooperation. A

cooperative society, not a coercive one, must be founded in order for democratic systems to be

sustainable (Sorenson 2008).

Cooperation has the effect of creating space where conflict can be resolved (Axelrod

1984) without resorting to violent ends. There is not a balance between conflict and harmony in

relations, but instead the emphasis would be more properly placed on a dichotomy between

conflict and cooperation (Keohane 2005). A harmonious system is utopian and unattainable

because there will always be variance that founders of societies cannot anticipate. However,

what people can do in founding their societies is determine strategies that will best deal with

variances in unpredictable behavior by incentivizing strategies that encourage and develop the

use of cooperative acts. Even in the direst of circumstances robust strategies of cooperation are

sustainable. The point of the matter is beginning with an intention of long-term interaction

amongst people (Tov and Diener 2009). Once one takes into account the repeated nature in of

citizens' daily lives, then there is freedom in the creation of a strategy that is empowering to

individuals. CMC and ISM create cooperative social attitudes that can spread through democratic

systems of governance.

Representative Government Derived From Reciprocity

The strongest strategy to enhance cooperative acts amongst people utilizes the concept of

empathy and reciprocity. Empathy has already been rigorously examined in its implications for
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democracy. Reciprocity, however, must be more thoroughly studied. Even when one assumes

the world is a place full of rational acting self-egoists, the existence of cooperation still occurs

even though it is not anticipated. Given this pessimistic assumption about the world, the

expectation would be all individuals would be in conflict, driven by the most extreme conditions,

and would be in a natural state to compete with each other to the end of using violence in order

to satisfy their most basic human needs. Instead, there is the emergence of capitalism – a

fundamentally cooperative economic strategy for allocating scare resources amongst unlimited

wants (Gilpin 2001). Capitalism and democratic virtues such as freedom, liberty, and equality

hinge as much on empathy as they do on the concept of reciprocity.

In order to clearly evaluate a strategy of cooperation based on reciprocity, it would be

wise to construct a model for analysis. Prisoner's dilemma is used in an analysis done by Robert

Axelrod where TIT FOR TAT is empirically proven through a series of interactions in a

computer tournament based on game theory to be the most robust strategy for the organic

development of a cooperative pattern of behavior by two individual actors. In prisoner's

dilemma two criminals are given incentives to cooperate with the prosecutor in lieu of spending

more time in jail. However, if both prisoners' rat each other out and cooperate with the

prosecution, then neither of them get the reduced sentence for their crime, but instead will get the

maximum. No communication between the prisoners is allowed. Prisoners end up defecting on

each other and cooperating with the prosecution because they have no communicative means by

which to come to cooperative ground (Axelrod 1984). However, in the current day and age,

technology permeates our existence eliminating hindrances in constructing cooperative systems

(Norris 2003). TIT FOR TAT is a strategy that will cooperate on the first turn once then

becomes a reflexive strategy by mirroring any following movements of the other actor. This
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means there may not be a maximization of potential benefits of interaction, but instead an

emphasis on mutual benefits that enable both actors to move together toward improving each

other's lives (Collins 2008). Creation of cooperative dispositions is the intention of democratic

systems of governance. When a specific strategy is available study of viability is of primary

importance, "TIT FOR TAT benefits from its own non-exploitability because three conditions

are satisfied: i. The possibility of encountering TIT FOR TAT is salient, ii. Once encountered,

TIT FOR TAT is easy to recognize, iii. Once recognized, TIT FOR TAT non-exploitability is

easy to appreciate" (Axelrod 1984, 53-54). There are many features this strategy utilized and

thus, there is mass appeal, "What accounts for TIT FOR TAT's robust success is its combination

of being nice, retaliatory, forgiving and clear. Its niceness prevents it from getting into

unnecessary trouble. Its retaliation discourages the other side from persisting whenever

defection is tried. Its forgiveness helps restore mutual cooperation. And its clarity makes it

intelligible to the other player, thereby eliciting long-term cooperation" (Axelrod 1984, 54).

Government institutions enable the actors to recognize each other by providing a forum for

interaction and verification of behavior (Bernhagen 2009). CMC and ISM also share these traits.

The Constitution may act as a set of empathic expectations. Rational observations of

government practice are a central focus of ISM and CMC. Verification is critical to lending

credibility toward the system and ensuring emphasis on reciprocal behavior, "The critical

requirement is that violations can be detected before they can accumulate to such an extent that

the victim's provocability is no longer enough to prevent the challenger from having incentive to

defect" (Axelrod 1984, 185). People are reliant upon patterns of behavior they can detect

through recognition because they construct their reality and decision-making process on

interactions that have already occurred, "Just as the future is important for the establishment of
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the conditions for cooperation, the past is important for the monitoring of actual behavior. It is

essential that the players are able to observe and respond to each other's prior choices. Without

this ability to use the past, defections could not be punished, and the incentive to cooperate

would disappear" (Axelrod 1984, 182). Predictability enhances the process of tracking

reciprocal deeds and is aided by transparency as people are able to verify each other's actions and

behavior (Curin and Meijer 2006). Want to make sure an employee is of good character? In the

world of CMC and ISM employers now look up job candidate Facebook profiles to verify an

individuals' portrayal of themselves in an interview. ISM and CMC create a world in which

there is vast information available about people without having to do much investigative work -

knowing this keeps people more genuine with their interactions.

Convergence of Empathy and Reciprocity in Cooperative Systems of Governance

Why cooperation? Democracy requires cooperation be pursued. Democratic systems are

the only process of governance that ensure individual rights during processes of equalization

amongst all citizens due to the emphasis on justice, equality, liberty and fairness (Nye 2002). All

of these qualities indicate emancipative nature of human interactions as a means of propelling

humanity together toward greater ends by working together. These values must be instilled by

the people and kept at the fore front of any actions taken in the name of governance (Nye 2002).

American Identity construction begins at a young age and continues throughout an individual's

lifetime. Children say the pledge of allegiance every day as a reminder of the values that bring

people together. How people are politically socialized impacts how they view the function

politics and each other. "It is self-evident that democratization is not an automatism that guides

itself without agents. Instead, it is the outcome of the intentional collective actions, involving

strategies of power elites, campaigns of social movement activists, and mass participation. Thus,
21

any explanation of democratization intending to illuminate the role of social conditions must

make plausible how these conditions shape actor constellations" (Bernhagen 2009, 88).

An emphasis on intention brings appreciation for the marriage of empathy and reciprocity

because they both derive from an intention of cooperation (Rosenberg 2003). Cooperation will

always be attained because through cooperation are strategies of human empowerment. Humans

will always strive to create dynamic administrative bodies, "Human empowerment nurtured

emancipative mass movements in any regime. In autocracies, emancipative movements oppose

the regime, attempting to replace autocracy with democracy. In democracies, emancipative mass

movements attempt to make their governments more responsive. In both situations,

emancipative values tend to transform political institutions" (Bernhagen 2009, 133). This is why

democracies thrive – their institutions are transformative in nature because of the fundamental

recognition of human liberty engrained within the peoples' expectation of government conduct,

progression toward a consolidated democratic state involves synergy and synthesis of actions

(Bernhagen 2009, 133). People will continually to seek out more emancipative orientations for

the exertion of state authority. Citizens will always desire for government to enhance their self-

sufficiency because these are the expectation one derives from the Constitution of the United

States.

The values system is what will stick with people and allow them to act as a collective

(Axelrod 1984). CMC and ISM growth are exponential in nature as the consciousness is shared

amongst humanity – the power in its message only gains strength over time. "Emancipative mass

beliefs appear to be the single most important cultural factor in helping to attain, consolidate, and

deepen democracy. As a system designed to empower people, democracy is an emancipative

achievement, driven by emancipative forces in society" (Bernhagen 2009, 143). Empathic


22

consciousness can be shared by those who have empathic awareness with individuals who do not

until empathy is retained by all individuals (Rosenberg 2003). Communication is the first step

and as people are able to associate and communicate with each other more easily through CMC

interactions gain importance (Norris 2003). People participate by engaging each other online,

but also in how political fundraising is changing (Chen and MacKie-Mason 2006). Those

candidates running for office who wish to be successful fundraisers must have an intermediary

presence through internetworked social media (ISM) conducted with computer mediated

communication (CMC) (Chen and MacKie-Mason 2006). Associations' manifestation may be

changing, but the implications remain the same, "An effective civil society-a dense network of

associations, interest groups, civil rights groups, and so forth-is the best basis for the

consolidation of democracy" (Sorenson 2008, 161).

Room for Improving Democratic Governance

Showing how reciprocity and empathy work together, an interesting realization occurs

about why governance becomes more of a practice toward an ideal,

"The foundation of cooperation is not really trust, but the durability of the relationship. When the
conditions are right, the players can come to cooperate with each other through trial-and-error learning
about possibilities for mutual rewards, through imitation of other successful strategies with a weeding out
of the less successful ones. Whether the players trust each other or not is less important in the long run
than whether the conditions are ripe for them to build a stable pattern of cooperation with each other"
(Axelrod 1984, 182).

Empathy and reciprocity are the two components of communication seen as the most valuable

for compelling people to act in a cooperative manner. Actors of communication have always

been important, especially actions taken by members of civil society. Members of civil society

have associated themselves in a way to indicate their intention for collective action with the goal

of improving society as a whole. All participants in social life impact in positive or negative

manners the processes of democratic governance (Fung 2003). Some people may choose to

enable practices by participating in conferences while others seek to disrupt processes by


23

protesting outside of such conferences. The World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle comes

to mind when discussing this contrast in strategies. CMC has the capacity to bring together

people with all different intentions and values. The point is there is room for improving

participation in democratic processes through ISM and CMC. People have begun utilizing

online donation systems to contribute to candidates they endorse because a shared agenda is

created through the ISM. Participation is caused by interactions online in matters of CMC and

ISM and their implications for political life. Governance in practice serves the same functions of

CMC and ISM. This process moves us closer toward empowering individuals – the ultimate

goal of democracy. The goal overall is to inform the best practices for expediting the realization

of ideas into democracy. This means determining what type of content and engagement further

substantiate and shore up participation in these means of communication as they are seen to be

significant amongst social scientists. The variables still remain to be tested and theorized, but

there is significant cause for further investigation.

CMC and ISM replicate the same functions of government institutions and overlay how

individuals interact with each other. Dynamic creation by users of content and agenda setting are

the groundwork for political participation. Getting individuals to begin this process can be

volatile, but beneficial trends ought to be identified, fostered, analyzed, and engaged. By

following the most successful paths down the rabbit hole, one can determine which strategies of

connection foster better relationships of empowerment and more fully recognize the

emancipative powers of CMC and ISM. The best paths to investigate at this point are forms of

ISM that have a high amount of users, such as Facebook, to ensure there is a robust sample size

to make applicability of theories and models easier to ascertain. The variables on how to

measure connection and engagements on such a site are still a bit murky, but there is some work
24

being done to make sure this data is more clearly identifiable and less corruptible in the future.

An easier way of tracking engagement is to narrow the scope. By only looking at ISM and CMC

as used by political candidates as the independent variable, one can track fundraising

contributions online as a dependent variable. Contributions will be assumed to vary as the

audience is engaged with the empathic or reciprocal nature of the candidate's content. However,

if there is a lack of online contributions, one could expect the candidate is not properly

harnessing the empathic and reciprocal nature of ISM and CMC methods and thus is not getting

as much engagement and connection with users. This creates an empirically based and easily

measureable model under which to test the hypothesis linking connection through CMC and ISM

to political participation in a verifiable way. All of the talk about empathy and reciprocity

pertaining to political participation may be normatively satisfying, but it also must be empirically

verifiable in order be considered a valid theory in social sciences.

In order for democracy to remain sustainable as a viable system of political processes,

there must be citizen participation. Participation is central to keeping the system afloat as

government agents do their best to meet the needs of the citizens equally (Cornwall and Coelho

2004). Democratic systems are formed on the recognition of all individuals and their equal place

in society. Without recognition of individual humanity there would be no authority in a

government supposedly of the people. To be founded on liberty and virtue all citizens must be

engaged in the political system which so dramatically impacts every aspect of daily life

(Sorenson 2008). There is not always satisfaction with processes of governance and in all cases

citizens must be prepared to offer feedback. Computer Mediated Communication only enables

this process thereby expediting the abilities of government officials.

Statistical Analysis of Participation in Political Campaigns


25

Empirical evaluation of participatory measures using ISM and CMC are necessary prove

the direct relationship between communication and promotion of democratic systems of

governance through ISM and CMC. One of the most commonly used platforms for networking

online is Facebook. Through Facebook fan pages political campaigns can track and look into

dynamics of people following them. Fan pages track data of followers such as their age, race,

and gender as well as other analytics and send weekly updates to the email associated with the

campaign. Campaign managers can then use information related to engagement on the fan page

to derive which content gains the most traction with the public. As of now, the best indicator of

participation in a campaign remains financial contributions. Online financial contributions are

easily managed and tracked whereas CMC content engagement remains a vague and amorphous

variable. Research is ongoing into the field of tracking robust content engagement. However,

one may correlate engagement in campaigns through ISM such as Facebook 'likes' of campaign

fan pages to online contributions with more ease. Similarity of platform (both interactions occur

through ISM and CMC) allow for applicability of these variables to each other.

To bring this concept into tangibility in academia requires collecting data from the field

of campaigns that have incorporated ISM and CMC into their fundraising strategies. Brittany

Novotny recently ran for the Oklahoma House of Representatives against incumbent

Representative Sally Kern in House District 84. Ms. Novotny began her campaign by

establishing a network of support through ISM – particularly her campaign's Facebook fan page.

Through connecting and collaborating with people on this page, Ms. Novotny was able to shore

up her support and move online correspondence into tangible offline benefits for the campaign,

namely through driving contribution traffic and recruitment of staff and volunteers. In sum, the

Novotny campaign captured $17, 450 from April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 in total online
26

contributions. On the campaign's Facebook fan page during this period there were an aggregate

1,725 unique 'likes.' The timeframe of April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 was chosen because

this timeframe provides the most robust set of data as well as is the most relevant to how the

campaign was able to use ISM in order to foster tangible outcomes. Evaluating IMS and CMC

fluctuations allow campaigns to track viability of differing content expressed by the campaign

through the Facebook fan page. The financial impact of coverage of the campaign by external

media outlets also became clear by tracking trends on online contributions and Facebook fan

page 'likes' in the 72 hour window after external coverage occurred.

In doing statistical analysis (see appendices for data tables and charts) and determining

the impact of ISM and CMC (independent variable) on financial contributions (dependent

variable) several trends became apparent. By running a regression, r-squared was calculated to

be 0.3901 overall between unique Facebook 'likes' and online campaign contributions. This r-

square value means Facebook 'likes' have a 39.01% likelihood of being related to online

contributions. The previous timeframe from April 1, 2010 to November 3, 2010 were the units

of analysis used meaning there were 217 observations. Using each 24 hour period as a unit of

analysis allowed for ease in comparison by tracking daily financial flows in contributions and

daily unique 'likes.' 217 observations allowed for a viable sample size allowing for stout data

comparison. This entire analysis means there is practical material to be studied in the

implications of these relationships. Campaigns provide ground to study strategies for increasing

participation in civic life as people who express interest in campaigns are likely to become

politically involved in the long-run. Engaging participative mechanisms are critical to create

vital and sustainable democracies.


27

Additionally, traditional media drove traffic into the campaign resulting in increased

campaign contributions. A regression was run on the impact of media coverage upon campaign

contributions. There were eight 72-hour periods of media coverage during the timeframe

studied. Of these eight media coverage periods, three have a t-stat score of greater than 1. Any

t-score of greater than 1 have an impact on the model. The three news stories with robust

implications for the Novotny campaign were published by The Huffington Post, KWTV-9, and

The Oklahoman/CNN (which happened during the same 72-hour time frame). The evidence

indicates that the null hypothesis – ISM and CMC do not have an effect on amount of online

contributions – can be rejected as a relationship is shown through analysis of the data collected.

The Huffington Post Impact on ISM Presence and Online Contributions

The Huffington Post coverage had a p-value of 0.000 when run with a 95% confidence

level showing there is absolute significance in the robustness of the relationship between

Huffington Post coverage driving traffic to the campaign's Facebook fan page and online

contributions. During the time period used for The Huffington Post coverage, the unadjusted

coefficient was determined to have a value of $1,052.09. With the Novotny campaign's coverage

in Huffington Post every new unique like on the Facebook fan page was highly valuable in

tangible financial benefits. The p-value lets allows this conclusion to be reached with

confidence. The standard error of The Huffington Post coverage was $216.44 making the

adjusted value of each new Facebook 'like' to $808.65. During this 72-hour period from June 9,

2010 to June 12, 2010, there were an aggregate $7,111 raised solely through online contributions

and 543 unique daily likes on the campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation during this

time period was approximately 39% meaning the coverage by Huffington Post could account for

about 39% of the variation within ISM and online fundraising.


28

KWTV-9 Impact on ISM Presence and Online Contributions

KWTV-9 reporting of the Novotny campaign had a p-value of 0.208 when run with a

95% confidence level showing there is probably a about 79.2% likelihood of a relationship

between KWTV-9 coverage motivating interest toward to the campaign's Facebook fan page and

online contributions. During the time period used for the KWTV-9 coverage, the unadjusted

coefficient was determined to have a value of $229.11. With the Novotny campaign's coverage

in KWTV-9 every new unique like on the Facebook fan page was of some value in tangible

financial benefits, but not as substantial as The Huffington Post period. The standard error of the

KWTV-9 coverage was $181.33 making the adjusted coefficient of each new Facebook 'like' to

$47.78. During this 72-hour period from September 9, 2010 to September 12, 2010, there were

an aggregate $1,150 raised solely through online contributions and 6 unique daily likes on the

campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation during this time period was approximately 88%

meaning the coverage by KWTV-9 account for about 88% of the variation within ISM and

online fundraising.

CNN/The Oklahoman Impact on ISM Presence and Online Contributions

During the period from September 14, 2010 to September 18, 2010 reporting of the

Novotny campaign had a p-value of 0.030 when run with a 95% confidence level showing there

is absolute about 97% relationship between The Oklahoman and CNN coverage stirring attention

toward to the campaign's Facebook fan page and online contributions. During the time period

used for the coverage from The Oklahoman and CNN, the unadjusted coefficient was determined

to have a value of $430.18. With the Novotny campaign's coverage every new unique like on the

Facebook fan page was of some value in tangible financial benefits, but not as substantial as The

Huffington Post period. The standard error of this coverage was $196.69 making the adjusted
29

coefficient of each new Facebook 'like' to $233.49. During this 72-hour period from September

14, 2010 to September 18, 2010, there were an aggregate $3,775 raised solely through online

contributions and 44 unique daily likes on the campaign's Facebook fan page. The correlation

during this time period was approximately 81.7% meaning the coverage by CNN and The

Oklahoman accounted for about 81.7% of the variation within ISM and online fundraising.

Overall Reach and Implications of ISM and CMC on the Novotny Campaign

On Facebook, the Novotny campaign reached a total of 1,725 unique 'likes'. The

Facebook audience demographics offer great insights to how CMC is used and by whom. The

largest chunk of the Facebook audience consisted of women who are from 25-34 years old. This

information is collected by Facebook and distributed to the campaign along with an array of

other data in weekly 'insight' reports. By providing this information, campaigns are able to

analyze content and target messaging and content to users within their audience. Targeted

marketing of message fosters higher engagement and participation in the campaign process as

people are encouraged to interact with each other through CMC with ISM. The campaign was

able to target content at various audiences and create an array resonating messages for diverse

sets of people.

By retaining an active Facebook audience willing to express their support of the

campaign's message through online donations the Novotny campaign could bypass traditional

fundraising methods. Since Ms. Novotny was freed from the obligation to make fundraising

phone calls to retain contributions she was better able to get out to the people of House District

84. Ms. Novotny knocked over 3,000 doors personally while on the campaign trail. Instead of

having to sit in the office all day soliciting donations the Novotny campaign was proficiently

increased in person access and online availability of Ms. Novotny through the use of CMC and
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ISM. There were some donations by political action committees (PAC), but not nearly as much

as one would expect to see from a legislative campaign. In 2006 and 2008 there were high

instances of PAC financial contributions to campaigns (Hardt 2010). PAC money was not

pursued by the campaign due to a viable social media presence. Using ISM through CMC

translated into practical implications for managing the campaign. The candidate and staff were

able to spend minimal time fundraising through usage of a successful ISM strategy. Instead,

most of the labor of the candidate and staff became oriented toward a grassroots field campaign

supplemented with a direct mail program – all highly funded through online contributions.

Shifting the focus of labor allowed individuals on staff to specialize in messaging and

coordination of in district work, not funding and financial issues, which are often the highest

concern of campaigns for a state legislative seat.

ISM and CMC were only part of the equation of the Novotny campaign's efforts to win

the HD 84 legislative seat. Having a strong online presence with CMC and ISM is important,

but must be part of a comprehensive and coordinated campaign messaging strategy. The

Novotny campaign worked closely with operatives within the Oklahoma Democratic Party and

participated in the Party's "Campaign in a Box" (CIB) program. CIB aims to coordinate all

forms of messaging into a one stop shop. The Party will aid a campaign through CIB with a

direct mail program, online presence, and field strategy. Participating in CIB would not have

been feasible without the financial support of online contributors. The collaboration and

coordination between the Oklahoma Democratic Party and the Novotny campaign lead to the

distribution of a 5 piece mail program to 5,000 addresses and a Get Out the Vote effort aimed at

1,200 addresses to which door hangers were distributed by volunteers and interns. These

frequent interactions have the ability to create trust and increase participation as observed by
31

Putnam and Axelrod. While the Novotny campaign was not successful in securing victory over

Representative Kern, there was great success in formulation of media strategies allowing

adequate fundraising to occur. The Novotny campaign was even able to substantially out

fundraise the opposition without going to traditional sources for contributions. Through proper

funding, appropriate channels of information dissemination could be pursued that at times prove

difficult for campaigns without financial freedom. At the very least, the campaign was greatly

successful in getting people engaged and participating in the local political process by increasing

social capital through CMC and ISM.

Throughout the campaign, many references were made to the demographics of Novotny

supporters as being a small elite group of well to do individuals whom reside out of state.

However, the demographics show most of the following of the Novotny campaign through CMC

and ISM came from within Oklahoma and even Oklahoma City. Individuals indicate their

location to Facebook, which is then given to the campaign in reports from Facebook's aggregated

data related to the campaign page. From these reports, followers of the Novotny campaign

consist of 1,567 users from Oklahoma City in the same timeframe used for previous statistical

comparisons. The old adage that 'all politics is local' is still applicable even when discussing

communication mechanisms that are world-wide. All communication and implications derived

from it must be kept in the context which they occur for proper understanding. The Novotny

campaign simply was not a campaign bankrolled and supported by out of state forces. The

reason the campaign gained this much support is due not only to the inflammatory nature of the

opponent's remarks in the past (especially about the LGBT community), but also the uplifting

and empowering message of the Novotny campaign. Not once did messaging on the Novotny

campaign go negative in content as focus remained on a positive and constructive platform of


32

creating jobs, improving education, and building transportation infrastructure that can build a

brighter future for all Oklahomans.

Best Practices of Campaigns Wishing to Use ISM and CMC for Fundraising

The question for social scientists at this point derives from explaining variations over

time in trends between usage of ISM via CMC and online contributions. During the Novotny

campaign, there were eight periods of traditional media coverage lasting 72-hours each, but the

statistics indicate only three of these periods produced measureable benefits for the campaign

through financial donations. There are substantial differences in how these traditional media

sources made available their content about the Novotny campaign online. Coverage from The

Huffington Post was the most significant for the campaign whereas stories done by the Journal

Record had no effect upon ISM and thus online contributions. This discrepancy can be

explained in a variety of ways. First, accessibility to online content offered by media seems to

be one of the largest factors. The Huffington Post is only published online and contains

embedded links and information, which allows users to easily share ideas and stories with each

other. On the other hand, the Journal Record maintains a locked site meaning access to their

content is gated and requires a subscription. People are not willing to overcome cumbersome

thresholds to share online media content. The payoffs simply are not there. Expedited ease of

use and sharing of user generated content is central to the fluidity with which information is

shared through ISM and CMC. Secondly, the audience sizes between The Huffington Post and

the Journal Record are dramatically different. The Huffington Post is an internationally known

resource for obtaining newsworthy political information online. The Journal Record is a paper

published in Oklahoma and the publishing company is just starting to generate online content.

This means their audiences will be different in scope and preferences. Readers of the Journal
33

Record tend to be more conservative Oklahomans interested in local business issues and get their

copies of the paper physically mailed to them through the United States Postal Service.

However, readers of The Huffington Post tend to be liberal in their political dispositions and

come from an array of backgrounds and geographical locations. All of these factors may contain

explanatory value as to why there is variance from the impact of Huffington Post coverage

compared to coverage from the Journal Record.

Knowing how different media pays off in donations enables managers of campaigns to

prioritize daily tasks. From knowing this information, one can make the decision to have a

candidate talk to a media outlet with a strong online presence since the interview will produce a

flow of online donations. However, the best use of time when it comes to media outlets without

a strong online presence may be to find another way to reach their audience. For example,

instead of meeting with a journalist from a specialized business newspaper a candidate may be

more diligent with their time by attending a meeting of business people, such as Rotary in order

to make in person networking connections that can pay dividends in fundraising and resource

capturing. This all ties in with how democratic systems are formed and governed based on those

most active in civil society. Since people construct strategy based off of track records of success

looking at management techniques in the present can be indicative of future trends (Axelrod

1984). Targeting participation in the most effective ways to maximize the benefits of each

interaction is the priority of utmost importance with time constrained campaigns. Knowing how,

which, and why certain engagement techniques work provide roadmaps in decision-making

related to crafting and spreading of campaign platform message.

Genuine communication and dialogue through ISM and CMC are what creates 'stickiness'

in interactions between individuals online. If a candidate uses their page to spam followers with
34

a load of information about the campaign and fundraising/volunteering asks, then they will risk

alienating their followers. ISM and CMC must be used deliberately by the candidate of the

campaign in order to engage those indicating their participatory predispositions through their

expression of interest by 'liking' the campaign on Facebook. Fundamentally, all communicative

power manifests from the ability of persons to recognize the humanity in each other. ISM and

CMC are dynamic and innovative in that they encourage dialogue and engagement instead of

'read and respond.' Campaign staffers and candidates must understand this and use these

technologies not only to be heard by their followers, but also to hear their needs and concerns.

More successful ISM strategies have the candidates themselves posting and running online

content as people want to speak to candidates – not staffers. ISM and CMC create accessibility

to candidates and a sense of authentic interaction. After all, candidates are wishing to be hired to

represent the needs of the people – they must use CMC and ISM to express their capacity to

listen and take in the concerns of others not constantly babble about their own opinions and

message.

Conclusion

ISM and CMC allow for the expression of appreciation to honesty and authenticity

during iterated interactions. By recognizing cooperative acts legitimacy and credibility are

constructed to those who are seen as worthy of confidence (Keohane 2005). Humanity sets up

expectations of behaviors then verifies proper conduct through transparency. In a world of ISM

and CMC transparency only becomes more paramount allowing for the exponential growth of

trust and validation of honest behavior. The fact of the matter is that it's harder to keep a cap on

dishonest behavior. With the spread of information, one must work hard to keep secrets in the

dark. Now less energy must be exerted in being honest and the payoffs are higher. Assurances
35

must be made that actors will respect each other and keep in mind participation in society

through the protection of their reputations (Axelrod 1984). Communication tools such as

Facebook enhance cooperative behavior because of the emphasis put upon connections between

individuals. More to this point, an emphasis on system structure is noted, "The advice dealing

with how this mutual cooperation can be promoted comes in three categories: making the future

more important relative to the present; changing the payoffs to the players of the possible

outcomes of a move; and teaching the players values, facts, and skills that will promote

cooperation" (Axelrod 1984, 126). ISM and CMC provide for the expansion of all three

elements stipulated by Axelrod. Facebook involves different strategies to create more

interactions between people such as showing common connections, similar interests, and shared

experiences through different features available on profiles. Users can also tell if someone has

edited their profile or interactions in order to be viewed more favorably. In a world in which

transparency and trends are becoming more ample the manipulation or selection of information

by individuals to control their image is a cutting off one's nose to spite their face (Curtin and

Meijer 2006). If people can tell there has been tampering with information, then they

automatically assume the worst and make judgments about individuals beyond the original

information hidden. The ability of CMC and ISM to change payoffs with interactions is clear

through the case study of the Novotny campaign. People are now using ISM and CMC for a

variety of activities from attaining employment to interacting with distant family members. As

people socialize with each other more it becomes less possible to dehumanize and exploit each

other for selfish gains. The highest needs for content resonance with ISM and CMC seem to be

authenticity, reciprocity, and connection. People need to know the interactions they are having

are genuine because if they are not people will back out of interactions and end their
36

participatory behavior. The goal ought to be fostering and protecting honest expression through

incentives while punishing defection that comes in the form of manipulation and lying. The

website Reddit contains both incentives and punishments of reputation through their concept of

'karma.' Ebay allows dynamic interaction and feedback by allowing purchasers to share their

experience with different buyers through a post-purchase survey. Construction of online

reputations must be translatable to 'real world' implications in order to foster accountability and

credibility, which create durable communication.

Empathy and reciprocity in ISM and CMC could be seen during the Iranian election as

users of Twitter all over the world changed their locations in order to cloak activists physically in

Tehran who were using Twitter from police brutality and censorship. People wanted to continue

to get information about what was happening internally in the country and they knew if a police

crackdown occurred, then people would be less likely to use ISM for communication so they

muddied the waters for investigators and as a result kept lines of communication open. The

implications for democratization are great. People will continue to pursue paths of

empowerment no matter the government institutions under which they live because all of

humanity desires to be free from coercion. CMC and ISM stand as a path by which democratic

ideals of equality, liberty, and freedom can be instantaneously spread throughout the world. By

learning and understanding each other through long-term interactions a capacity is created to

perceive each other not as enemies, but cells in the same body of humanity. Our ability to

recognize each other's humanity is inexplicably tied to the ability to communicate our thoughts,

ideas, and concerns about issues facing each of us.

Participation will only develop as people are given methods to help each other and once

they have a reason to care about the wellness of others. Shifting perceptions about behaviors and
37

conduct by comprehending each other's similarities and differences will impact the nature of

interaction. Associations will always develop as people strive to work together once they

understand the benefits of cooperative action (Fung 2003). Even if associations shift in where

they communicate an absence of ability to measure engagement fully does not mean an absence

of existence. All interactions take time to understand through study and more analysis is needed

about how people interact with each other through CMC and ISM. What can be easily said

though is there is a relationship between online ISM networks of political campaigns and online

contributions. Who knows what the implications of this shift may be in the future as smaller

unknown candidates are able to get financial support without relying on traditional institutions

such as PACs.

In the end, all of American democratic identity boils down to a shared experience based

on the codification of expectations and intentions starting with the Declaration of Independence

and the United States Constitution (Fearon and Laitin 2000). In attempting to live up to

expectations a variety of institutions and supplemental legislation has been passed aiming to

stabilize the American system of democratic governance. The government cannot be fully

representative and fair to all citizens without active participation in politics by all shareholders

(Holbert 2004). Until all citizens have the ability to express their concerns and desires for the

goals of government action the system is not fully equal or representative. Participation without

representation is crucial as protection is needed during processes of progress, as the old saying

goes, "the squeaky wheel gets the oil." CMC and ISM allow people to clearly enumerate and

stipulate how government is or is not adequately governing or what they want to see done (such

is the case with SeeClickFix – a website where people can report problems within their

community such as potholes in roads). Consensus cannot always be reached, but consensus is
38

not the goal of American democracy. American democratic values intend to create collaborative

and cooperative space where ideas and policies are allowed equal treatment to compete for

validity and legitimacy by the populace. Those societies that allow for such communication to

occur can anticipate the peaceful development and progress toward more democratic systems of

governance (Sorenson 2008). Governments wishing to censor and limit communicative abilities

will find themselves on the wrong side of history staving back the progression of fundamental

human rights to liberty, freedom, and justice. People will eventually attain their full rights, but

with resistant governments the process is longer and may result in more violence and bloodshed.

Democratic citizenship identity is based on an attitude of service derived from an understanding

that individuals belong to a larger system of which participation is beneficial, so there are

incentives to improve the system (Axelrod 1984). These improvements will not happen without

communication leading to problem identification and agenda setting as well as resolution

articulation. ISM and CMC have been utilized in community based situations that are not

particularly political, for example, as a response to natural disaster. Sharing of information

through these means can create means of assuring citizens physical safety in times of crisis.

Reforming our understanding of communication will allow confidence to be gained in

individuals trust for political processes of governance.

Now as people communicate there is less hierarchy and chain of command thinking – the

whole process has flattened (Cornwall and Coelho 2004). People are able to engage their leaders

personally through ISM such as Facebook instead of calling a legislative assistant or attending an

event where time to interact with their leader may be limited. The shift of most importance is the

demographic one – the group most interested in the Novotny campaign (young women) has a

notoriously bad voter turnout rate in Oklahoma. CMC and ISM could potentially lead to shifts in
39

voter turnout as people gain more faith in the credibility and trustworthiness of online

interactions over time. Understanding and compression of ISM and CMC and their relationship

to democratic practices to enhance the processes of governance are prevalent and relevant to

citizens' everyday lives (Collins 2008). Now it is not a matter of 'want to' for politicians and

civic activists to use ISM and CMC in their day to day communication – it is a matter of 'have to'

because citizens are increasing their expectations of interactions due to their experience with

these new forms of media. Those involved in governance must go where people are associating

and communicating with each other.


40

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42

Appendix: Data and Measurements

Figure One: Regression of Traditional Media Events

Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.633597665
R Square 0.401446001
Adjusted R Square 0.39015253
Standard Error 359.0991121
Observations 217

ANOVA

df F Significance F
Regression 4 35.54673117 1.02796E-22
Residual 212
Total 216

Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value


Intercept -47.36 33.45 -1.42 0.158
Daily New Likes 18.39 3.23 5.70 0.000
Huffington Post 1025.09 216.44 4.74 0.000
KWTV-9 229.11 181.33 1.26 0.208
Oklahoman/CNN 430.18 196.69 2.19 0.030

Figure Two: Traditional Media Coverage Analytics


Huffington Post 6/9-12/2010
Oklahoman/CNN 9/14-17/10
Total Amount 7111
Total Iteration 28 Total Amount 3775
Engagement 543
Total Iteration 44
Likes 174
Correlation of donation
Engagement 637
amount to likes 0.810341655
Likes 122
Correlation of donation
KWTV-9 9/9-12/10 amount to likes 0.81762882

Total Amount 1150

Total Iteration 6

Engagement 203

Likes 18
Correlation of donation
amount to likes 0.225493808

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