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1 One-dimensional Gas Dynamics

i) Definition of a Perfect Gas

We shall assume perfect gas behaviour throughout this module; a perfect gas is defined as a fluid in
which the volume occupied by molecules and inter-molecular forces are both negligible. This implies
four important conditions, namely;

a) zero viscosity,
b) non-conducting
c) constant specific heats, and
d) an equation of state, P = Rρ T. 1)

Here, P,R,ρ and T represent pressure, the gas constant (for air R = 287 J/kgK, but takes different
values for other gases), density and temperature, respectively.

The First Law of Thermodynamics may be written

E = Qe - W - K, 2)
where, Qe represents heat supplied to the gas, W represents work done by the gas and K represents the
final mean kinetic energy of the gas. Then, E is a function of state of the gas and is referred to as
internal energy; E may be determined completely by any two of the three properties P,ρ and T. For
small changes

δ E = δ Qe - δ W - δ K 3)
A reversible process is one which may be completely reversed so that the gas and the external medium
can be returned to their original condition. Irreversibility is produced by heat conduction from the
system as a whole and by viscous dissipation, both of which are outside the assumption of a perfect
gas.

For a reversible expansion,

work done by external medium = - work done by the gas

= - Pδ V ( V = gas volume ).
For an irreversible expansion,

work done by external medium > - work done by the gas

> - Pδ V
Thus, for a reversible process

δ W = Pδ V ( gas at rest ), and δ W = Pδ V - δ K ( gas in motion ), and 3) becomes

δ E = δ Qe - Pδ V.
4)

For an irreversible process

δ W < Pδ V - δ K,
= Pδ V - δ K - δ Qi say, where δ Qi > 0, and is the heat generated by dissipation. Thus,

δ E = { δ Qe + δ Qi } - Pδ V, or 5)

δ E = δ Q - Pδ V,
6)

where δ Q is the total heat exchange of the gas including dissipation.

If δ Qe = 0, the process is called adiabatic but is not necessarily reversible.

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Because a perfect gas is non-conducting and inviscid, any continuous process which it undergoes must
be reversible.

Enthalpy, H, is defined as

H = E + PV, 7)
and must therefore be a function of state.

In specific terms, or per unit mass,

h = e + Pv, 8)
and 6) becomes

δ e = δ q - Pδ v. 9)

Specific heats, CP and CV, are defined as

CP = ( ∂q/∂T )P and CV = ( ∂q/∂T )V 10)

But, from 8) and 9),

δ q = δ e + Pδ v = δ h - vδ P,
and hence,

CV = (∂e/∂T )V, and CP = ( ∂h/∂T )P 11)

For a perfect gas, e and h depend linearly on T only, and so

e = CVT, and h = CPT 12).

ii) Equations of One-dimensional Flows

One-dimensional flow is defined as a flow in which properties vary in one direction only, say x, and
are constant in planes x = constant. Flows in ducts can usually be approximated using this assumption,
provided that the duct centre-line curvature is small and area changes are not rapid.

Consider the stream-tube element of one-dimensional, inviscid flow shown in fig.1.

Fig. 1 Stream-tube Element

Using the principle of conservation of mass flow rate, for steady conditions, we have

Aρ u = ( A + δ A ) (ρ + δ ρ ) ( u + δ u ) = constant.
13)
Thus, to first order
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Aρ δ u + Auδ ρ + ρ uδ A = 0.
14)

Using the momentum flux principle, we may equate the x-wise pressure force to the nett change in
momentum flux leaving the element to give,

AP – ( A + δ A ) ( P + δ P ) + ( P + ½ δ P ) δ A =

( A + δ A ) ( ρ + δ ρ ) ( u + δ u )2 - Aρ u2
15).

From 13) and 14) , we may show that

- δ P = ρ uδ u, 16)
which may be integrated to give

∫ dP/ρ + ½ u2 = constant = Cm say, for inviscid flow.

17)

The equivalent continuity equation is

Aρ u = constant = m say. 18)

The energy equation for the steady flow of a perfect gas may be derived by considering the flow of a
volume of gas down a stream-tube as shown in fig.2.

Fig. 2 Energy Balance Control Volume

′ ′
In time δ t let the boundary at (1) have moved to (1 ) and (2) to (2 ). Thus, the fluid between (1) and
′ ′
(2) consists of the same particles as comprise that between (1 ) and (2 ). Using the continuity equation
18),

A1ρ 1u1 = A2ρ 2u2 = m. 19)

The work done by the pressure acting at (1) and (2) on the gas is

δ W = P1A1(u1δ t) – P2A2(u2δ t) 20)

The change in kinetic energy over time δ t is the difference between that contained in the region (2) to
′ ′
(2 ) and that in (1) to (1 ). Therefore

δ K = ( A2ρ 2u2δ t ) ½ u22 - ( A1ρ 1u1δ t ) ½ u12

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= m δ t ½ ( u22 –u12 ) 21)

Similarly, the nett change in internal energy is

δ E = m δ t ( e2 – e1 ) 22)

Neglecting body forces, as is usual in gas flows, the first law of thermodynamics 3), gives for adiabatic
flows ( δ Qe = 0 ),

e1 + P1/ρ 1 + ½ u12 = e2 + P2/ρ 2 + ½ u22 = constant = Ce say, in steady flows. 23)

This gives,

h1 + ½ u12 = h2 + ½ u22 = Ce = constant. 24)

Note that 24) applies even if there is some form of discontinuity between stations (1) and (2), which
might be viscous in nature. When no discontinuity exists, we may write in incremental form,

δ h + uδ u = 0 25)

However, also in incremental form, 16) gives

δ P/ρ + uδ u = 0, and so

δ h = δ P/ρ = vδ P
26)

Now the specific entropy, s, is defined by the Second Law of Thermodynamics as

Tδ s = δ e + Pδ v,

= δ h – vδ P 27)

we see that from 26) and 27), for a steady, continuous, adiabatic flow of a perfect gas, δ s = 0, and the
flow is called isentropic ( or constant entropy ).

From 26),

δ h = CPδ T = vδ P = Rδ T - Pδ v, from the gas equation of state 1).

Hence,

( R – CP ) δ T/T = ( P/T )δ v = Rδ v/v 28)

On integration, we have

( R – CP ) ln (T) = R ln (v) + ln (constant), or

v = constant T ( 1- CP/R ) 29)

From the definition of enthalpy in 8) and 12),

h = e + Pv = e + RT, and so,

CPT = CVT + RT, giving

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CP – CV = R 30)

If, CP/CV = γ , then,

CP/R = γ /( γ - 1 ), giving from 29)

γ )
v = constant T1/(1 - 31)

Using 1), we have,

γ γ
P = constant v - = constant ρ 32)

Thus,

∫ dP/ρ = {γ /(γ - 1)} P/ρ , and 17) gives

{γ /(γ - 1)} P/ρ + ½ u2 = Cm.

But.

h = CPT = {γ /(γ - 1)} P/ρ , so that the energy equation may be written

{γ /(γ - 1)} P/ρ + ½ u2 = Ce.

We see then., that Ce = Cm, and that the energy and momentum equations are identical for steady,
continuous, inviscid, adiabatic flows which must be isentropic.

Stagnation conditions are defined as conditions in the gas when brought to rest isentropically. If state
1 refers to a general point in the flow and state 2 refers to a condition of the flow when brought to rest
isentropically, then,

h1 + ½ u12 = h2 = Ce = constant.

Thus, we see that the stagnation enthalpy, h2, is constant along a streamline and is equal to the sum of
specific enthalpy and specific kinetic energy at any point on the streamline or any point in the flow.
Normally, we use subscript 0 to denote stagnation conditions because of the zero velocity conditions.
Thus, in general, we write

h + ½ u2 = h0 = Ce = constant for adiabatic flows 33)

Because the process leading to the stagnation point is isentropic, equations 30) and 31) apply, and we
deduce that the stagnation pressure, P0, and the stagnation density, ρ 0, are also constant along
streamlines, provided that the flow as a whole is isentropic. The terms total and reservoir are
alternative expressions for stagnation conditions.

iii) Speed of Sound and Mach Number

Consider the piston, shown in fig. 3, starting from rest impulsively to a speed of δ u. This produces a
pressure wave of strength δ P, travelling at a speed a, relative to the gas at rest.
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Fig. 3 Pressure Wave Element

In time δ t, the wave travels a distance aδ t and causes a volume A.aδ t of gas to increase density by
δ ρ .The increase in mass of this volume is therefore

A.aδ t.δ ρ ,

And this must be supplied by gas flowing into the volume at speed δ u. Hence,

ρ mδ u.A.δ t = A.aδ t.δ ρ , or

ρ mδ u.= a.δ ρ ,
34)

where, ρ m represents an average density which will eventually be cancelled without the need for
evaluation.

Applying Newton’s Law relating force, mass and acceleration, we have,

δ P A = ρ mA.aδ t {δ u/δ t}, or

δ P = ρ m.a δ u, 35)

Elimination of ρ mδ u between equations 34) and 35) gives

δ P = a2δ ρ , or

a2 = δ P/δ ρ 36)

In the limit as δ P and δ ρ both tend to zero,

a2 = dP/dρ 37)
γ
and the wave becomes isentropic. When this is the case, 32) tells us that P is proportional to ρ , so
that

a2 = γ P/ρ = γ RT, from 1)

38)

Normal sound waves are indeed isentropic, and we may also use 37) to relate pressure and density
changes in other types of isentropic flows.

We shall find that the ratio of flow speed to the speed of sound, u/a, is an influential parameter in flow
behaviour and calculation. This ratio is called the Mach number, M. If disturbances are now produced
in a duct of mean velocity, u, then their speed of propagation downstream will be u + a, and upstream
will be u – a. Clearly, if u ≥ a, then there will no upstream propagation since pressure waves will be
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swept downstream faster than they transmit at speed a. If M < 1, we refer to subsonic flow, and if the
Mach number M > 1, we refer to supersonic flow.

iv) Stagnation Conditions

If we denote stagnation conditions by subscript 0, then from 12) and 24),

CPT + ½ u2 = CPT0, 39)

and hence,

T0/T = 1 + u2/{2CPT} 40)

But, we know from 30) that CP = γ R/( γ - 1 ) and using 38), we see that

CPT = a2/ ( γ - 1 )
41)

Inserting this in 40), gives

T0/T = 1 + {(γ -1)/2 } M2 42)

Because we have defined stagnation conditions by way of an isentropic process, we may use 31) and
32) to give the equivalent expressions for stagnation to static ratios for pressure and density, which are:
γ /(γ - 1) γ /(γ - 1)
P0/P = { T0/T } = {1 + {(γ -1)/2 } M2} 43)

and
γ - 1) γ - 1)
ρ 0/ρ = { T0/T }1/( = {1 + {(γ -1)/2 } M2}1/( 44)

We note that 42), 43) and 44) apply even in non-isentropic flows because the stagnation and static
conditions are defined at a point and are linked isentropically. In non-isentropic flows, T0, P0 and ρ 0

may all vary along a streamline; in isentropic flows T0, P0 and ρ 0 are all constant along a
streamline.

v) Alternative Forms of the Energy Equation

Our basic derived form is ( see equation 24) );

h + ½ u2 = Ce = constant 45)

but,

h = CPT = { γ /(γ - 1) }P/ρ .

Therefore, from 45)

{ γ /(γ - 1) }P/ρ + ½ u2 = Ce = constant 46)

and from 41) and 45) we see that

a2/ ( γ - 1 ) + ½ u2 = Ce = constant 47)

Hence, our four forms of the energy equation are

h + ½ u2 = Ce = constant in adiabatic flow = h0,

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CPT+ ½ u2 = Ce = constant in adiabatic flow = CPT0,

{ γ /(γ - 1) }P/ρ + ½ u2 = Ce = constant in adiabatic flow = { γ /(γ - 1) }P0/ρ 0,

and

a2/ ( γ - 1 ) + ½ u2 = Ce = constant in adiabatic flow = a02/ ( γ - 1 ).

Here, a0 denotes the speed of sound at the stagnation temperature T0.

We notice that in isentropic flow the third form may be derived in identical form ( except we have
used Cm to distinguish the momentum origin ). In non-isentropic but nevertheless adiabatic flows we
deduce that the momentum equation is no longer identical to our third form above, but contains
additional terms arising from viscous effects.