Metallurgist, Vol. 52, Nos.

5–6, 2008

CLASSIFYING INTERNAL DEFECTS IN

FORGINGS BASED ON FLAW-DETECTION
PATTERNS OBTAINED BY ULTRASOUND

V. P. Nikitin, I. V. Korotyshev, UDC 620.192.47:621.735.042

V. N. Artyushov, E. O. Sinitsyn,
and A. A. Kudrin

A method has been proposed for classifying internal defects in forgings based on the flaw-detection patterns
obtained in ultrasonic testing. The reliability of the method is greater than 75%. Also, a program has been
developed to classify internal defects in relation to their length and their location through the thickness and
width of forgings. The method is valid for flaw-detection patterns in groups I and III. The method is now
being used at the Chelyabinsk affiliate of the Ural Forging Company. The method of classification can also
be used to identify internal defects in cylindrical specimens obtained by free forging on presses.

Classifying defects based on flaw-detection patterns is an important problem, and repeated attempts have been made
to classify defects discovered with the use of ultrasound. Having a methodology for classifying defects in forgings based on
flaw-detection patterns makes it possible to avoid having to sample metal in order to determine which defects have damaged
a given section of the forging and the reasons for their formation. That in turn reduces or eliminates the costs associated with
obtaining samples of metal, significantly shortens the time needed to evaluate finished products, and makes it possible to
quickly determine the measures that should be employed to improve the quality of those products. However, there is currently
no classification for internal defects found by means of flaw-detection patterns. In this article, we propose a method of clas-
sifying such defects in relation to the type of pattern being analyzed.
Our study was performed on structural steel parts 400–700 mm in diameter obtained from 6.5–17.3-ton ingots by
drop forging on 31.5- and 63-MN presses. We then cut 15 mm into the sides of each forging, obtaining one forging from each
ingot. All the forgings were subjected to ultrasonic inspection.
The methodology that was used was developed in several stages. In the first stage, we chose not to use statistical
programs and instead made certain assumptions to simplify the problem. The data in the second stage were obtained using
Microsoft Excel tables to classify internal defects according to the flaw-detection pattern. The assumptions used in the first
stage were not used in creating the algorithm for the second stage. In the third stage, we checked the accuracy of the algo-
rithm on the basis of new data that was obtained. The first two stages were carried out using the same data: flaw-detection
patterns and the results from metallographic studies of 136 defective forgings. The flaw-detection patterns for these forgings
can be divided into four groups (Table 1):
I – forgings characterized by discontinuous defective sections of different lengths that are separated from one another
by flaw-free sections. The lengths of the defective sections vary within broad ranges, while the number of such sections ranges
from 2 to 7;
II – patterns having one large defective section located in the top part of the forging. The length of such sections is
generally at least half the length of the forging and sometimes extends over its entire length;

Chelaybinsk Metallurgical Combine (ChMK) and the Chelyabinsk Affiliate of the Ural Forging Company (Uralskaya
Kuznitsa). Translated from Metallurg, No. 6, pp. 58–60, June, 2008.

366 0026-0894/08/0506-0366 ©2008 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

TABLE 1. Distribution of Defects by Group in Relation to the Type of Flaw-Detection Pattern

Type of defect (according to OST 1438-79)

central axial point
Group Type of flaw-detection * skin flakes lamination porosity porosity segregation Total
≥3.0 points
number % number % number % number % number % number %

I 31 64.6 9 19 5 10.4 1 2 1 2 1 2 48

II 2 5.7 31 86 3 8.3 – – – – – – 36

III 23 56.1 14 34.1 4 9.8 – – – – – – 41

IV 10 91 – – 1 9.1 – – – – – – 11
*
The defective sections are hatched on the flaw-detection patterns.

III – the presence of a single defect located at any spot along the forging and bounded on both sides by nondefec-
tive sections;
IV – the presence of one defective section next to the bottom end of the forging.
It can be seen from Table 1 that the defective sections in group II can be classified as “flakes.” Steel which has a
“skin” is characterized by defective sections belonging in group IV. Since the data in Table 1 give a sufficient amount of
information to classify defects as belonging to groups II or IV, these two groups of flaw-detection patterns will not be dis-
cussed further.
It is apparent from Table 1 that the internal defects in the patterns belonging to groups I and III cannot be unam-
biguously classified, requiring that these patterns be analyzed in detail. Thus, we subsequently developed a method of iden-
tifying internal defects for flaw-detection patterns in groups I and III based on whether or not the given defective section has
certain characteristics (89 forgings had patterns corresponding to group I or group III). The following criteria were chosen to
evaluate the defective sections: the length of the defective section; the location of this section along the forging; the location
of the defects over the forging’s cross section.
In devising a method of investigation, we ignored how the classification of internal defects is affected by the grade
of steel, the weight of the ingot, and the diameter of the forging. These factors were not taken into account because their
effects have not yet been definitively established. All this reinforces the argument that, in principle, the reasons for the for-
mation of the defects are identical.
Our analysis showed that the flaw-detection patterns in group III are in fact a special case of the patterns in group I.
Thus, we henceforth jointly examined the defective group-I and group-III sections from which samples were prepared: the
sections in groups I and II were first analyzed individually based on each criterion; then the data that were obtained from this
analysis were compiled in a single table that was subsequently used to classify internal defects according to the type of flaw-
detection pattern.
Table 2 shows a classification of the group-I and group-III defects based on their length. We must point out that the
division into sections done in Table 2 is most convenient for the purposes of the analysis. It would be inexpedient to divide
the defective sections more finely, since that would obscure any pattern that might otherwise be discernable. The data in
Table 2 gives a fairly clear representation of the regular relationship between the length of a defective section and the char-
acter of the defect. However, we should also point out that it is difficult to reach a definitive conclusion for sections with a
length from 500 to 1000 mm, since the defective sections of different lengths are comparable in number. This is probably due
to the presence of “flakes” in the skin region, which to a certain extent could be attributed to the diffusion of hydrogen into
the tensile stress region formed due to the difference between the coefficients of linear expansion of the skin and the steel

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TABLE 2. Classification of Defective Sections in Groups I and II Based on Their Length

Types of defects, number (%)

Total number of
Length of defective
sections for the central porosity axial porosity point segregation
section, mm skin flakes lamination
given length
≥3.0 points
40–500 37 26 (70) 4 (11) 4 (11) 1 (2.6) 1 (2.6) 1 (2.6)
500–1000 19 11 (57.9) 6 (31.6) 2 (10.5) – – –
1000–2500 15 12 (80) 2 (13.3) 1 (6.7) – – –
Greater than 2500 18 4 (22) 12 (67) 2 (11) – – –

TABLE 3. Classification of Defective Sections Based on the Length of the Forging

Types of defects, number (%)

Location of Total number of
defects along the defects for the central porosity axial porosity point segregation
forging given length skin flakes lamination
≥3.0 points
Top part 30 8 (27) 18 (60) 4 (13) – – –
Middle 32 23 (71.9) 4 (12.5) 3 (9.4) 1 (3.1) 1 (3.1) –
Bottom part 27 22 (81.5) 2 (7.4) 2 (7.4) – – 1 (3.1)

TABLE 4. Classification of Defects Over the Cross Section of the Forging

Types of defects, number (%)

Depth of defect’s Total numbe of
central porosity axial porosity point segregation
location forgings skin flakes lamination
≥3.0 points
Axial 54 31 (57) 12 (22) 9 (17) 1 (2) 1 (2) –
Middle 35 22 (63) 12 (34) – – – 1 (3)

TABLE 5. Classification of Defective Sections Based on Their Length Along the Forging

Location of defective section

top part
Name of defect
length of defective section, mm
≤500 >500
Skin 6 2
Flakes – 18
Lamination 4 2
Central porosity ≥3.0 points – –
Axial porosity ≥3.0 points – –
Point segregation ≥3.0 points – –
middle of forging bottom part
≤500 >500 ≤500 >500
18 5 4 18
3 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
– 1 – –
– 1 – –
– – – 1

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 Incidence of defects, %

Flakes
Skin-skin
Flakes-flakes Skin
Other defects
Defects Prediction

Fig. 1. Accuracy of identification of internal defects based on the developed program.

Incidence of defects, %

Flakes
Skin-skin
Flakes-flakes Skin
Other defects
Defects Prediction

Fig. 2. Accuracy of identification of internal defects based on new data.

proper. Taking this and the data in Table 2 into account, it can be concluded that defective sections up to 2500 mm long are
characterized by the presence of the “skin” defect and defective sections longer than 2500 mm are characterized by the pres-
ence of flakes. However, these are only preliminary conclusions.
Table 3 shows data on the distribution of defects along the forging. To determine where a defect was located over
the length of the forging, the latter was conditionally divided into three different sections in the length direction: top, middle,
and bottom. It can be concluded from the data in Table 3 that the defects located in the middle and bottom parts of the forg-
ing can be classified as “skins.” The data obtained for the top part of the forging are not as clear, due to the fact that the defec-
tive sections in the top part that were damaged by skins were next to the boundary of the middle section. Thus, in light of the
foregoing, the defects in the top part of the forging can be classified as flakes.
Table 4 shows data on the distribution of the defects over the cross section of the forgings. The cross section was
conditionally divided into three parts: axial, middle, and peripheral. Since the defects in the peripheral region were close to
the boundary of the middle region, they were conditionally classified as belonging to the middle region. The consequent
absence of defects in the peripheral zone can be attributed to the fact that hydrogen was removed from this region during the
anti-flaking treatment given the steel, and the crystallization front forced the skins closer to the center. It is not possible to
make definitive conclusions based on the data in Table 4, but it can be noted that the pattern just mentioned is seen when the
data obtained for all of the criteria for the defective section are examined together.

369
 Table 5 was constructed using the data obtained for the flaw-detection patterns in groups I and III (see Tables 2–4).
Table 5 shows the classification of the defective sections with respect to length, exact location over the length of the forging,
and depth of occurrence. It is apparent from Table 5 that if the length of the section is within the range up to 500 mm and the
defect is located in the top part of the forging, it can be classified as a skin. If the defective section is longer than 500 mm,
then that section has been damaged by flakes.
Summing up the results, we can state the following. Under the proposed classification, the following defective sections
can be classified as skin-type defects:
• sections up to 500 mm in length, with the defect located in the axial part of the top zone or the middle or bottom
zones at a depth corresponding to the middle or axial zone;
• sections with a length in the range 500–2500 mm, with the defect located in the middle or bottom parts of the
forging at a depth corresponding to the middle or axial zone.
Among the flake-type defects are defective sections that are longer than 500 mm and are located in the top part of
the foring at a depth corresponding to the forging’s middle or axial zone.
The accuracy of the proposed methodology was checked for flaw-detection patterns in groups I and III. For each
pattern in these groups, we classified the internal defects in accordance with the proposed method and then compared the
defects with the defects found from examination of the steel’s macrostructure and microstructure. We proceeded similarly in
analyzing all 89 forgings in groups I and III. The skins and flakes were analyzed separately.
The following results were obtained: agreement in 73% of the cases for the skins and disagreement in 27% of the
cases; the corresponding figures for the flakes were 72% and 28%, respectively.
The results obtained above were used to develop and introduce an algorithm for identifying internal defects based
on the type of flaw-detection pattern obtained. The algorithm was created with the use of Microsoft Excel tables. The fol-
lowing was used as the initial data: the flaw-detection patterns of the 89 specimens examined as part of the first stage; the
classification for internal defects that was developed above on the basis of the type of flaw-detection pattern.
Figure 1 presents a diagram illustrating the accuracy with which internal defects were identified in the 89 forgings
by using the algorithm we developed. Executing the second stage of the investigation without use of the assumptions made
in the first stage improved the accuracy of the defect identifications somewhat (see Fig. 1). In the third stage, the accuracy of
the algorithm was checked using new data. This check was made using 69 new flaw-detection patterns obtained for forgings
of 400–700-mm-diam. parts made of structural steels. Figure 2 shows a diagram illustrating the accuracy with which internal
defects were indentified on these forgings. The data in Figs. 1 and 2 show that the above-developed method of classifying
internal defects, based on the type of flaw-detection pattern that is obtained, is sufficiently accurate and can be used in mass
production at the factory.
Conclusions. A method has been proposed for classifying internal defects in forgings based on the flaw-detection
patterns obtained in ultrasonic testing. The reliability of the method is greater than 75%.
Also, a program has been developed to classify internal defects in relation to their length and their location through
the thickness and width of forgings. The method is valid for flaw-detection patterns in groups I and III.
The method is now being used at the Chelyabinsk affiliate of the Ural Forging Company.
The method of classification can also be used to identify internal defects in cylindrical specimens obtained by free
forging on presses.

370