The Doppler Log

The Doppler log is based on measurement of the Doppler effect.

It has been proved that an observer, moving with a source of
sound towards a reflecting plane receives a frequency:

cv
fv  f
cv

where fv is received frequency, f the transmitted frequency, c the

speed of sound and v the speed of the source of sound.
By measuring fv and knowing and f and c, the speed of a ship
with regard to the sea-bed can be determined; this method can
be applied not only to the along ships but also to the thwart
ships speed. By supplying these speeds to an integrator the
distances covered in both directions can be calculated. Starting
from a known position can be determined in this way at any
moment.

Principle
A transmitting transducer below the ship continuously emits a
beam of sound vibrations in the water a an angle α (usually 60°
to the keel) in the forward direction. A second transducer aboard
receives the echo caused by diffuse reflection from the sea-bed.

Capt. Ahmed Youssef

A Doppler log uses a higher frequency than an echo sounder. In
the first place, the resulting shorter wavelength leads to the more
diffuse reflection desired; the echo from a specula reflection
would not be received, in view of the incidence of the beam
Secondly, the shorter wavelength make possible a smaller beam-
angle and so avoids the dimensions of the radiating face of the
transducer becoming too large. Thirdly, the emitted power of the
sound vibrations spreads less and thus the echo is stronger.

Capt. Ahmed Youssef

Hence, though the distance between the ship and the sea-bed
dose not change, the received frequency will differ ( owing to
the Doppler effect ) from the transmitted frequency. From the
Doppler frequency-shift, which equation 2.3.
A second transmitting transducer directs a beam in a
backward direction ( figure2.32 )and a second receiving
transducer receives its echoes.

For this beam the vector v cos α is negative, how ever

because the transducer moves away from the reflecting surface
of the bottom instead of approaching.
The difference f v  f a of the two received frequencies can easily
be measured electronically by mixing the two frequencies and
detecting the resulting beats.
4 fv
fv  fa  cos 
c

Hence :
c
v ( fv  fa )
4 f cos 

We may consider f and cos α to be constant. The speed of sound

waves in the water c depends, however on the temperature and (
Capt. Ahmed Youssef
to smaller degree ) on the salinity and the water pressure.
Deviations of the sound speed c from the normal value are
passed to the system computer for correction of its calculations.
In equation 2.5 therefore, c, f and cos α are known and f v  f a is
measured, so v can be calculated .
Note that the reading of a Doppler log depends solely on the
speed of the sound waves; the propagation time of the pulse and
its echo plays no role.

Reflections

Both the echo sounder and the Doppler log react to reflections
of sound waves from the sea-bed; the former measures the
propagating time and the latter the difference of the two
frequencies f v  f a .
If the beam is propagated from one water layer into a second
one of different composition or temperature, there will be
reflection; there will also be a Doppler effect if the second layer
moves relative to the first layer and if the beam hits this
obliquely. In that case the frequency of the sound vibrations
penetrating the second layer is different from that in the first
layer ( f  c /  ) . For the echo, how ever, the reverse frequency
change will occur and will cancel out the first change.
A Doppler log measures the algebraic sum of all Doppler
frequency shifts experienced by the sound on its way to the
bottom ( or to a reflecting layer ) and back again. To this
frequency shift must be added the shift that arises at the
transition of the transducer vibrations between the ship and the
water, and vice versa.

Janus configuration
The placing of the two transmitting transducers, to produce
forward and backward beams is called a Janus configuration. (
this name refers to the way the transducers look forward and
backward like the god Janus of the ancient Romans, who was
represented with two faces in order to show that he looked into
the past and into the future.) thanks to the Janus configuration a

Capt. Ahmed Youssef

 linear relationship exists between the speed of the speed of the
vessel v and the measured frequency shift f v  f a . A further
advantage is that vertical movements of the ship cause equal
changes to the Doppler shifts f v and f a in the same. Vertical
movements of the ship do not therefore influence the Doppler
shift.

Continuous-wave and pluse systems

Hitherto it has been taken for granted that the transmitting
transducers generate vibrations continuously, thus making it
necessary for each beam to have a separate transmitting and
receiving transducer, this is called a continuous-wave(c.w)
system. Transmitting and receiving transducer are of identical
construction.
Other types are pulse system. In such a system a transducer
generates pulses and the same transducer receives the echo
between the transmissions. Therefore a pulse system needs only
half as many transducers as a c.w. system .
With c.w. system the reception of the transmitting transducer
going directly form transmitting to receiving transducer ( so-
called cross-noise or feedback ). With pulse system this cannot
occur, since a pulse is transmitted only after the echo of the
preceding pulse has been received , and the receiver is blocked
during the transmission.
Further advantages and disadvantages of the two system will not
be dealt with here. The majority of Doppler logs in use are pulse
systems.

Transducers
The frequency used is 100 to 600 kHz. The surface area of each
transducer need then be only about 10cm .

Capt. Ahmed Youssef

Measurement of ships speed relative to bottom or water

Owing to absorption by particles in the water at a depth of 200

to 400 metres a Doppler log only functions down to about 200
metres . when sufficiently low frequencies are used echoes may
still arrive from a rocky bottom at a depth of 600 metres and
more . In general however the beam is absorbed and scattered by
the mass of water between 200 and 400 metres the so-called
deep scattering layer (DSL). When reflections are received from
this layer the speed of the ship relative to that layer, and not
relative to the bottom, is obtained. Thus uncertainty and
confusion may occur.
Apart from the effect of the DSL, the water at 10 to 30
metres below the keel also causes an echo and Doppler effect by
volume-reverberation; this is called 'water track' ( as opposed to
'bottom track').

Uses of the Doppler log

The Doppler log has received acceptance in the navigation of

every large tankers. These vessel need navigational accuracy in
coastal water that cannot be completely guaranteed by shore-
referred navigational aids. A second very important advantage
in large tankers is the use of the log for berthing or mooring to
jetties, single-point mooring, low-speed cruising, dropping or
weighing anchor, and approaching fixed dock. The size of such
vessel has increased so much that the reliability of human
judgment concerning speed and distance is considerably
reduced. There have been numerous docking accidents due to
incorrect estimates of ship's approach speed. The Doppler log
can measure the speed to the nearest 0.01 knot or 5 mm/s;
unfortunately, however, it sometimes does not function correctly
during docking if the screws of tugs cause air bubbles ( which
reflect sound waves) to pass through the beams.

Capt. Ahmed Youssef