Analysis and Modeling of High-Resolution Multi Component Seismic Reflection Data

ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF HIGH-RESOLUTION
MULTICOMPONENT SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the
Graduate School of the Ohio State University
By
Erich D. Guy, B.S., M.S.
*****
The Ohio State University
2002
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Jeffrey Daniels, Adviser
Dr. Matthew Saltzman
Dr. Franklin Schwartz
Dr. William Wolfe

UMI Number: 3110978
Copyright 2002 by
Guy, Erich D.
All rights reserved.
________________________________________________________
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© Copyright by
Erich D. Guy
2002
ABSTRACT
Seismic reflection has been applied during the past two decades towards the
solution of shallow earth problems, with single component P-wave methods traditionally
employed. The facts that (1) seismic body-wave types are sensitive to different physical
properties, (2) seismic sources radiate polarized waves, and (3) seismic receivers are
sensitive to the polarization of scattered body-waves and coherent noise, mean that it is
important to consider the potential usefulness of recording and analyzing different wave-
types and data components prior to conducting a high-resolution reflection survey.
Detailed studies regarding the applicability of multicomponent seismic reflection
techniques for the near-surface have been uncommon. In this dissertation, important
aspects of elastic-wave propagation relevant to high-resolution multicomponent
surveying have been analyzed experimentally and numerically, and methodologies have
been tested and developed that will improve near-surface imaging and characterization.
Factors affecting the ability and relative effectiveness of common-mode P- and S-
wave reflection surveys for mapping features in the near-surface are described and
illustrated through analyses of experimental field data and modeling. It is demonstrated
through comparisons of known subsurface conditions and processed stacked sections,
that combined P- and S-wave common-mode reflection information can allow a geologic
sequence to be imaged more effectively than by using solely P- or S-wave reflection
information. Mine subsidence-related project objectives in the field study area for this
research would not have been met using traditionally acquired P-P component data, but
study area project objectives were able to be met using S-wave reflection information.
Near-surface mode-converted seismic reflection imaging potential was tested
experimentally and evaluated through modeling. Modeling results demonstrate that
ii
potential advantages of near-surface mode-conversion imaging can be realized in theory.
Analyses of acquired multicomponent data however demonstrate that mode-conversion
imaging could not be accomplished in the field study area. Mode-converted reflections
having arrival times and moveouts similar to those that were predicted were not observed
in field data, due to the low amplitudes of mode-converted events and the presence of
random and coherent noise in field data. Analysis methods are presented that can be used
for assessing converted-wave imaging potential in future near-surface reflection studies.
Factors affecting the ability of SH-wave reflection measurements for allowing
near-surface interfaces and discontinuities to be effectively imaged are described. The
necessity of considering resolution issues, velocity model construction methods, and
imaging approaches during SH-reflection data analysis to ensure accurate subsurface
interpretation is demonstrated using numerical models and field data processing
illustrations. A SH-wave reflection data analysis workflow is presented that provides a
methodology for delineating areas of the subsurface where subsidence processes have
been active. The effectiveness of the workflow is demonstrated, and it is shown that SH-
wave reflection surveys can be used to assess mine-subsidence problems along roadways.
Equations that define an incidence angle (angle of intromission) for which the
SH-wave reflection coefficient is zero, and describe its conditions of occurrence are
presented. The SH-wave intromission angle and its potential application have not
previously been discussed in seismology literature.
One appendix of this dissertation presents a computer program developed for the
application of equations describing elastic-wave scattering from planar interfaces. The
programmed equations have a wide range of applications in seismology, and such code
has not previously existed in the public domain. In another appendix, it is shown through
analyses of acquired cross-hole radar data, that EM-wave velocity and amplitude
information can be used to infer near-surface media distribution and mine-related
subsidence activity between boreholes. Data acquisition considerations and data analysis
workflows developed for cross-hole radar measurements are also presented.
iii
Dedicated to my parents Dave and Gerry
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my advisor Dr. Jeffrey Daniels for guidance, suggestions, and support. I
also thank my committee members Drs. Matthew Saltzman, Franklin Schwartz, and
William Wolfe for reviews and suggestions, and Dr. Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
(University of Michigan) for research assistance and detailed reviews of chapters 6 and 7.
The seismic reflection and borehole radar data presented in this thesis were
processed using ProMAX software, and the elastic-wave modeling was conducted using
Sierra software; the Landmark Graphics Corporation generously provided both. The
Federal Highway Administration and the Ohio Department of Transportation provided
funding for the acquisition of the data that were used in this research. Special thanks go
to Thomas Lefchik and Rick Ruegsegger from these two organizations respectively.
I acknowledge Dr. Jeffrey Daniels, Dr. Richard Nolen-Hoeksema, John Clark
(Bay Geophysical), Robert Hinson (SeisTech, Inc.), Cam Walker (Walker Marine), Dr.
Don Steeples (University of Kansas), Jennifer Holt, and Zach Daniels for their
involvement/organization of seismic reflection data acquisition, and Zach Daniels for his
involvement in borehole radar data acquisition. I thank Chris Hall and Takeshi Hirano
from BBC&M Engineering, Inc., for providing me with I-70 project-related information.
I learned from many great professors at OSU, including: Drs. Michael Barton,
Tarunjit Butalia, Jeffrey Daniels, David Elliot, Hallan Noltimier, Doug Pride, Franklin
v
Schwartz, Rodney Tettenhorst, and William Wolfe. I also learned from being part a
research group at OSU composed of many fine people, including: Mohammad
Asgharzadeh, Dr. Christina Chan, Jim Conroy, Jennifer Holt, Dr. Selma Kadioglu, Dr.
Changryol Kim, Dr. Jens Munk, Pedro Paramo, and Dr. Stanley Radzevicius. Special
thanks go to: Mohammad Asgharzadeh and Pedro Paramo for seismic data processing
and interpretation discussions, Jim Conroy for I-70 study area and programming
discussions, Dr. Jens Munk for frequent geophysical discussions and advice, and Dr.
Stanley Radzevicius for numerous enjoyable field GPR research sessions and discussions
which improved the work in chapter 7 and appendix B.
I appreciate computer-related assistance that I received from Doug Findlay, Frank
Oh, Chris Toth, and Joe Walton (OSU Geology Dept. computing staff). Special thanks
go to Brent Curtiss (OSU Geology Dept. System Administrator) for his frequent technical
assistance and software installations and maintenance over the last several years.
I am grateful for summer research funding provided by Mark Vendl and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, for conference travel funding provided on numerous
occasions by the Friends of Orton Hall (OSU Geology Dept.), and for a presidential
fellowship provided during my final year by The Ohio State University Graduate School.
I am thankful for valuable advice provided by Dave Guy on countless occasions.
DISCLAIMER
Any statements made in this dissertation concerning the size, nature and location
of objects in the study area subsurface, are an interpretation made by the author (who
assumes no liability). Such statements are subjective, and may be interpreted differently.
vi
VITA
1996…………………………………………… B.S. Geological Sciences, Biological

Science Minor, Mount Union College,
Alliance, Ohio
1998……………………………………………. M.S. Geological Sciences, GIS Focus,
Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, Ohio
1998 - Present………………………………….. The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio
PUBLICATIONS
Journal Papers
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J., Nolen-Hoeksema, R.C., and Lefchik, T., Accepted, High-
Resolution SH-Wave Seismic Reflection Investigations Near a Coal Mine-Related
Roadway Collapse Feature, Journal of Applied Geophysics, Elsevier Science.
Guy, E.D., Radzevicius, S.J., and Conroy, J.P., Accepted, MATLAB Programs for
Application of Equations Describing Elastic and Electromagnetic Wave Scattering from
Planar Interfaces, Computers & Geosciences, International Association for Mathematical
Geology.
Guy, E.D., and Radzevicius, S.J., 2001, Recognition of Borehole Radar Cable-Related
Effects Using Variable Offset Sounding, Subsurface Sensing Technologies and
Applications: An International Journal, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, vol. 2, no.
2, pp. 127-139.
Guy, E.D., and Levine, N.S., 2001, GIS Modeling and Analysis of Ohio's CO2 Budget:
Mitigating Ohio's CO2 Emissions Through Reforestation, The Ohio Journal of Science,
The Ohio Academy of Science, vol. 101, no. 3/4, pp. 34-41.
vii
Radzevicius, S.J., Guy, E.D., and Daniels, J.J., 2000, Pitfalls in GPR Data Interpretation:
Differentiating Stratigraphy and Buried Objects from Periodic Antenna and Target
Effects, Geophysical Research Letters, American Geophysical Union, vol. 27, no. 20, pp.
3393-3396.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J., Holt, J., Radzevicius, S.J., and Vendl, M.A., 2000,
Electromagnetic Induction and GPR Measurements for Creosote Contaminant
Investigation, Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, The Environmental
and Engineering Geophysical Society, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 11-19.
Kim, C., Daniels, J.J., Guy, E.D., Radzevicius, S.J., and Holt, J., 2000, Residual
Hydrocarbons in a Water Saturated Medium: A Detection Strategy Using Ground
Penetrating Radar, Environmental Geosciences, American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 169-176.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J., Radzevicius, S.J., and Vendl, M.A., 1999, Demonstration of
Using Crossed Dipole GPR Antennae for Site Characterization, Geophysical Research
Letters, American Geophysical Union, vol. 26, no. 22, pp. 3421-3424.
Conference Papers
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J., and Daniels, Z., Accepted, Cross-Hole Radar Effectiveness for
Mine-Related Subsidence Investigations, the International 2003 NO-DIG Conference,
International and North American Societies for Trenchless Technology.
Daniels, J.J., Vendl, M.A., Holt, J.J., Guy, E.D., Accepted, Combining Multiple
Geophysical Data Sets into a Single 3D Image, 2003 Symposium on the Application of
Geophysics to Environmental and Engineering Problems, The Environmental and
Engineering Geophysical Society.
Guy, E.D., and Radzevicius, S.J., 2001, Non-Geologic Events in Single- and Cross-hole
Radar Data, Society of Exploration Geophysicists Annual Meeting Expanded Abstracts,
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 4 p.
Kim, C., Daniels, J.J., Holt, J., and Guy, E.D., 2000, A Physical Model Experiment of the
GPR Response Over Gasoline, in: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of
Geophysics to Environmental and Engineering Problems, The Environmental and
Engineering Geophysical Society, pp. 303-310.
Frank, G., Guy, E.D., and Daniels, J.J., 2000, Use of Borehole Ground Penetrating Radar
in Determining the Risk Associated with Boulder Occurrence, in: Proceedings of the
North American NO-DIG Conference, North American Society for Trenchless
Technology, pp. 37-48.
viii
Radzevicius, S.J., Daniels, J.J., Guy, E.D., and Vendl, M.A., 2000, Significance of
Crossed-Dipole Antennas for High Noise Environments, in: Proceedings of the
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Environmental and Engineering
Problems, The Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society, pp. 407-413.
Abstracts/Presentations
Guy, E.D., and Daniels, J.J., 2002, Comparison of P-Wave and S-Wave Reflection
Surveying Effectiveness for Detection of Mine-Related Subsidence Activity Beneath a
Heavily Traveled Roadway, EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 83,
no. 47.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J. (speaker), Nolen-Hoeksema, R.C., and Lefchik, T., 2002, High-
Resolution SH-Wave Seismic Reflection Investigations Near a Coal Mine-Related
Roadway Collapse Feature, NATO Hydrogeophysics Advanced Study Institute.
Daniels, J.J., Guy, E.D., and Holt, J.J., 2002, Physical Model Tests of the Sensitivity of
GPR to LNAPL’s in the Vadose Zone, NATO Hydrogeophysics Advanced Study
Institute.
Paramo, P., Daniels, J.J., Asgharzadeh, M.F., and Guy, E.D., 2002, Processing and
Interpretation of Seismic Reflection Data Acquired in Northwest Ohio Over the East
Continental Rift, Rocky Mountain Section Meeting, American Association of Petroleum
Geologists.
Asgharzadeh, M.F., Daniels, J.J., Paramo, P., and Guy, E.D., 2002, Analysis of P-wave
Reflection Seismic Data Acquired in Northwest Ohio: Implications for Regional
Stratigraphy, Structure, and Hazardous Waste Injection Practices, American Association
of Petroleum Geologists and Society of Exploration Geophysicists joint exposition.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J, Radzevicius, S.J., and Holt, J., 2000, Application of
Electromagnetic Techniques for Organic Contaminant Detection, EOS Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, vol. 81, no.19, p. S234.
Guy, E.D., and Levine, N.S., 2000, Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
Strategies Using Forestation Techniques: a Theoretical Study at the State Level, EOS
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 81, no.19, p. S92.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J, Kim, C., Holt, J., Radzevicius, S.J., and Vendl, M.A., 2000,
LNAPL Effects on GPR Data, Abstracts with programs, Geological Society of America,
vol. 32, no.4, p. A15.
Guy, E.D., Daniels, J.J, and Radzevicius, S.J., 1999, Shallow Geophysics for
Investigation of a Creosote Contaminated Site in Central Ohio, AAPG Bulletin,
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, vol. 83, no.8, p. 1375.
ix
Radzevicius, S.J., Daniels, J.J., and Guy, E.D., 1999, GPR for Environmental Site
Investigations: the Importance of Polarization, AAPG Bulletin, American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, vol. 83, no.8, pp. 1375-1376.
Guy, E.D., and Levine, N.S., 1998, The Development and Testing of a Carbon Dioxide
Budget Model for the State of Ohio Using GIS, Abstracts with programs, Geological
Society of America, vol. 30, no.2, p. 20.
Guy, E.D. 1998. Development of a Carbon Dioxide Budget Model for the State of Ohio,
Sigma Xi Research Forum Abstracts, Sigma Xi, 2 p.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Geological Sciences
Specialization: Engineering and Environmental Geophysics
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgments v
Vita vii
List of Tables xvii
List of Figures xix
Chapters:
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Research Objectives 3
1.3 Significance of Research and Previous Work 4
1.3.1 Shallow Multicomponent Seismic Reflection Data Analysis 5
1.3.1.1 Common-Mode Seismic Reflection Analysis 6
1.3.1.2 Converted-Mode Seismic Reflection Analysis 7
1.3.2 Geophysical Detection of Subsurface Mine-Related
Subsidence Activity 9
1.4 Organization of Document 10
2. Seismic Wave Scattering Theory 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 P- SH- and SV-Waves: Normal Incidence 16
2.3 SH-Waves: Non-Normal Incidence 21
2.4 P- and SV-Waves: Non-Normal Incidence 23
xi
2.4.1 Incident P-Waves 25
2.4.2 Incident SV-Waves 27
3. Experimental Seismic Reflection Data Acquisition 30

3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Shear-Wave Reflection Survey - 1999 30
3.2.1 Data Acquisition 32
3.2.1.1 Energy Source 34
3.2.2 Data Pre-Processing 35
3.2.2.1 Vibroseis Correlation 35
3.2.2.2 Processing and Display Polarity 38
3.2.2.3 Geometry 39
3.2.2.4 Data Truncation and Trace Editing 40
3.3 Multicomponent Reflection Survey - 2001 41
3.3.1 Data Acquisition 43
3.3.1.1 Energy Source and Configurations 43
3.3.2 Data Pre-Processing 44
3.3.2.1 Multicomponent Data Polarity Considerations 44
3.3.2.2 Geometry 47
3.3.2.3 Data Truncation and Trace Editing 48
4. Factors Affecting Common-Mode Reflection Surveying Effectiveness 51

4.1 Overview 51
4.2 Multicomponent Reflection Data 53
4.3 XX Data Versus YY Data: Factors Affecting Imaging Potential 56
4.3.1 Noise, Optimal Reflection Windows, and Reflection
Coefficients 60
4.3.2 Stacked Signal Quality 66

4.4 YY Data Versus ZZ Data: Factors Affecting Imaging Potential 73
xii
4.4.1 Sensitivity of P- and S-waves to Changes in Overburden
Saturation 76
4.4.1.1 Reflection Coefficients: Unsaturated and Saturated

Overburden Interface 78
4.4.2 Noise and Optimal Reflection Windows 82

4.4.3 Resolution Potential of ZZ Component Data 84
4.4.3.1 P-Wave Versus S-Wave Resolution 88
4.4.4 Data Processing 90
4.4.4.1 Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering 90
4.4.5 P- and S-Wave Stacked Section Imaging 96
4.4.5.1 Insitu Physical Properties Measurement Potential
Using Reflections 99
5. Converted-Mode Reflection Imaging Potential 102

5.1 Overview 102
5.2 Field Multicomponent Reflection Data 104
5.2.1 Common-Mode Reflection Information 107
5.3 Converted-Mode Reflection Imaging Potential 116
5.3.1 Near-Surface Velocity and Density Structure 116
5.3.2 Energies of Mode-Converted Events 118
5.3.2.1 Mode-Conversions at the Unsaturated and
Saturated Overburden Interface 120
5.3.2.2 Mode-Conversions at the Saturated Overburden

and Bedrock Interface 121
5.3.3 Ray Tracing of Mode-Converted Reflections 125

5.3.3.1 Predicted Arrival Times and Moveouts 130
5.3.3.2 Comparison of Predicted and Observed Field Data
Events 132
5.3.4 Elastic-Wave Modeling 133

5.3.4.1 Forward Modeling Approach 134
xiii
5.3.4.2 Pure Source-Polarization Modeling Results 136
5.3.4.2.1 Common-Mode Reflection Synthetics 136
5.3.4.2.2 Converted-Mode Reflection Synthetics 141
5.3.4.3 Mixed Source-Polarization Modeling Results 142
5.3.4.3.1 SV-P and P-P Synthetics 143
5.3.4.3.2 P-SV and SV-SV Synthetics 145
6. SH-Wave Reflection Data Analysis Considerations 149

6.1 Overview 149
6.2 Shear-Wave Reflection Data 150
6.3 Shot Gather Analysis 151
6.3.1 Sources of Noise 152
6.3.2 Overburden and Bedrock Interface Reflection Coefficients 156
6.4 Target Resolution Potential 161
6.4.1 Reflecting Horizon Resolution Potential 161
6.4.2 Discontinuity Resolution Potential 169
6.5 Data Processing 174
6.5.1 Processing Strategy 174
6.5.2 Processing Flow 176
6.5.2.1 Velocity Analysis 179
6.5.3 CMP Stacking Versus Common Offset Imaging
Approaches 184
6.6 Results and Interpretations 185

6.6.1 Line Test-1 187
6.6.2 Line GUE-I70-1 190
6.6.3 Line EBPassYY 198
7. Development of SH-Wave Intromission Angle Theory 205
7.1 Overview 205
7.2 P-Wave Intromission Angle in Acoustic Media Overview 206
7.3 Conditions for SH-Wave Intromission Angle 213
xiv
7.4 Source Code Listing: p_acoustic.m 223
8. Conclusions 226
8.1 Importance of Considering P- and S-Wave Imaging Potential Prior
to Conducting High-Resolution Reflection Surveys 226
8.1.1 Applicability of P- and S-Wave Common-Mode Reflection

Information 227
8.1.2 Potential for Improving Near-Surface Characterization

Using Converted-Mode Reflection Imaging 231
8.2 Factors Affecting SH-Wave Reflection Method Applicability for

Shallow Earth Characterization 233
8.2.1 Shallow SH-Reflection Imaging in Complex and High

Noise Environments 233
8.3 Potential Application of SH-Wave Intromission Angle Equations 236

8.4 Importance of Developed PSHSV Computer Program 237
8.5 Applicability of Cross-Hole Radar for Subsidence Studies: Data
Acquisition and Analysis Considerations 238
8.5.1 Borehole Radar Data Acquisition Considerations 239

8.5.2 Cross-Hole Radar Data Analysis Considerations 240
Appendices:
A. Seismic Reflection Field Test Area 242

A.1 Location 242
A.2 Geologic Setting 242
A.3 Subsidence History 246
A.3.1 Remediation Efforts 250
A.4 Coal Mine-Related Subsidence 254
A.4.1 Underground Coal Mining Methods 254
A.4.2 Partial Extraction Mining Subsidence Mechanisms 255
A.4.3 Interstate 70 Mining and Subsidence Mechanisms 258
xv
B. Program for Application of Equations Describing Elastic Wave Scattering
from Planar Interfaces 261
B.1 Introduction 261

B.1.1 Solutions Obtained from Program Application 262
B.2 Program Description 263
B.2.1 Critical Angles and Phase 264
B.3 Program Functionality 266
B.4 Source Code Listing 280
C. Interpreted SH-Wave Depth Sections for the Entire Field Test Area 288
C.1 Introduction 288
C.2 Results and Interpretations 288
D. Cross-Hole Radar Effectiveness for Investigation of Seismically

Imaged Discontinuities 311
D.1 Overview 311

D.2 Introduction: Borehole Radar Methods 312
D.2.1 Antennas and Measurement Configurations 313
D.3 Cross-Hole Radar Data Acquisition: I-70 Study Area 315
D.3.1 Constant Offset Profile Measurements 319
D.3.2 Multiple Offset Gather Measurements 321
D.4 Cross-Hole Radar Data Processing and Imaging 323
D.4.1 Constant Offset Profile Analysis 323
D.4.2 Multiple Offset Gather Analysis 328
D.5 Cross-Hole Radar Results and Interpretations 331
D.5.1 Eastbound Travel Lane Road Stations 46940 to 46968 332
D.5.2 Eastbound Passing lane Road Stations 48304 to 48379 338
Bibliography 362
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Field acquisition and recording parameters for lines Test-1 and GUE-
I70-1 acquired during the 1999 seismic reflection survey 33
3.2 Field acquisition and recording parameters for Lines EBTravel, EBPass,
WBPass, and WBTravel, acquired during the 2001 seismic reflection
survey 42
4.1 Information from drill logs near line EBTravel 58
4.2 Data processing flow for Line EBTravel S-wave reflection data (XX
and YY and components), acquired east of the previous roadway
collapse region 69
4.3 Representative subsurface parameters and normal incidence P-wave and

S-wave cumulative reflection coefficients for the I-70 study area
subsurface lithologies and related contrasts in impedance 80
4.4 Velocity model used to generate the synthetic seismogram in Figure

4.12 85
4.5 Quarter-wavelengths calculated for P- and S-waves in the I-70 study

area overburden materials 89
4.6 Data processing flow for lines EBTravel S-wave (YY component) and
P-wave (ZZ component) reflection data 91
5.1 Data-derived I-70 subsurface model layer parameters used for square
root energy coefficient calculations and elastic-wave modeling 117
6.1 Velocity model used to generate synthetic data shown in Figures 6.7 and
6.8 163
6.2 Data processing flow for shear-wave reflection data 175
xvii
7.1 Incident and refracted media (media 1 and 2 respectively) physical
property scenarios used to model the synthetic seismograms and obtain
the solutions presented in Figures 7.1a - 7.1d 207
7.2 Incident and refracted media (media 1 and 2 respectively) physical

property scenarios used to obtain the solutions presented in Figures 7.3
and 7.4 216
B.1 Lithologic parameters used to obtain the solutions plotted as a function

of incidence angle in Figures B.1 - B.3 267
C.1 Locations and apparent dip directions of bedrock horizon faults (mine-
related) indicated on seismic YY component depth sections. Fault
locations (given in feet from the western county line) correspond to road
stations, and are plotted (with apparent dip directions indicated) relative
to the roadway 308
D.1 Cross-hole constant offset profile (COP) and multiple offset gather
(MOG) radar measurements in the I-70 study area (Figure D.1).
Borehole locations correspond to road stations; EBT = eastbound travel
lane, EBP = eastbound passing lane. Road stations are given in feet
from the western county line 317
D.2 Acquisition and recording parameters for cross-hole constant offset

profile (COP) and multiple offset gather (MOG) radar measurements in
the I-70 study area 322
D.3 Data processing and imaging flow for I-70 study area cross-hole
constant offset profile (COP) radar measurements 324
D.4 Data processing and imaging flow for I-70 study area cross-hole
multiple offset gather (MOG) radar measurements 324
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Particle motion associated with wave types (P, SH, and SV). P-wave
particle motion (left) is in the direction of propagation (indicated by
ray path) and within the plane of incidence (defined by source,
reflection point, and receiver). SH-wave particle motion (middle) is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and is within a plane that
is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. SV-wave particle motion
(right) is within the plane of incidence, but perpendicular to the
propagation direction 17
2.2 Nomenclature used for incident and scattered wave types and ray
angles with normal, and for calculated coefficient and ratio terms.
P1P2 for example, signifies a refracted P-wave in medium 2 resulting
from an incident P-wave in medium 1. Rays that are shown represent
the possible scattered waves from the planar interface (which is
perpendicular to the plane containing the rays) separating medium 1
and medium 2 (which are isotropic solids) 18
3.1 Photographs of 1999 (top) and 2001 (bottom) seismic reflection data
acquisition in the I-70 study area. See text for details regarding 1999
and 2001 data acquisition geometry and recording parameters 31
3.2 Map view of eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48300 to 48500,
1999 seismic survey stations 100 to 300) showing the location of
reflection lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 32
3.3 Line Test-1 shot gathers: (a) correlated using AUX channel –2, and (b)
correlated using a synthetic sweep. The steeply-dipping periodic noise
(with dominant frequency of 65 Hz) evident at near offsets in shot
gathers correlated using AUX channel –2 was suppressed when shot
gathers were correlated using a synthetic sweep. Shot gathers are
unfiltered and have AGC scaling (100 ms window) applied for display
purposes. The x-axes scales of absolute offset from the source are in
feet 37
xix
3.4 CDP fold relative to road stations for 1999 survey lines: (a) Test-1, and
(b) GUE-I70-1 (for both lines the source and geophone intervals were
1 ft, and source locations were offset 2 ft north of geophones) 40
3.5 Map view of eastbound and westbound lanes of I-70 (road stations
48900 to 46694, 2001 seismic survey stations 1000 to 3206) showing
the location of reflection lines EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass, and
WBTravel 41
3.6 Multicomponent recording polarities for 3-C geophones with elements

arranged in a Cartesian system: (a) recording convention consistent
with SEG recommendations, and (b) 2001 multicomponent survey
recording convention. Raw data were recorded during the 2001 survey
with receiver polarities configured such that a tap on the top of a
geophone case yielded an initial positive amplitude, and taps on the
sides of a geophone case in the positive X and Y axis directions
yielded initial negative amplitudes. Source advancement direction is
in the positive X-axis direction, and the positive Y-axis direction has a
rotation angle of +90 degrees from the positive X-axis 46
3.7 Shot gather (P-wave source, Z component) recorded using horizontal,

inline (X component) geophone elements: (left) before, and (right)
after polarity reversal of trailing spread. Absolute values of offset
from the source on the x-axis are in ft 47
3.8 CDP fold relative to road stations for 2001 survey: (a) line EBTravel
inline and transverse shear source configurations (source interval was 1
ft for stations 48900-47558, and 2 feet for stations 47556-46694,
geophone interval was 2 ft), and (b) line EBTravel compressional
source configuration, lines EBPass and WBPass transverse shear
source configuration, and line WBTravel transverse and inline shear
source configurations (source and geophone intervals were 2 ft for all
stations) 50
4.1 Map view of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48500 to
48900) showing the location of seismic reflection line EBTravel
relative to the locations of the underground mine workings. Due to the
small map scale and possible errors that exist regarding room and pillar
locations on the map, the spatial relationship between these features
and the I-70 road stations is regarded as only approximately accurate 54
xx
4.2 Nomenclature used to describe multicomponent reflection data, in
terms of the source and receiver orientations and preferential
polarizations. For sources, the X and Y symbols indicate sources
configured to preferentially generate shear particle motion inline and
transverse (crossline) to the seismic line respectively, while Z indicates
a source configured to preferentially generate compressional particle
motion. For receivers, the symbols X and Y indicate horizontal
geophone elements oriented inline and transverse to the line
respectively, while Z indicates a vertical geophone element. The
source and receiver pairs: XX, YY, and ZZ are referred to as the
common-mode components of the nine-component matrix (e.g. XX
means a source and receiver both oriented in the X direction) 55
4.3 Line EBTravel shot gathers: (a) XX component, and (b) YY

component. Gathers are shown: (top) unprocessed, (middle) with a
bandpass filter (50-80-160-200 Hz) and AGC (100 ms window)
applied, and (bottom) interpreted. S-wave reflections from the top-of-
bedrock are indicated, and apparent NMO velocities and approximate
depths are given. The x-axis scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET)
from the source locations (SOU_X; source locations are given in feet
from the western county line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet 57
4.4 Processed (bandpass filter and AGC gain applied) line EBTravel
multicomponent shot gathers: source components X (a), and Y (b).
The S-wave reflections interpreted in Figure 4.3 are superimposed on
the common-mode component (XX and YY) gathers. The x-axis
scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET) from the source locations
(SOU_X; source locations are given in feet from the western county
line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet 59
4.5 Plots showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function

of incidence angle for a SV-wave (left) and a SH-wave (right) incident
on the overburden (medium 1) and bedrock (medium 2) interface 65
xxi
4.6 Line EBTravel CDP supergathers: XX component (left), and YY
component (right). Gathers are shown before and after NMO
correction using YY component-derived (Table 4.2) S-wave stacking
velocities of: (a) 737 ft/s, (b) 705 ft/s, and (c) 675 ft/s. Arrows next to
dynamic stack functions indicate the top-of-bedrock reflection event.
This reflection is slightly over-corrected on the 48820 (a) XX
component gather (although data still stack reasonably well at the
applied velocity). For supergathers centered at the other two locations
(b and c), this event is corrected similar on both the XX and YY
components. CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations
(given in feet from the western county line, see Figure 4.1) 67
4.7 Line EBTravel XX and YY component time sections after similar

processing (Table 4.2), and NMO corrections made using the same
velocity model: (a) 100 percent of stacking velocities, (b) 95 percent, and
(c) 105 percent. CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations
(given in feet from the western county line). Y-axis arrows indicate the
top of the bedrock horizon. The YY component sections have a higher
signal-to-noise ratio, and provide a better stack of the bedrock horizon.
No previous mining occurred below line EBTravel between CDP
locations 48880 and 48660 70
4.8 Line EBTravel shot gathers: (a) ZZ component, and (b) YY
component. Gathers are shown: (top) unprocessed, (middle) with a
bandpass filter (ZZ: 80-120-200-240 Hz, YY: 50-80-160-200 Hz) and
AGC (100 ms window) applied, and (bottom) interpreted. P-wave
reflections from the top-of-saturated-overburden (a) are indicated in
blue, and S-wave reflections from the top-of-bedrock (b) are indicated
in yellow, with apparent NMO velocities and approximate depths
given. The x-axis scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET) from the
source locations (SOU_X; source locations are given in feet from the
western county line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet 74
4.9 Line EBTravel multicomponent (source component Z, receiver

components X, Y, and Z) shot gathers: (a) unprocessed, and (b)
processed (bandpass filter: 80-120-200-240 Hz, and AGC gain with
100 ms window applied). P-wave reflections interpreted in Figure 4.8
are superimposed on the processed common-mode component (ZZ)
gathers. The x-axis scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET) from the
source locations (SOU_X; source locations are given in feet from the
western county line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet 75
xxii
4.10 Line EBTravel ZZ Component CMP gathers: (a) uninterpreted, and (b)
interpreted. Gathers are shown with a bandpass filter (80-120-200-240
Hz) and AGC (100 ms window) applied. P-wave reflections from the
top-of-saturated-overburden are indicated in (d), with apparent NMO
velocities around 1900 ft/sec, and reflector depths of about 32 feet. X-
axis scales of CMP location (CDP_X) and receiver location (REC_X)
are in feet, and correspond to road stations 77
4.11 Plots showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function

of incidence angle for a P-wave (left), a SV-wave (middle), and a SH-
wave (right) incident on the interface between unsaturated overburden
(medium 1) and saturated overburden (medium 2) 79
4.12 Comparison of synthetic data with line EBTravel field data (ZZ
component). Plots of the velocity model and calculated event arrival
times are shown in (a) and (b) respectively. A synthetic seismogram
generated using the model in (a) with a 150 Hz source is shown
uninterpreted in (c), and interpreted in (d). A shot gather used as a
basis for forward modeling is shown uninterpreted in (e), and
interpreted in (f). A high reflection coefficient at the unsaturated and
saturated overburden (primary) interface, noise, and interference
prevent the interpretation of secondary events in field data (f) 86
4.13 Line EBTravel ZZ component (a) and YY component (b) shot gathers
(source located at road station 48638, east direction to left) and f-k
spectra: (left) gathers without f-k filter applied showing reflections
with zero-offset times of 32 ms (a) and 110 ms (b), and f-k amplitude
spectra showing defined mute polygons, (middle) with polygons
rejected to suppress noise (indicated in boxes 1 and 2), and (right) with
polygons accepted (showing noise rejected through filter application).
Bandpass filters and AGC gain were applied to the gathers before
generating these plots in order to demonstrate f-k filter non-reflection
energy suppression across reflection signal bandwidths. The x-axis
scales of absolute offset from the sources are in feet 93
4.14 Line EBTravel ZZ component (top) and YY component (bottom) time

sections without and with f-k filtering in processing flows. Notice the
suppression of noise and enhancement of reflection signal (within the
circled regions) achieved through application of f-k filters. CDP
location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (units are in
feet) 95
xxiii
4.15 Line EBTravel ZZ component (a) and YY component (b) time sections
with fold (TR_FOLD) plots. The P-wave reflection event at 28 to 33
ms (a) is the top-of-saturated-overburden on the P-wave depth section
(c). The S-wave reflection event at 105 to 115 ms (b) is the top-of-
bedrock on the S-wave depth section (d). The scales on the bottom x-
axes of (a) and (b) show P-wave and S-wave stacking velocities
respectively (velocity scales are to the right of the sections). CDP
location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (units are in
feet) 97
48850) showing the locations of multicomponent seismic reflection
lines (road stations 48630 to 48830) presented in this chapter, relative
to the locations of the underground mine workings. For line EBTravel
9 component (9C) data were acquired, and for line EBPass 3C data
were acquired. Road stations are given in feet from the western county
line 105
5.2 Nomenclature used to describe multicomponent reflection data, in

terms of the source and receiver orientations and preferential
polarizations. For sources, the X and Y symbols indicate sources
configured to preferentially generate shear particle motion inline and
transverse (crossline) to the seismic line respectively, while Z indicates
a source configured to preferentially generate compressional particle
motion. For receivers, the symbols X and Y indicate horizontal
geophone elements oriented inline and transverse to the line
respectively, while Z indicates a vertical geophone element. The
source and receiver pairs: XX, YY, and ZZ are referred to as the
common-mode components of the nine-component matrix (e.g. XX
means a source and receiver both oriented in the X direction) 106
5.3 Line EBTravel 9C shot gathers: (a) unprocessed, and (b) with a
bandpass filter (X and Y sources: 50-80-160-200 Hz; Z source: 80-
120-200-240 Hz) and AGC applied. Common-mode S-wave
reflections (yellow) from the top-of-bedrock are indicated on XX and
YY shots; common-mode P-wave reflections (blue) from the top-of-
saturated-overburden are indicated on ZZ shots. Source locations
(SOU_X) are in feet from the western county line; AOFFSET units are
in feet 108
xxiv
5.4 Line EBTravel 9C depth stacks: (a) XX, XY, and XZ components, (b)
YX, YY, and YZ components, (c) ZX, ZY, and ZZ components. S-
wave source configuration sections (a) and (b) were processed for
common-mode S-wave reflection energy; the S-wave reflection
indicated on the YY component stack is from the top-of-bedrock. P-
wave source configuration sections (c) were processed for common-
mode P-wave reflection energy; the P-wave reflection indicated on the
ZZ component stack is from the top-of-saturated-overburden. CDP
locations (CDP_X) equal road stations (road stations are given in feet
from the western county line) 111
5.5 Line EBPass 3C shot gathers: (a) unprocessed, and (b) with a bandpass
filter (50-80-160-200 Hz) and AGC (100 ms window) applied.
Common-mode S-wave reflections from the top-of-bedrock are
indicated on YY gathers. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet.
Source locations (SOU_X) are given in feet from the western county
line 114
5.6 Line EBPass 3C depth stacks processed for common-mode S-wave

reflection energy: (top) YX, (middle) YY, and (bottom) YZ. The S-
wave reflection indicated on the YY component stack is from the top-
of-bedrock. CDP locations (CDP_X) equal road stations (road stations
are given in feet from the western county line) 115
5.7 Cross-section view of the I-70 depth model used for square root energy
calculations and elastic-wave modeling 118
5.8 Square root energy coefficients versus incidence angle using the media
parameters in Table 5.1: (a) downgoing waves at the top of saturated
overburden, (b) downgoing waves at the top of bedrock, and (c)
upgoing waves at the top of saturated overburden. Plots were
generated using the code in Appendix B. 119
5.9 Multiple mode-conversion point possibilities to a SV-wave from an

incident P-wave for an example geologic situation. Point C indicates
mode-conversion at reflection from an interface of interest (i.e. a
primary conversion), while points C’ and C” indicate conversion of
upward and downward traveling P-waves at transmission through an
overlying interface. Reflections represented by the different ray paths
shown will have different amplitudes, arrival times and moveouts
depending upon media compressional and shear impedances.
Horizontal and vertical scales are not implied 123
xxv
5.10 Ray trace plots through the I-70 model: (a) scattered P-waves from an
incident P-wave, (b) scattered mode-converted SV-waves from an
incident P-wave, (c) scattered SV-waves from an incident SV-wave,
and (d) scattered mode-converted P-waves from an incident SV-wave.
Mode-conversion rays that are shown occurred at reflection from
horizons of interest. Sources are located at 0 feet on the x-axis, and the
receiver interval along the x-axis is 2.0 feet 127
5.11 Diagrams demonstrating common-midpoint (CMP) versus common-

conversion-point (CCP) sorting/binning approaches for reflection data.
The CMP approach (a) is often used for sorting and stacking common-
mode reflections, for which the flat interface reflection point lies at the
source-to-receiver midpoint. For mode-converted reflections, the flat
interface reflection point does not lie at the source-receiver midpoint
(b), due to differences in media P- and S-wave velocities. A CCP
approach based on Vp/Vs properly sorts mode-converted reflection
data prior to event moveout correction and stacking (c). Horizontal
and vertical scales are not implied 129
5.12 Arrival times of common-mode and mode-converted reflections from

the I-70 model interfaces: (a) P-P reflections, (b) P-SV reflections, (c)
SV-SV reflections, and (d) SV-P reflections. Respective source types
are located at 0.0 feet (trace number 1) on the x-axis. Amplitude
variations with offset, and the ability to resolve/image each of the
reflection events that are plotted in this figure using field reflection
measurements are not implied 131
5.13 Synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 5.1 and
Figure 5.7: (a) with 250 Hz sources, (b) with source frequencies based
on I-70 field data component frequency filtering, and (c) with random
noise (amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes)
added to each modeled component. Synthetics are displayed with
traces normalized and using the polarity convention outlined in
Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet 137
Figure 5.7. Source energy was equally divided between P- and SV-
waves (Z and X components respectively), and vertical receivers (Z
component) were used. The synthetic in (d) had random noise
(amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) added.
Synthetics are displayed with traces normalized and using the polarity
convention outlined in Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is
feet 144
xxvi
waves (Z and X components respectively), and vertical receivers (Z
component) were used. The synthetics in (b) - (f) had random noise
(amplitudes equal to a percentage of average spike amplitudes) added.
feet 146
waves (Z and X components respectively), and inline receivers (X
component) were used. The synthetic in (d) had random noise
(amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) added.
feet 147
48500) showing the locations of seismic reflection lines (Test-1, GUE-
I70-1, and EBPassYY) relative to the locations of the underground
mine workings. The area of previous roadway failure is also shown,
where a surface collapse feature roughly 10 ft in diameter was centered
in the travel lane at road station 48345. Road stations are given in feet
from the western county line. Due to the small map scale and possible
errors that exist with regards to room and pillar locations, the spatial
relationship between these features and the road stations is regarded as
only approximately accurate 151
6.2 Examples of shot gathers (uninterpreted and interpreted) with zero-

phase Ormsby bandpass filters (< 12 dB/octave slopes) and AGC gain
(100 ms window) applied: (a) line Test-1 gather (source located at road
station 48382.5, eastbound direction is to the left) with 80-180 Hz filter
and gain, (b) line GUE-I70-1 gather (source located at road station
48363.5, eastbound direction is to the right) with 100-180 Hz filter and
gain, and (c) line EBPassYY gather (source located at road station
48464, eastbound direction is to the right) with 80-160 Hz filter and
gain. Road stations are given in feet from the western county line.
Hyperbolic reflection events interpreted on shot gathers correlate as the
top of bedrock. The x-axes scales of absolute offset from the source
are in feet 153
xxvii
6.3 Line GUE-I70-1 shot gather (source located at road station 48361.5,
eastbound direction is to the right) with various zero-phase Ormsby
bandpass filters (< 12 dB/octave slopes) and AGC gain (100 ms
window) applied: (a) unprocessed, (b) unfiltered with gain, (c) 40-100
Hz filter with gain, (d) 80-140 Hz filter with gain, (e) 120-180 Hz filter
with gain, and (f) 160-220 Hz filter with gain. High amplitude
periodic noise evident in shot gathers (predominantly in the range of
50-80 Hz) is related to source decoupling. The x-axis scale of absolute
offset from the source is in feet 155
6.4 Line EBPassYY shot gather (source located at road station 48464,
eastbound direction is to the right) and amplitude spectrum: (a)
unprocessed, and (b) with zero-phase Ormsby bandpass filter (80-160
Hz, < 12 dB/octave slopes) applied. Noise from roadway traffic
(indicated in the circled region) is predominantly low frequency (e.g.
5-25 Hz), but is also evident in the optimum frequency range for
imaging reflection signal. The x-axis scale of absolute offset from the
source is in feet 157
6.5 Line Test-1 shot gather (source located at road station 48397.5,
eastbound direction to the left): (a) processed and uninterpreted, (b)
amplitude spectrum indicating a dominant frequency of about 80 Hz,
and (c) interpreted. An apparent NMO velocity of 670 ft/sec indicates
the hyperbolic reflection is from the top of bedrock at a depth of 39 ft.
An apparent refraction velocity (unreversed) of 2500 ft/sec is also
interpreted. The x-axis scale on the shot gathers of absolute offset
from the source is in feet 158
6.6 Plot showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function

of incidence angle for a SH-wave incident on the overburden (medium
1) and bedrock (medium 2) interface. Calculations were made using
the velocities determined from analysis of the shot gather in Figure
6.5c, with the computer program presented in Appendix B. Note the
intromission angle (șI) at about 15 degrees (see Appendix C), and the
critical angle (șc) at about 15.5 degrees 160
xxviii
6.7 Uninterpreted synthetic seismograms generated using the model in
Table 6.1 with a center source frequency of 300 Hz (a), and 100 Hz
(c). The three model interfaces are resolved at near and far offsets
with a source frequency of 300 Hz (b), while only the primary event is
easily interpreted with a source frequency of 100 Hz (d). Also shown
is the uninterpreted (e) and interpreted (f) shot gather (from Figure 4.5)
used as a basis for forward modeling. A high reflection coefficient at
the overburden-bedrock interface, near offset noise, a lower signal to
noise ratio, interference, and wavelet ringiness result in only the
overburden and bedrock reflection being interpretable from the field
data. The x-axis scale of absolute offset from the source is in feet 164
6.8 Uninterpreted (left), and with the top of bedrock reflection and
refraction interpreted (right) synthetic seismograms (center source
frequency = 100 Hz) generated using different S-wave velocities for
the coal seam specified than those in Table 6.1. Interference of
reflection energy does not allow lower amplitude events from the coal
top or bottom to be easily interpreted at any of these modeled coal S-
wave velocities 168
6.9 A synthetic section generated using the overburden and bedrock

velocity and depth parameters determined from the field data in Figure
4.7f as a basis. Five faults (fault locations are indicated by arrows on
the x-axis) were modeled, with the amount of vertical offset for each
fault specified as a fraction of the dominant wavelength (Ȝ). As seen
by the modeled results, vertical offset of the bedrock interface must be
at least a quarter of the dominant wavelength to be easily inferred
without relying on diffraction events (which may not be observed in
field data with a lower signal to noise ratio). The overburden and
bedrock boundary is 39 feet deep at CDP 100, and due to continued
downward offset this interface is at a depth of 55.3 ft at CDP 600
(CDP spacing is 0.5 ft) 170
xxix
6.10 A synthetic stacked section generated using the overburden and
bedrock velocity and depth parameters determined from the field data
in Figure 4.7f as a basis. Four bedrock graben structures resulting
from mine-related subsidence activity (graben locations are indicated
by arrows on the x-axis) were modeled, with the width of each
structure specified as a fraction of the Fresnel zone diameter (d). As
seen by the modeled results, reflections appear to be continuous across
a bedrock subsidence feature when the spatial extent of the feature is
much smaller than the size of the Fresnel zone. The top of bedrock
exists at a depth of 39 feet at all CDP locations, except where this
boundary has subsided to a depth of 46 ft in the grabens (CDP spacing
is 0.5 ft) 173
6.11 Synthetic seismograms (100 Hz center source frequency) that

demonstrate the effectiveness of a 30 percent post-NMO stretch mute
in eliminating most refracted energy. The models shown both consist
of a 40 ft thick overburden above bedrock (bedrock velocity = 2500
ft/sec). In example 1 (a) the overburden velocity is 600 ft/sec, and in
example 2 (b) the overburden velocity is 800 ft/sec. The x-axis scale
on the gathers of absolute offset from the source is in feet 178
6.12 Constant velocity stacks generated for line EBPassYY using a velocity
increment of 25 feet per second (stacking velocities from 700-800 feet
per second are shown). Note the change in event coherency within the
circled region at different stacking velocities. CDP location numbers
(CDP_X) correspond to road stations 180
6.13 Velocity spectrum and pick for line EBPassYY CDP supergather: (a)
before NMO correction, (b) after NMO correction showing significant
stretch at large offsets, and (c) after stretch mute application. The
supergather is centered at road station 48415 181
6.14 Velocity spectra and picks for line EBPassYY CDP supergathers
(before and after NMO correction and stretch mute application)
demonstrating lateral variation in optimum stacking velocity along this
line. The supergathers are centered at: (a) road station 48470, (b) road
station 48410, and (c) road station 48320 183
6.15 Line Test-1 data stacked using different ranges of source to receiver
offsets (ranges specified on stacks are in feet). Stacking all offsets
allowed the overburden and bedrock interface (110 to 120 ms) to be
most effectively imaged. Fold (TR_FOLD) plots are shown on stacks,
and CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations 186
xxx
6.16 Line Test-1 stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The
continuous reflection event at 110 to 120 ms (a), is the top of bedrock
(b). The color bar on the bottom x-axis of (a) shows bedrock horizon
stacking velocities. Uninterpreted (c) and interpreted (d) depth
sections are also shown. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond
to road stations (road stations are given in feet from the western county
line). To the east of CDP 48345 the overburden-bedrock horizon dips
down to the east and stacking velocities decrease, suggesting that the
removal of coal in this region (see text for discussion) may have
influenced the bedrock topography and resulted in a decreased
overburden stiffness 188
6.17 Line GUE-I70-1 stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The
reflection at 110 to 120ms (a), is the top of bedrock (b). The color bar
on the bottom x-axis of (a) shows bedrock stacking velocities.
Uninterpreted (c) and interpreted (d) depth sections are also shown.
CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (road
stations are given in feet from the western county line). A bedrock
discontinuity is interpreted at CDP_X 48391, and an area of disrupted
bedrock is interpreted between CDP_X 48380 and 48408 (indicated by
x-axis arrows and dashed lines). The interpreted area of disruption is
based upon on wavelet character and analysis of the shot gathers (x-
axis flags indicate locations) in Figure 6.19 191
6.18 Geologic cross-section constructed from 1999 drill log data acquired
along the southern edge of the eastbound travel lane of I-70 (Modified
from BBC&M Inc., 1999) 194
6.19 Line GUE-I70-1 uninterpreted (a) and interpreted (b) shot gathers with
source locations corresponding to the flag locations on the x-axis of
Figures 6.17b and 6.17d. Source locations (SOU_X) and CDP
locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations. The reflection at 110
to 120 ms (b) is the top of bedrock. The 48375.5 shot gather indicates
an apparent updip direction to the east at this location. The 48389.5
shot gather supports the interpretation in Figures 6.17b and 6.17d of
discontinuity and offset in the bedrock horizon at approximately CDP
location 48391. Based on shot gather reflection character, an area of
disrupted bedrock is interpreted between CDP’s 48380 and 48408
(indicated on the x-axis of interpreted gathers by arrows) 196
xxxi
6.20 Line EBPassYY stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The
reflection at 105 to 115 ms (a), is the top of bedrock (b). The color bar
on the bottom x-axis of the uninterpreted section (a) shows bedrock
horizon stacking velocities. Uninterpreted (c) and interpreted (d) depth
sections are also shown. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond
to road stations (road stations are given in feet from the western county
line). The bedrock horizon is continuous across the section, except
between CDP_X 48329 and 48354 (indicated by x-axis arrows), where
discontinuity is interpreted 199
6.21 Geologic cross-section interpreted from 1999 drill log data acquired
along the north edge of the eastbound passing lane of I-70 in the
previous roadway collapse region (Modified from BBC&M Inc., 1999) 203
7.1 Synthetic seismograms (modeled with a center source frequency of

100 Hz) and plots showing plane-wave reflection coefficients
(magnitude) and phase changes (versus incidence angle) resulting from
an incident P-wave in acoustic media, for the scenarios in Table 7.1:
(a) scenario 1, (b) scenario 2, (c) scenario 3, and (d) scenario 4. The
density (units of g/cm3) and velocity (units of m/s) values used for
modeling are shown on each of the outputs in this figure. Absolute
offset values from the source on the x-axis of synthetic data are in feet.
Values of critical distance (xc), critical angle (șc), intromission distance
(xI), and intromission angle (șI) are indicated. Each model consisted of
two layers, with the interface between layers at 60 ft depth. See text
for discussion. Plots were generated using the code listed subsequently 208
7.2 FDTD modeled snapshots of acoustic P-wave scattering from a planar

interface (located at 60 feet depth), for the physical properties scenario
number 4 in Table 7.1: (a) 35 ms, (b) 45 ms, (c) 55 ms, and (d) 65 ms.
The reflection amplitude null and phase change in (d) are associated
with intromission angle occurrence under these modeled media
conditions 214
7.3 Amplitude, square root energy, and energy coefficients, and phase
changes from an incident SH-wave, for scenarios in Table 7.2: (a)
scenario 1, (b) scenario 2, (c) scenario 3, and (d) scenario 4. Density
(ȡ) units are g/cm3, and shear velocity (Vs) units are m/s. See text for
a discussion of plots. Plots generated using the PSHSV code in
Appendix B 217
xxxii
7.4 Synthetic SH-wave reflection seismograms (modeled with a center
source frequency of 100 Hz), for the scenarios in Table 7.2: (a)
scenario 1, and (b) scenario 2. The shear velocity, impedance, and
density relationships used are shown on the figures. Absolute offset
values from the source on the x-axes are in feet. The intromission
distance (xI) in (b) is indicated. Each model consisted of two layers,
with the interface between layers at a depth of 29.5 ft 221
A.1 Location of study area along I-70 in Guernsey County, Ohio, where the
roadway crosses approximately 2200 feet of the underground Murray
Hill No. 2 mine. The study area is east of Cambridge, Ohio, roughly 4
miles east of Route 77 243
A.2 Photograph and map view of the I-70 study area (stations 46700 to
48900) in Guernsey County, Ohio 244
A.3 Location of the I-70 study area relative to the Murray Hill No. 2 coal
mine, superimposed on a USGS topographic map (Modified from
BBC&M Inc., 1998) 247
A.4 Location of the I-70 study area relative to the Murray Hill No. 2 coal
mine room and pillar workings (Modified from ODNR, 1981) 247
A.5 Study area map: locations of observed subsidence and roadway

depression relative to mapped mine workings. Road stations are in
feet from the western county line 249
A.6 Photographs of the March 1995 surface collapse pit centered in the
eastbound travel lane of I-70 at road station 48345. The top photograph
is from Gannett Fleming Corddry & Carpenter, and the bottom
photograph is from the Ohio Division of the Federal Highway
Administration 251
A.7 Map of the I-70 study area showing the approximate grouting limits
and grout takes (in cubic yards per borehole). Road stations are in feet
from the western county line 253
xxxiii
A.8 Typical subsidence mechanisms into room and pillar coal mine
workings (scale is not implied): a) sag subsidence (after Whittaker and
Reddish, 1989), and b) pit subsidence (after Waltham, 1989). Sag
subsidence results in the settling of a relatively broad surface area, and
is caused by the failure of coal pillars (when pillars are either crushed
or punched into the underlying material due to overburden weight). Pit
subsidence usually results in the formation of relatively small pit
features at the surface, and is caused by the upward migration of
collapse features that develop due to mine roof failure between coal
pillars. See text for a detailed discussion of subsidence mechanisms 257
B.1 Plots (generated with the PSHSV program) showing displacement

amplitude, square root energy, and energy coefficients, and phase
changes as a function of incidence angle for a: (a) P-wave, (b) SH-
wave, and (c) SV-wave incident on a shale (medium 1) and sand
(medium 2) interface (Table B.1) 268

wave, and (c) SV-wave incident on a shale (medium 1) and gas sand

wave, and (c) SV-wave incident on a shale (medium 1) and coal
C.1 Map view of I-70 eastbound and westbound lanes (EBTravel, EBPass,
WBPass, and WBTravel) showing locations of YY component stacked
sections that are presented in this appendix relative to mapped mine
workings, observed roadway depressions and subsidence features, and
westbound lane land bridges for road stations: (a) 46700-47800, and
(b) 47800-48900. Road stations are in feet along the highway from the
western Guernsey County (Ohio) line 290
C.2 Eastbound travel lane (EBTravel) stacked time (uninterpreted) and

depth (with bedrock horizon interpreted) sections (YY component
data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-
48500, and (d) 48500-48900. CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond to
road stations (in feet from the western Guernsey County line) 292
xxxiv
C.3 Eastbound passing lane (EBPass) stacked time (uninterpreted) and
data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-
road stations (in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey
County line) 296
C.4 Westbound passing lane (WBPass) stacked time (uninterpreted) and

data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-
County line) 300
C.5 Westbound travel lane (WBTravel) stacked time (uninterpreted) and

data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-
County line) 304
C.6 Map view of I-70 eastbound and westbound lanes showing locations
and apparent dip directions of YY component-derived mine-related
faults (Table C.1), relative to mapped mine workings, observed
roadway depressions and subsidence features, and westbound lane land
bridges for road stations: (a) 46700-47800, and (b) 47800-48900.
Road stations are in feet from the western Guernsey County (Ohio)
line 309
D.1 Map of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 46900 to 48650)
showing the locations of cross-hole constant offset profile (COP) and
multiple offset gather (MOG) radar measurements between borings
(Table D.1), relative to the mapped locations of underground mine
workings. Due to map scale, mine room and pillar locations are
regarded as approximate. Road stations are given in feet from the
western county line 318
D.2 Cross-hole radar measurements in the I-70 study area for an example
case (19.0 m maximum depth): (left) constant offset profile (COP), and
(right) multiple offset gathers (MOG’s). For MOG’s the maximum Tx
and Rx vertical offset was 4.0 m 320
xxxv
D.3 Demonstration of constant offset profile data processing and imaging
flow: (a) field data after dewow correction, (b) after time-zero
correction, trace editing, truncation, bandpass filtering, amplitude
analysis, and trace normalization, (c) after direct arrival picks, and (d)
processed data with amplitude and velocity plots 325
D.4 Demonstration of multiple offset gather data processing and imaging

flow: (a) field data after dewow correction, merging, time-zero
correction, trace editing, truncation, bandpass filtering, and trace
normalization, (b) zoomed in look at MOG’s after direct arrival picks,
(c) plot of calculated velocity distribution between boreholes obtained
through inversion, and (d) velocity distribution plot after image
interpolation 326
D.5 Average EM-wave velocity and average absolute amplitude plots,

radar COP data, drill logs, and EM-wave velocity tomograms for I-70
eastbound travel lane road station range 46940 to 46968 (Table D.1,
Figure D.1): (a) wells GC307 and GC306, (b) wells GC305 and
GC307, and (c) wells B407G and B407H. A mosaic of the velocity
tomograms and well log information are shown along with interpreted
seismic reflection data and a mine map in Figure D.6 333
D.6 I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range 46940 to 46968: (a) EM-
wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.5), (b) S-wave reflection data, (c)
geologic cross-section from logs, and (d) approximate locations of
mine workings. Velocities (a) and drill logs (c) indicate that the SE
edge of the coal pillar beneath the road actually extends farther SE
than mapped in (d), and that the seismically imaged subsidence feature
(b) resulted from bedrock collapse into the mine room located
immediately south of this pillar 335

eastbound passing lane road station range 48304 to 48379 (Table D.1,
GC202, (c) wells GC204 and GC203, (d) wells GC205 and GC204, (e)
wells GC206 and GC205, and (f) wells GC207 and GC206 (no MOG
data acquired). A mosaic of the velocity tomograms and well log
information are shown along with interpreted seismic reflection data
and a mine map in Figure D.8 339
xxxvi
D.8 I-70 eastbound passing lane road station range 48300 to 48360: (a)
EM-wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.7), (b) S-wave reflection data, (c)
geologic cross-section, and (d) approximate locations of mine
workings. Velocities (a) indicate the mine-related bedrock subsidence
interpreted from seismic data (b) has occurred between the boreholes
and directly beneath the seismic line. Velocities (a) also extend the
west edge of disruption interpreted from seismic data an additional
several meters west 343

GC212, (c) wells GC214 and GC213, (d) wells GC215 and GC214, (e)
wells GC216 and GC215 (no MOG data acquired), (f) wells GC217
and GC216 (no MOG data acquired), and (g) wells B412E and GC217.
A mosaic of the velocity tomograms and well log information are
shown along with interpreted seismic reflection data and a mine map in
Figure D.10 347
D.10 I-70 eastbound travel lane road stations 48304 to 48400: (a) EM-wave
velocity mosaic (Figure D.9), (b) S-wave reflection data, (c) geologic
cross-section from logs, and (d) approximate locations of mine
workings. Velocities (a) support seismic data interpretation (b) of an
intact bedrock surface (stations 48304 to 48340), and bedrock and
overburden subsidence-related disruption (stations 48380 to 48408),
indicating this disruption occurred between the boreholes and directly
beneath the seismic line 351

Figure D.1): (a) wells B413H and GC301, (b) wells GC303 and
B413H, (c) wells B413F and GC304 (no MOG data acquired), (d)
wells GC302 and B413F, and (e) wells B413E and GC302 (no MOG
data acquired). A mosaic of the velocity tomograms and well log
information are shown along with interpreted seismic reflection data
and a mine map in Figure D.12 355
xxxvii
D.12 I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range 48530 to 48620: (a) EM-
wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.11), (b) S-wave reflection data, (c)
geologic cross-sections from logs, and (d) approximate locations of
mine workings. Velocities (a) suggest that the coal pillar beneath the
road (stations 48605 to 48615) actually extends farther south than
mapped in (d), and that the seismically imaged subsidence feature (b)
resulted from bedrock collapse into the mine room located just south of
this pillar 358
xxxviii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Seismic reflection is a geophysical technique that can allow physical properties of
earth materials to be determined and images of the subsurface to be constructed.
Although the analysis of compressional waves (P-waves) reflected from geologic layers
originated in the early 1900’s for petroleum exploration, shear waves (S-waves) have
only recently been employed for such purposes. The recognition of potential advantages
of S-waves has led to a recent interest throughout the petroleum industry in the testing,
and simultaneous acquisition, processing, and interpretation of multiple components of
the seismic wavefield (multicomponent data analysis). Three previous areas of research
(i.e. focused on reflection imaging methods, digital recording, and 3D technologies) have
led to important developments in the capability of seismic reflection, and
multicomponent data analysis is currently regarded by the petroleum industry as the
fourth area of research that will produce significant advances (Freedman, 1999).
As a result of instrument and computer technology advances, seismic reflection
(predominately P-wave methods) has been applied during the past two decades towards
the solution of shallow earth (0 - 100 m deep) engineering and environmental problems
1
(Hunter et al., 1984; Miller and Steeples, 1990; Bachrach and Nur, 1998; van der Veen
and Green, 1998). Potential advantages of multicomponent reflection data testing and
analysis for improving shallow subsurface imaging and characterization potential exist in
theory, and it was therefore concluded from a recent Department of Energy sponsored
workshop that research concerning the applicability of shallow multicomponent seismic
reflection methods is necessary (Steeples et al., 1997). Multicomponent information has
not typically been obtained and analyzed during shallow studies due to increased
complexity and costs associated with data acquisition and analysis (Kendall and Davis,
1996), and few reports documenting shallow multicomponent reflection research exist.
A section of Interstate 70 (I-70) in eastern Ohio collapsed recently (during 1995)
into an underground mine network, and concern regarding the stability of an undermined
2200 ft section of the (four-lane) roadway continues. In order to address the concern for
subsidence problems along I-70, and at the same time test and develop methodologies for
characterizing near-surface materials, experimental, high-resolution shear-wave and
multicomponent reflection data sets were acquired along the roadway during 1999 and
2001 respectively. During 2002, cross-hole radar data were also acquired in the study
area in order to further address these objectives. These data were all acquired as part of a
Federal Highway Administration (FWHA) and Ohio Department of Transportation
(ODOT) sponsored project.
Results that are presented in this dissertation are sometimes discussed within the
context of the I-70 mine-subsidence project. The methods developed and the conclusions
reached through this research are applicable however, to roadway investigations and
near-surface characterization studies with different objectives conducted elsewhere.
2
1.2 Research Objectives
This dissertation documents a portion of a study that is focused on developing
geophysical methods for improving near-surface characterization potential, understanding
coal mine-related subsidence mechanisms, and locating areas with a high risk for future
mine-related surface collapse along I-70 in eastern Ohio. The portion includes my major
contributions to the study, accomplished through research conducted to meet the
following primary objectives:
1) Investigation of the potential of acquired multicomponent reflection
information for allowing the estimation of insitu elastic properties of media.
2) Design of effective and efficient analysis sequences (processing, imaging, and
interpretation) for an acquired large volume of 2D high-resolution
multicomponent seismic reflection data.
3) Demonstration of improvements in near-surface characterization potential
achieved through the testing and analysis of multiple seismic reflection data
components/body wave-types.
4) Investigation of the potential of acquired multicomponent reflection data for
allowing the construction of converted wave images, and discussion of
analysis and processing sequences for addressing converted wave imaging
during near-surface characterization studies.
5) Determination of the potential of seismic reflection data for allowing the
delineation of subsurface areas where mine-related subsidence activity has
occurred, in order to locate surface areas with a high risk for future collapse.
3
6) Characterization of the I-70 subsurface (in terms of mine-related subsidence
activity and relative location risk for future surface failure) using seismic
reflection, through the implementation of developed data analysis sequences.
7) Investigation of the potential of cross-hole radar methods for providing useful
subsurface information for mine-related subsidence studies.
This dissertation also documents research conducted to meet the following
secondary objectives:
1) A study of seismic wave scattering to accomplish the presentation of plane
wave scattering equations using an original and intuitive nomenclature.
2) Development of a program that calculates reflection/refraction and energy
coefficients for elastic waves incident on an elastic media planar interface.
3) Derivations of equations that define an SH-wave intromission angle and
describe its conditions of occurrence.
1.3 Significance of Research and Previous Work
The significance of the primary objectives addressed in this dissertation is briefly
demonstrated in the following sub-sections, which provide an overview of relevant
background information and summaries of previous work. Further elaborations on
certain issues are subsequently provided in this dissertation. The significance of the
secondary objectives addressed in this dissertation is discussed subsequently in the
dissertation.
4
1.3.1 Shallow Multicomponent Seismic Reflection Data Analysis
There is currently a widespread interest in testing and recording multiple
components of the seismic wavefield throughout the petroleum and engineering
industries. Deep earth studies have determined that different components can allow
project objectives to be more effectively accomplished depending upon conditions, and
that in some cases (dependent upon numerous factors) multicomponent reflection data
can provide more geological information than single component data alone. For instance,
S-wave reflection data can offer potential benefits relative to P-wave data (e.g. related to
component noise sensitivity, differences in wave type resolution, or differences in wave
type sensitivity to physical property variations), or when used concurrently with P-wave
data, such as lithologic interpretation and material property estimation (Stewart and
Gaiser, 1999), and hydrocarbon indicator evaluation (Ensley, 1985). Converted wave
analysis has been shown to be potentially useful for obtaining deep earth S-wave
information and quality converted-mode images (Garotta, 2000). Anisotropy evaluation
is also possible through analysis of split S-wave components, which can been useful for
determining fracture/conduit orientations (Crampin, 1985). Although more complicated,
expensive, and time-consuming than recording and analyzing a single P-wave data
component, there are potential benefits of considering additional components of the
seismic wavefield during shallow reflection studies (only single component P-wave data
have traditionally been acquired during near-surface seismic reflection studies).
5
1.3.1.1 Common-Mode Seismic Reflection Analysis
Successful applications of S-wave reflection data towards shallow earth problems
have been demonstrated (Carr et al., 1998; Harris et al., 2000). However, the number of
shallow seismic reflection reports concerning S-waves is small relative to the number
concerning P-waves, and most S-wave studies to date have considered only a single S-
wave component. Further research that documents capabilities and limitations of the S-
wave reflection technique is necessary in order to increase understanding regarding the
practicality of using S-wave reflections for near-surface characterization.
The potential benefits of testing, recording and analyzing P- and S-wave
reflections concurrently for improving shallow earth characterization potential have not
yet been fully recognized or demonstrated. Few reports concerning the concurrent use of
P- and S-wave reflections exist, but existing reports contain promising results.
Hasbrouck (1990) discussed (without published data), and Goforth and Hayward (1992)
discussed sites where saturated overburden and a target bedrock horizon had nearly the
same P-wave velocity (therefore, P-waves imaged the water table at both sites but were
unable to image lithologic boundaries). Clark et al. (1994) modeled P- and S-wave
responses for a shallow geologic sequence. Their synthetic data demonstrated that for
their modeled sequence, only the combined usage of P- and S-waves would allow the
detection of all modeled geologic boundaries. Holzschuh (2002) demonstrated using
field data, that as a result of their lower velocity, it can be possible to achieve higher
resolution reflection information during near surface studies (relative to that obtainable
using P-waves) by generating and recording S-waves.
6
Because P- and S-waves travel at different speeds and respond to changes in
elastic moduli and density differently, it is reasonable to expect that during shallow
reflection surveys, achievable resolution may be quite different for P- and S-waves, P-
and S-wave reflection coefficients may be different, and P- and S-wave reflections may
be recorded under different (i.e. more or less favorable) noise conditions. It is also
possible in theory to estimate insitu elastic properties of near-surface materials using both
common-mode P- and S-wave reflection information, although I am aware of only a few
previous research reports concerning this issue. Although the previously mentioned
studies discussed certain benefits for shallow earth studies that may be obtained through
concurrent P- and S-wave data testing and analysis, possible benefits remain to be
recognized and explained, demonstrated within the context of different applications, and
using field data acquired in different geologic settings.
1.3.1.2 Converted-Mode Seismic Reflection Analysis
The subject of converted wave recording and analysis has received a great deal of
attention in the petroleum industry in recent years (Stewart and Gaiser, 1999). The
majority of petroleum industry converted-mode research efforts have focused on
applications in marine environments. Marine converted wave acquisition is a fairly new
strategy, and prior to August 2000 only 145 surveys of this type had been conducted
worldwide (Stefanic, 2000). S-waves cannot be directly propagated into an underlying
geologic medium from a source on the water surface, but converted wave recognition
technology has made it possible to obtain S-wave reflectivity and travel time information
in marine environments. Previously, S-wave reflectivity could only be estimated in
7
marine environments (without necessary log data) through AVO inversion of P-wave
amplitudes (Castagna, 1993). It has also been shown that quality converted wave images
can be produced in situations where P-wave reflection quality is poor, for instance where
P-waves traveling upward through a gas cloud are highly attenuated (Granli et al., 1999).
Converted wave research (conducted by the petroleum industry) on land has been
promising (Eliasata and Michelena, 1995; Macrides and Kelamis, 2000), despite being
more challenging in certain respects than in marine environments (for instance noise
problems are typically more severe on land). It has been demonstrated that converted
wave analysis in land-based studies can potentially improve deep earth characterization.
However, no reports concerning shallow (0-100 m deep) earth converted wave studies
have appeared in the literature, despite there being potential advantages of shallow
converted wave analysis (e.g. it is possible in theory to obtain S-wave information using
only a P-wave source, or vice versa, and it is possible in theory to estimate insitu elastic
properties of near-surface media through converted wave analysis). At this point the
recording of converted wave components is not typically considered as a valid option
during shallow reflection survey design. This is due in large part to the lack of successful
converted wave investigations (i.e. limited understandings of when converted wave
imaging may work, and how to analyze mode converted reflections). Research that
reports investigations into the potential applicability of converted waves for near-surface
problems is therefore important. Additionally, no standard reference for approaching
converted wave analysis and imaging has been published, and research documenting data
analysis approaches for shallow multicomponent reflection data is necessary.
8
1.3.2 Geophysical Detection of Subsurface Mine-Related Subsidence Activity
When roadways such as I-70 in eastern Ohio are subject to subsidence, extreme
costs can be incurred, the risk for human casualties can be high, and industrial
productivity can be disrupted. In addition to dewatering of aquifers and organic soils,
natural sedimentary compaction, tectonic events, oil and gas reserve extraction, bedrock
dissolution, and thawing permafrost, a primary cause of roadway subsidence is
overburden collapse into underground mines. While non-mining related subsidence is
common in the United States (see previous sentence for examples), the greatest annual
dollar loss as a result of subsidence damage is mine-related (Isphording, 1992). Mine-
related subsidence has accounted for 20 percent of the total subsidence by land area in the
United States, with the majority of this percentage related to underground coal mines
(Galloway et al., 1999).
The recognition of broad regions along roadways where potential mine-related
subsidence risk exists can be accomplished through: 1) the identification of underground
mine locations, 2) consideration of information obtained through drilling, and 3)
assessment of previous subsidence that may have occurred. It is difficult within a
subsidence-prone region however, to identify precise surface locations having a high risk
for future collapse. In order to do so, mechanisms that are responsible for subsidence
must first be assessed, and a thorough study area subsurface investigation must be
conducted. The National Research Council (NRC, 1991) has therefore recommended
that research be conducted which focuses on the development, evaluation, and
application of innovative methods for addressing subsidence risk, so that studies can be
addressed from a cost-effective, damage prevention standpoint.
9
As the physical properties of subsidence features (e.g., displaced strata, fractures,
and voids) can have a contrast in physical properties with surrounding materials,
geophysical measurements offer the potential to locate areas along the ground surface
with a high risk for future subsidence-related failure. Numerous geophysical techniques
have the potential in theory, and have been shown in practice, to be capable of detecting
variations in physical properties associated with subsidence activity, although no
technique will be successful under all conditions (Fisher, 1971; Munk and Sheets, 1997).
Few reports have demonstrated that seismic reflection (P-wave) measurements
offer a means for detecting and imaging features that have developed from subsidence
activity beneath roadways (Steeples et al., 1986; Miller and Xia, 2002). Detection of
subsurface subsidence activity using seismic reflection (and using other geophysical
techniques) is currently regarded as challenging (Steeples et al., 1997), and the conditions
under which seismic reflection methods provide a high potential for success are not well
understood. Reports concerning the potential of cross-hole radar methods for allowing
the detection of subsurface features associated with mine-related subsidence activity are
non-existent to date. Research documenting (and furthering the understanding of) the
applicability of high-resolution seismic reflection and cross-hole radar methods towards
subsidence-related problems along roadways is therefore important.
1.4 Organization of Document
This dissertation is organized as follows:
Chapter 1 – The motivation for this research is discussed, and background
information and an overview of previous work relevant to this research are provided.
10
Chapter 2 – An overview of seismic wave reflection, refraction, and mode
conversion in elastic media is provided. Using an original and intuitive nomenclature,
plane wave scattering equations for calculating reflection/refraction coefficients, square
root energy coefficients, and energy coefficients from P- SH- and SV-waves incident on
planar interfaces between isotropic media are presented and discussed.
Chapter 3 – Details regarding the acquisition and pre-processing of the
experimental seismic reflection data that were used for this dissertation are provided.
Chapter 4 – Results from research conducted to compare the effectiveness of
near-surface P- and S-wave reflection surveys for mapping features in the shallow
subsurface are presented. Factors influencing the imaging potential (e.g., component
noise mode sensitivity, reflection coefficients, resolution, and subsurface conditions) of
common-mode reflection information are described, and illustrations using analyses of
acquired field multicomponent data gathers, processed sections, calculations, and
modeling are provided. The effectiveness of different common-mode reflection wave-
types/data components for allowing the imaging of horizons, the detection of subsurface
horizon discontinuities, and the estimation of media elastic parameters is discussed.
Chapter 5 – Results from research conducted to test and evaluate the potential for
near-surface mode-converted (P-S and S-P) seismic reflection imaging are presented.
The topic is addressed experimentally using high-resolution 9C field reflection data
acquired over relatively flat-lying geology, and numerically/theoretically using Zoeppritz
equation solutions and elastic-wave modeling. Factors influencing mode-conversion
imaging potential, which differ between deep-earth and near-surface multicomponent
11
reflection studies are also discussed. Analysis methods are presented that can be used for
assessing converted-wave imaging potential in future near-surface reflection studies.
Chapter 6 – An analysis (processing, imaging, and interpretation) flow to serve as
a basis for the processing of SH-wave reflection data acquired in the study area is
described. Factors influencing analysis workflow development (acquired data
characteristics and volume, subsurface conditions, and project objectives) are discussed
and demonstrated through modeling, and illustrations of the affects of applied processes
on data are provided. The effectiveness of SH-wave reflection data and developed
analysis procedures for allowing the delineation of subsurface areas where subsidence
processes have been active is demonstrated. The analysis flow is applied to 3 lines of S-
wave (crossline-crossline, SH-SH) reflection data acquired near a previous roadway
collapse in the I-70 study area, and is shown to allow the location of two areas along the
roadway where high risk for future mine-related surface failure exists.
Chapter 7 – Derived equations that define an incidence angle for which the SH-
wave reflection coefficient is zero (angle of intromission) are presented. Conditions (in
terms of media density and shear-velocity relationships) under which a SH-wave
intromission angle will occur in theory are described with example plots, and the
potential application of inferring such an angle from field data is discussed. An overview
of P-wave intromission angle occurrence in acoustic media is presented, and short source
code for calculating and plotting acoustic P-wave reflection coefficient magnitudes and
phase (as a function of incident angle) is listed.
Chapter 8 – Conclusions reached through this research are summarized.
12
Appendix A – Discussions regarding the I-70 study area geology, coal mine-
related subsidence history, and coal mine-related subsidence mechanisms are presented.
Appendix B – A developed computer program (PSHSV) is described and listed,
that calculates and plots (as a function of incident angle) displacement amplitude
coefficients, normalized square root energy ratios, energy coefficients, and phase changes
for plane P- SH- and SV-waves incident on a planar interface between elastic media.
Functionality of the program is demonstrated within the context of a hypothetical gas
reservoir detection problem.
Appendix C – Processed and interpreted S-wave YY component (crossline-
crossline, SH-SH) time and depth sections are presented for the entire I-70 study area
(eastbound and westbound passing and travel lanes). Analyzed YY data are presented, as
this component was determined through research to provide the highest potential of
acquired data components, for allowing areas of the subsurface where subsidence
processes have been active to be located. Numerous locations along the I-70 lanes,
having a relatively high risk for future mine-related surface failure are identified, based
on significant mine-related disruptions of the bedrock horizon.
Appendix D – Results from research conducted to test the ability of cross-hole
radar methods for providing useful information for mine-related subsidence studies are
presented. It is demonstrated through analyses of data acquired near several subsidence
features imaged using seismic reflection, that average EM-wave velocity and amplitude
plots along with processed velocity tomograms, can be used to infer the presence of
mine-related subsidence activity within near-surface media between boreholes. Cross-
hole radar data are also shown to be useful for reducing uncertainty regarding the
13
locations/extent of mine rooms and pillars, and seismically imaged subsidence features.
Data acquisition considerations and data analysis workflows developed for cross-hole
radar measurements are presented.
14
CHAPTER 2
SEISMIC WAVE SCATTERING THEORY
2.1 Introduction
When a wave is incident on an interface separating materials with an impedance
contrast, scattered (reflected and / or refracted / transmitted) waves are generated. Ray
angles of scattered waves are dependent on the angle of incidence and the velocity
contrast across the interface. Amplitude and energy partitioning between scattered
components is strongly dependent upon the angle of incidence and both the velocity and
density contrasts (impedance contrasts) across the discontinuity. In the case of an
interface between two solids, media on either side respond to an incident seismic wave as
if they were welded together (Castagna, 1993). Media on opposite sides of the interface
would otherwise separate from one another, occupy the same space at the same time, or
slide past one another, and these types of behavior do not occur at an interface between
solids as a result of artificially generated incident seismic energy (Telford et al., 1990).
Displacement amplitudes remain continuous at a welded interface, and stress tensor
components corresponding to the traction across the interface also remain continuous
(Rüger, 2002), through reflection, refraction and mode-conversion of incident seismic
waves.
15
2.2 P- SH- and SV-Waves: Normal Incidence
For P-waves with normal incidence, no components of shear are introduced at an
interface, while for S-waves (SH- or SV-type) with normal incidence, no components of
compression are introduced at an interface. Although at large angles of incidence mode-
conversion can become significant for incident P- and SV-waves, for most geologic
conditions at small incidence angles, little energy undergoes mode-conversion, and the
curves describing energy partitioning do not change significantly (Tatham and
McCormack, 1991). In petroleum exploration studies it can often be assumed that waves
reaching the earth’s surface with ray paths that are within 20 degrees of normal were
reflected vertically from a horizontal interface in the earth (Telford et al., 1990).
Assuming plane waves having normal incidence, seismic amplitude and energy
partitioning can be described using equations that consider only the impedance contrast at
an interface. For P-waves with normal incidence, the reflection and refraction
coefficients are given in the following set of equations (nomenclature modified from
Sheriff and Geldart, 1982):
P1P1vert = A1 / A0 = ( ρ 2Vp2 - ρ 1Vp1) / ( ρ 2Vp2 + ρ 1Vp1) =
(Zp2 - Zp1) / (Zp2 + Zp1)
P1P2vert = A2 / A0 = (2 ρ 1Vp1) / ( ρ 1Vp1 + ρ 2Vp2) =
(2Zp1) / (Zp2 + Zp1) (2.1)
where P1P1vert and P1P2vert are the normal incidence P-wave reflection and refraction
coefficients, A0 , A1, and A2 are the amplitudes of maximum particle displacement of the
incident, reflected and refracted waves, Vp1 and Vp2 are the incident and refracted media
16
Figure 2.1. Particle motion associated with wave types (P, SH, and SV). P-wave particle
motion (left) is in the direction of propagation (indicated by ray path) and within the
plane of incidence (defined by source, reflection point, and receiver). SH-wave particle
motion (middle) is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and is within a plane
that is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. SV-wave particle motion (right) is within
the plane of incidence, but perpendicular to the propagation direction.
P-wave interval velocities, ρ1 and ρ2 are the incident and refracted media densities, and
Zp1 and Zp2 are the incident and refracted media compressional impedances.
Nomenclature used in this chapter and in the PSHSV program (Appendix B) for
incident and scattered wave types and ray angles (Figure 2.1), and for calculated
coefficients / ratios, is such that the first capital letter of terms indicates the incident wave
type, and the second capital letter indicates the scattered wave type. Subscripts
associated with capital letters indicate the medium of the traveling wave. A subscript of
1 indicates the wave is traveling in the incident medium, while a subscript of 2 indicates
the wave is traveling in the refracted medium. For example, P1P2 indicates a refracted P-
wave in medium 2 resulting from an incident P-wave in medium 1 (Figure 2.2).
17
18
Figure 2.2. Nomenclature used for incident and scattered wave types and ray angles with normal, and for calculated coefficient
and ratio terms. P1P2 for example, signifies a refracted P-wave in medium 2 resulting from an incident P-wave in medium 1.
Rays that are shown represent the possible scattered waves from the planar interface (which is perpendicular to the plane
containing the rays) separating medium 1 and medium 2 (which are isotropic solids).
For S-waves (SH- or SV-type) with normal incidence, the reflection and
refraction coefficients are given in the following set of equations (nomenclature modified
from Shearer, 1999):
S1S1vert = A1 / A0 = ( ρ 1Vs1 - ρ 2Vs2) / ( ρ 1Vs1 + ρ 2Vs2) =
(Zs1 - Zs2) / (Zs1 + Zs2)
S1S2vert = A2 / A0 = (2 ρ 1Vs1) / ( ρ 1Vs1 + ρ 2Vs2) =
(2Zs1) / (Zs1 + Zs2) (2.2)
where S1S1vert and S1S2vert are the normal incidence S-wave reflection and refraction
coefficients, Vs1 and Vs2 are the incident and refracted media S-wave interval velocities,
and Zs1 and Zs2 are the incident and refracted media shear impedances.
The normal incidence P- and S-wave reflection coefficient equations are different
with regards to sign convention. For a similar change in sign of shear and compressional
impedances across an interface, the calculated normal incidence P- and S-wave reflection
coefficients will have opposite sign, because P-wave particle motions are measured
relative to the ray direction and S-wave particle motions are not (Shearer, 1999). From
the previous equations it is seen that when shear impedance increases across an interface,
the calculated reflection coefficient at normal incidence will be negative. Conversely,
when compressional impedance increases across an interface, the calculated reflection
coefficient will be positive.
According to the law of conservation of energy (and assuming no energy loss
along raypaths), the sum of the energy contained within the scattered components (energy
carried away from the interface) must equal the incident energy (i.e. equal to 1.0):
19
E0 = E1 + E2 (2.3)
where E0 is the incident energy, E1 is the reflected energy, and E2 is the refracted energy.
For normal incidence, the ratios of reflected energy to incident energy, and
refracted energy to incident energy, are proportional to the displacement amplitude
coefficients squared and weighted by the media impedances (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982).
The ratio of reflected energy to incident energy at normal incidence is therefore
equivalent to the displacement amplitude reflection coefficient squared. This is shown by
the following set of equations, written for reflected waves resulting from both P- and S-
waves with normal incidence:
E1 / E0 = (A1 / A0)2(Zp1 / Zp1) = (P1P1vert)2
E1 / E0 = (A1 / A0)2 (Zs1 / Zs1) = (S1S1vert)2 (2.4)
The ratio of refracted energy to incident energy is not equal to the square of the
normal incidence displacement amplitude refraction coefficient. This is shown by the
following set of equations, written for refracted waves resulting from both P- and S-
waves with normal incidence:
E2 / E0 = (A2 / A0)2(Zp2 / Zp1) = (P1P2vert)2(Zp2 / Zp1)
E2 / E0 = (A2 / A0)2(Zs2 / Zs1) = (S1S2vert)2(Zs2 / Zs1) (2.5)
As seen from the preceding equations, by summing the square of the reflected to
incident displacement amplitude ratio and the square of the refracted to incident
displacement amplitude ratio, a quantity equivalent to the incident energy is not obtained.
It is therefore often desirable to calculate square root energy coefficients. These
quantities are obtained from the preceding equations, and are given in the following set of
equations for both P- and S-waves with normal incidence:
20
ENP1P1vert = (E1 / E0)1/2 = P1P1vert
ENS1S1vert = (E1 / E0)1/2 = S1S1vert
ENP1P2vert = (E2 / E0)1/2 = (P1P2vert)(Zp2 / Zp1)1/2
ENS1S2vert = (E2 / E0)1/2 = (S1S2vert)(Zs2 / Zs1)1/2 (2.6)
where ENP1P1vert and ENS1S1vert are the square root energy coefficients for reflected P-
and S-waves, and ENP1P2vert and ENS1S2vert are the square root energy ratios for refracted
P- and S-waves.
By squaring the normal incidence square root energy coefficients, the normal
incidence energy coefficients are obtained. The sum of the reflected and refracted P-
wave energy coefficients, and the sum of the reflected and refracted S-wave energy
coefficients, will both be equal to 1.0. The energy coefficients resulting from P- and S-
waves at normal incidence are defined in the following set of equations:
EP1P1vert = (ENP1P1vert)2
ES1S1vert = (ENS1S1vert)2
EP1P2vert = (ENP1P2vert)2
ES1S2vert = (ENS1S2vert)2 (2.7)
where EP1P1vert and ES1S1vert are the energy coefficients for reflected P- and S-waves, and
EP1P2vert and ES1S2vert are the energy coefficients for refracted P- and S-waves.
2.3 SH-Waves: Non-Normal Incidence
When an interface between two homogenous and isotropic solids is parallel to the
polarization of an incident SH-wave, only scattered SH-waves are generated (Figure 2.2),
regardless of the incident angle. No mode-conversion to P- or SV-waves will occur, as

21
the necessary compressional and shear stresses are not induced on the point of incidence.
The ray angles of scattered SH-waves are dependent on the angle of incidence and the
shear velocity contrast across the interface. The energy partitioning between scattered
components is dependent on the angle of incidence and both the shear velocity and
density contrasts (shear impedance contrast) across the interface. For SH- waves with
non-normal angles of incidence, the reflection and refraction displacement amplitude
coefficients are given in the following set of equations (nomenclature modified from
Shearer, 1999):
SH1SH1 = (Zs1cosșSH1SH1 - Zs2cosșSH1SH2) /
(Zs1cosșSH1SH1 + Zs2cosșSH1SH2)
SH1SH2 = (2Zs1cosșSH1SH1) / (Zs1cosșSH1SH1 + Zs2cosșSH1SH2) (2.8)
where SH1SH1 and SH1SH2 are the SH-wave displacement amplitude reflection and
refraction coefficients. The reflection and refraction angle cosines depend upon both the
horizontal and vertical components of the slowness vector:
pp = (u2 - Ș2)1/2 = usinș (2.9)
Ș = (u2 - pp2)1/2 = ucosș (2.10)
where u is the slowness, pp is the horizontal slowness, Ș is the vertical slowness, and ș is
the reflected or refracted ray angle from normal. In this chapter, horizontal slowness is
assigned the variable pp for the case of an incident SH- or SV-wave, and the variable p
for the case of an incident P-wave.
In terms of media velocities, the reflection and refraction angle cosines can be
written in the following set of equations as:
cosșSH1SH1 = Vs1(((1 / (Vs12)) - (pp2))1/2)
22
cosșSH1SH2 = Vs2(((1 / (Vs22)) - (pp2))1/2) (2.11)
where șSH1SH1 is the angle of SH-wave reflection, and șSH1SH2 is the angle of SH-wave
refraction.
The SH-wave square root energy coefficient equations for non-normal incidence
are obtained in a similar manner as those that were obtained for the aforementioned
normal incidence case. For the non-normal incidence case however, angle cosines in
addition to media impedances must also be considered in order to obtain the desired
quantities. The SH-wave square root energy coefficients for non-normal incidence are
given in the following set of equations:
ENSH1SH1 = SH1SH1
ENSH1SH2 = (SH1SH2 )((Zs2cosșSH1SH2) / (Zs1cosșSH1SH1))1/2 (2.12)
where ENSH1SH1 and ENSH1SH2 are the normalized square root energy ratios for
reflected and refracted SH-waves.
The incident SH-wave energy coefficients are defined by the following set of
equations:
ESH1SH1 = (ENSH1SH1)2
ESH1SH2 = (ENSH1SH2)2 (2.13)
where ESH1SH1 and ESH1SH2 are the energy coefficients for reflected and refracted SH-
waves resulting from an incident SH-wave.
2.4 P- and SV-Waves: Non-Normal Incidence
For P- or SV-waves with non-normal incidence, mode-conversion occurs at the
point of incidence because the interface is being both compressed and sheared. From an
23
incident P- or SV-wave, there are four different scattered wave types that can be
generated at a welded interface in order to maintain continuity of displacement and
traction (Figure 2.2): 1) a reflected P-wave, 2) a reflected SV-wave, 3) a refracted P-
wave, and 4) a refracted SV-wave. The energy and amplitude partitioning between
scattered components resulting from incident P- and SV-waves can be determined and
described through solutions to the equations (and those equations later derived from the
equations) developed by Knott (1899) and Zoeppritz (1919).
The ray angles of scattered waves resulting from P- and SV-waves with non-
normal incidence are dependent on the angle of incidence and the contrast in
compressional and shear velocities across the interface. The amplitude and energy
partitioning between each of the scattered components depends upon the media
compressional and shear impedances on either side of the interface and the angle of
incidence. The displacement amplitude (Zoeppritz) coefficients of the scattered waves
can be determined by solving simultaneous linear equations with real or complex
coefficients that contain the unknown P- and SV-wave amplitudes (Richter, 1958). It is
difficult to gain physical insight simply from looking at these equations as to exactly how
the variation of a particular parameter will affect solutions. Because exact expressions
for the coefficients are still not very intuitive in this regard, approximations that work
well with certain assumptions for certain conditions, and more easily allow physical
insight into the effects of variations in individual parameters have been formulated
(Bortfeld, 1961; Aki and Richards, 1980; Shuey, 1985).
24
2.4.1 Incident P-Waves
For incident P-waves, the reflection and refraction displacement amplitude
coefficients are explicitly expressed in the following set of equations (nomenclature
modified from Aki and Richards, 1980):
P1P1 = ((b(cosșP1P1 / Vp1) - c(cosșP1P2 / Vp2))F -
(a+d(cosșP1P1 / Vp1)(cosșP1SV2 / Vs2))Hp2) / D
P1SV1 = - (2(cosșP1P1 / Vp1)(ab+cd(cosșP1P2 / Vp2)*
(cosșP1SV2 / Vs2))pVp1 / Vs1) / D
P1P2 = (2ρ1(cosșP1P1 / Vp1)F(Vp1 / Vp2)) / D
P1SV2 = (2ρ1(cosșP1P1 / Vp1)Hp(Vp1 / Vs2)) / D (2.14)
where P1P1 and P1P2 are the reflected and refracted P-wave displacement amplitude
reflection and refraction coefficients, and P1SV1 and P1SV2 are the reflected and refracted
SV-wave displacement amplitude reflection and refraction coefficients. Variables and
cosine-dependent terms used in the preceding P-wave displacement amplitude coefficient
equations are given in the following set of equations:
a = ρ2(1 - 2Vs22p2) - ρ1(1 - 2Vs12p2)
b = ρ2(1 - 2Vs22p2) + 2ρ1Vs12p2
c = ρ1(1 - 2Vs12p2) + 2ρ2Vs22p2
d = 2(ρ2Vs22 - ρ1Vs12)
E = b(cosșP1P1 / Vp1) + c(cosșP1P2 / Vp2)
F = b(cosșP1SV1 / Vs1) + c(cosșP1SV2 / Vs2)
G = a-d(cosșP1P1 / Vp1)(cosșP1SV2 / Vs2)
H = a-d(cosșP1P2 / Vp2)(cosșP1SV1 / Vs1)

25
D = EF + GHp2 (2.15)
Reflection and refraction angle cosines used in the preceding equations can be written in
the following set of equations as:
cosșP1P1 = Vp1(((1 / (Vp12)) - (p2))1/2)
cosșP1SV1 = Vs1(((1 / (Vs12)) - (p2))1/2)
cosșP1P2 = Vp2(((1 / (Vp22)) - (p2))1/2)
cosșP1SV2 = Vs2(((1 / (Vs22)) - (p2))1/2) (2.16)
where șP1P1 is the angle of P-wave reflection, șP1SV1 is the angle of SV-wave reflection,
șP1P2 is the angle of P-wave refraction, șP1SV2 is the angle of SV-wave refraction, and p is
the horizontal slowness.
The incident P-wave square root energy coefficients are given in the following set
of equations:
ENP1P1 = P1P1
ENP1SV1 = (P1SV1)((Vs1cosșP1SV1) / (Vp1cosșP1P1))1/2
ENP1P2 = (P1P2)((ρ2Vp2cosșP1P2) / (ρ1Vp1cosșP1P1))1/2
ENP1SV2 = (P1SV2)((ρ2Vs2cosșP1SV2) / (ρ1Vp1cosșP1P1))1/2 (2.17)
where ENP1P1 and ENP1P2 are the square root energy coefficients for reflected and
refracted P-waves, and ENP1SV1 and ENP1SV2 are the square root energy coefficients for
reflected and refracted SV-waves.
The incident P-wave energy coefficients are defined by the following set of
equations:
EP1P1 = (ENP1P1)2
26
EP1SV1 = (ENP1SV1)2
EP1P2 = (ENP1P2)2
EP1SV2 = (ENP1SV2)2 (2.18)
where EP1P1 and EP1P2 are the energy coefficients for reflected and refracted P-waves,
and EP1SV1 and EP1SV2 are the energy coefficients for reflected and refracted SV-waves.
2.4.2 Incident SV-Waves
For incident SV-waves, the reflection and refraction displacement amplitude
coefficients are explicitly expressed in the following set of equations (nomenclature
modified from Aki and Richards, 1980):
SV1SV1 = - ((bb(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1) - cc(cosșSV1SV2 / Vs2))EE -
(aa + dd(cosșSV1P2 / Vp2)(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1))GGpp2) / DD
SV1P1 = - (2(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1)(aabb + ccdd((cosșSV1P2) / Vp2)*
((cosșSV1SV2) / Vs2))pp(Vs1 / Vp1)) / DD
SV1SV2 = 2ρ1(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1)EE(Vs1 / Vs2) / DD
SV1P2 = - 2(ρ1(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1)GGpp(Vs1 / Vp2)) / DD (2.19)
where SV1SV1 and SV1SV2 are the reflected and refracted SV-wave displacement
amplitude reflection and refraction coefficients, and SV1P1 and SV1P2 are the reflected
and refracted SV-wave displacement amplitude reflection and refraction coefficients.
Variables and cosine-dependent terms used in the preceding SV-wave displacement
amplitude coefficient equations, are defined in the following set of equations:
aa = ρ2(1 - 2Vs22pp2) - ρ1(1 - 2Vs12pp2)
bb = ρ2(1 - 2Vs22pp2) + 2ρ1Vs12pp2

27
cc = ρ1(1 - 2Vs12pp2) + 2ρ2Vs22pp2
dd = 2(ρ2Vs22 - ρ1Vs12)
EE = bb(cosșSV1P1 / Vp1) + cc(cosșSV1P2 / Vp2)
FF = bb(cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1) + cc(cosșSV1SV2 / Vs2)
GG = aa-dd(cosșSV1P1 / Vp1)(cosșSV1SV2 / Vs2)
HH = aa-dd(cosșSV1P2 / Vp2)( cosșSV1SV1 / Vs1)
DD = EEFF + GGHHpp2 (2.20)
Reflection and refraction angle cosines used in the preceding equations can be written in
the following set of equations as:
cosșSV1SV1 = Vs1(((1 / (Vs12)) - (pp2))1/2)
cosșSV1P1 = Vp1(((1 / (Vp12)) - (pp2))1/2)
cosșSV1SV2 = Vs2(((1 / (Vs22)) - (pp2))1/2)
cosșSV1P2 = Vp2(((1 / (Vp22)) - (pp2))1/2) (2.21)
where ș SV1SV1 is the angle of SV-wave reflection, șSV1P1 is the angle of P-wave reflection,
șSV1SV2 is the angle of SV-wave refraction, șSV1P2 is the angle of P-wave refraction, and pp
is the horizontal slowness.
The incident SV-wave square root energy coefficients are given in the following
set of equations:
ENSV1SV1 = SV1SV1
ENSV1P1 = (SV1P1)((Vp1cosșSV1P1) / (Vs1cosșSV1SV1))1/2
ENSV1SV2 = (SV1SV2)((ρ2Vs2cosșSV1SV2) / (ρ1Vs1cosșSV1SV1))1/2
ENSV1P2 = (SV1P2)((ρ2Vp2cosșSV1P2) / (ρ1Vs1cosșSV1SV1))1/2 (2.22)
28
where ENSV1SV1 and ENSV1SV2 are the square root energy coefficients for reflected
and refracted SV-waves, and ENSV1P1 and ENSV1P2 are the square root energy
coefficients for reflected and refracted P-waves.
The incident SV-wave energy coefficients are defined by the following set of
equations:
ESV1SV1 = (ENSV1SV1)2
ESV1P1 = (ENSV1P1)2
ESV1SV2 = (ENSV1SV2)2
ESV1P2 = (ENSV1P2)2 (2.23)
where ESV1SV1 and ESV1SV2 are the energy coefficients for reflected and refracted SV-
waves, and ESV1P1 and ESV1P2 are the energy coefficients for reflected and refracted P-
waves.
29
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA ACQUISITION
3.1 Introduction
Seismic reflection data that were used in this dissertation were acquired in
cooperation with an Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) and Federal Highway
Administration (FWHA) engineering project. Reflection data were acquired in the
Interstate 70 (I-70) study area (Appendix A) during the fall of 1999 and during the
summer of 2001 (Figure 3.1). This chapter provides details regarding the recording
parameters and geometry of the seismic lines from which data are presented in this
dissertation, and a discussion regarding the pre-processing of the data.
3.2 Shear-Wave Reflection Survey - 1999
Shear wave seismic reflection profiles were acquired along a 200 ft section of the
eastbound lanes of I-70 during the fall of 1999. Line Test-1 was acquired parallel to and
60 ft south of the southern edge of the I-70 eastbound lanes, between road stations 48300
and 48400 (100 feet apart), and Line GUE-I70-1 was acquired between the 48300 and
48500 road stations (200 ft apart) along the southern edge of the eastbound lane of I-70
(Figure 3.2). (Note, road stations are in feet along the highway from the western
30
Figure 3.1. Photographs of 1999 (top) and 2001 (bottom) seismic reflection data
acquisition in the I-70 study area. See text for details regarding 1999 and 2001 data
acquisition geometry and recording parameters.
31
Figure 3.2. Map view of eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48300 to 48500, 1999
seismic survey stations 100 to 300) showing the location of reflection lines Test-1 and
GUE-I70-1.
Guernsey county line. Highway engineers designate stationing as hundreds of feet plus
the remaining feet, for example, 483+00. In the text and the figures of this chapter these
numbers are combined, for example, 48300). Seismic survey stations 100 and 300
corresponded to road stations 48300 and 48500 respectively.
3.2.1 Data Acquisition
Detailed information regarding the acquisition and recording parameters for lines
Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 (acquired during 1999) is presented in Table 3.1. Data were
acquired using a shear wave vibratory source configured to generate preferential shear
particle motion transverse to the seismic lines (sometimes called crossline, or SH), and
32
Description Parameters
Spread type Inline CDP split-spread
Micro-Vib by Bay Geophysical Associates Inc., configured to
Energy source
generate preferential shear particle motion transverse to lines
Source interval 1 ft
2 ft north of lines (located on soil for line Test-1, and on I-70
Source offset
berm pavement for lines GUE-I70-1)
Line Test-1 = road stations 48397.5-48325.5 (73 source
Source locations locations), line GUE-I70-1 = road stations 48295.5-48497.5 (203
source locations)
Sweep type Linear (start taper = 0.08 sec, end taper = 0.06 sec)
Sweep frequencies 50-400 Hz
Sweep length 4 sec
Record length 0.75 sec (4.75 sec listen time minus 4 sec sweep)
Recording instrument OYO DAS-1, 24 bit A/D resolution
Recording channels 96 (with an additional 4 AUX channels)
Data format Recorded in SEG-D 8048 format, converted to SEG-Y format
Field filter and gain Low cut (3 Hz) to remove system noise, 48 dB constant scaling
Sample interval 0.25 ms
Geospace model SMC-70 (40 Hz), one single-component
Geophones horizontal element geophone oriented transverse to the line at
each station
Geophone interval 1 ft
Line Test-1 = road stations 48400-48305 (all geophones live for
Geophone locations each source location), line GUE-I70-1 = road stations 48301-
48492 (roll along began at source location 48349.5)
Table 3.1. Field acquisition and recording parameters for lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1
acquired during the 1999 seismic reflection survey.
33
single component (horizontal element) 40 Hz geophones (Geospace model SMC-70)
oriented transverse to the seismic lines. Geophones with a natural frequency of 40 Hz
have been found to respond well for practical purposes when the dominant frequency of
field data is below 250 Hz (Steeples, 1998). Data were recorded using a 0.25 ms
sampling interval (resulting in a 2000 Hz Nyquist frequency) with a 96-channel (with 4
additional AUX channels) OYO Geospace DAS-1 seismograph. The change in surface
elevation across the profiles was less than one vertical foot per one hundred lateral feet.
3.2.1.1 Energy Source
The energy source employed was a non-commercial vibrator (approximate
dimensions: X and Z = 1 ft, Y = 2 ft; approximate weight = 300 pounds) that was
designed to preferentially generate shear waves. Depending on the orientation of the
source, preferential shear particle motion could be generated inline or transverse to the
seismic line. The vibrator consisted of 2 internal masses connected to an exterior box by
springs, and was capable of generating frequencies in the range of 1 Hz to 1 GHz. Linear
sweeps (upsweeps) were used to generate frequencies ranging from 50 to 400 Hz for each
record acquired. Start and end tapers (linear vibrator power control parameters) were
used to facilitate source coupling with the ground at the start and end of the sweep, in an
attempt to minimize recorded source-related noise. The source was configured to
generate preferential shear particle motion transverse to the azimuths of seismic lines
Test-1 and GUE-I70-1.
34
3.2.2 Data Pre-Processing
Reflection data were initially recorded in SEG-D format and subsequently
converted to SEG-Y format. Data pre-processing was conducted using the ProMAX
seismic processing package (Landmark Graphics Corporation) on a workstation in the
Department of Geological Sciences at the Ohio State University. Each SEG-Y field
record was read and output as a ProMAX dataset, and these datasets were then merged to
output a single ProMAX dataset for each line before processing and imaging. The
complete processing and imaging operation flows applied to lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1
are discussed subsequently in this dissertation.
3.2.2.1 Vibroseis Correlation
Vibrator signals were recorded during data acquisition on four AUX channels:
the pilot sweep from the vibrator electronics (channel 0), source side plate acceleration
(channel -1), source mass number 1 acceleration (channel -2), and source mass number 2
acceleration (channel -3). For each record uncorrelated traces were crosscorrelated with
a sweep signal (either recorded in the field or synthetically generated) to produce
correlated records. Crosscorrelation produces zero-phase wavelets in correlated traces
when the sweep signal matches long wave trains recorded in uncorrelated traces.
A zero-phase wavelet consists of a central peak or trough (depending on display
convention) and two lower amplitude side lobes of opposite sign. A subsurface
impedance contrast (boundary) is located at the central peak or trough of a zero-phase
wavelet, and not at the wavelet onset (as is the case for a minimum-phase wavelet).
Because a zero-phase wavelet is centered on a subsurface boundary, interference with
35
wavelets from additional boundaries below and above a given boundary is possible
(Badley, 1985). For the minimum-phase wavelet case, interference with a wavelet from a
given boundary can only occur from boundaries below.
Periodic noise that was related to the source baseplate decoupling from the ground
was evident in line Test-1 and line GUE-I70-1 records. Noise related to source
decoupling is a common problem associated with vibratory sources (Seriff and Kim,
1970), with the amplitudes of such noise typically greater when the source is located on
relatively hard ground as opposed to softer ground. In addition to using the various
vibrator signals that were recorded in the field, correlation was performed using a
constructed synthetic linear sweep (50-400 Hz) in an attempt to minimize source-related
periodic noise in correlated gathers.
As shown in Figure 3.3a, periodic noise (relatively steeply dipping with a
dominant frequency of 65 Hz) is evident at near offsets in line Test-1 shot gathers when
correlation was performed using channel -2. Correlation using the synthetic sweep
resulted in a significant decrease of source-related noise however (Figure 3.3b), with no
apparent loss or degradation of signal (as evident from the hyperbolic reflection event
seen on shot gathers). Depths calculated using the apparent NMO velocities and zero
offset intercept times (approximately 115 ms) of the hyperbolic reflection event shown in
Figure 3.3, when correlated to drill log data from these locations, indicate that this
reflection event is from the overburden and bedrock boundary (i.e. the top of bedrock).
Correlation using a synthetic sweep did not result in decreased source-related
noise amplitudes for line GUE-I70-1 data, and correlated records for this line with the
highest signal to noise ratio were attained through correlation using AUX channel -2.
36
Figure 3.3. Line Test-1 shot gathers: (a) correlated using AUX channel –2, and (b)
correlated using a synthetic sweep. The steeply-dipping periodic noise (with dominant
frequency of 65 Hz) evident at near offsets in shot gathers correlated using AUX channel
–2 was suppressed when shot gathers were correlated using a synthetic sweep. Shot
gathers are unfiltered and have AGC scaling (100 ms window) applied for display
purposes. The X-axes scales of absolute offset from the source are in feet.
37
Differences in the amount (amplitudes) of source-related noise contained in each record,
and the ability to suppress the effect of such noise through correlation using a synthetic
sweep, were apparently related to differences in the magnitude of source decoupling that
occurred. The magnitude of source decoupling was related to the type of material that the
source baseplate was positioned on. Line Test-1 was acquired with the source located on
relatively soft soil, whereas line GUE-I70-1 was acquired with the source located on the
relatively hard roadway pavement (resulting in poorer source coupling with the ground).
3.2.2.2 Processing and Display Polarity
Polarity means the condition of being positive or negative (Sheriff, 1999), and
instead of describing reflections as being positive or negative the term polarity can be
used. Data shown in Figure 3.3 (and data from the 1999 survey subsequently presented
in this dissertation) were displayed using a reverse polarity convention. Reverse polarity
display means that a zero-phase wavelet without interference in data would have a central
trough (white) and two side lobe peaks (shaded black), and would correspond to an
increase in impedance with depth.
The polarity convention used for display of these data is opposite to that of
Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) recommended standards (Sheriff, 1999),
which suggest that a zero-phase wavelet resulting from a boundary where impedance
increases across the boundary should be represented by a central peak (SEG normal
polarity). Despite the existence of the SEG recommendations, the meaning of the terms
normal and reverse polarity differ depending on geographical location, and polarity
conventions used for processing and display typically depend on the preference of the
38
processor or interpreter, and the study objectives (chosen in this study due to processing
and interpretation preference). What is most important is not the processing and display
polarity convention, but that an interpreter knows the polarity of the displayed data.
3.2.2.3 Geometry
Seismic lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 (Figure 3.2) were recorded using a 1 ft
geophone interval and inline and split spread (source locations in between geophone
locations) common depth point (CDP) shooting on a nearly horizontal surface (i.e. less
than 1 ft elevation change per 100 ft). Line Test-1 was acquired with single horizontal
element geophones planted between seismic survey stations 200 and 105 (corresponding
to road stations 48400 and 48305), and all geophones were live for each shot. The source
was initially located at survey station 197.5 for line Test-1, and was advanced and shaken
at 1 ft increments through the line (73 shot gathers with 96 traces in each) with a final
position at survey station 125.5. Line GUE-I70-1 was also acquired with single
horizontal element geophones, and the geophones were planted between survey stations
101 and 292 (corresponding to road stations 48301 and 48492), with roll along starting at
source location 149.5. The source was initially positioned at survey station 95.5 for Line
GUE-I70-1 and was advanced and shaken at 1 ft increments through the line (203 shot
gathers with 96 traces in each) with a final position at survey station 297.5.
CDP fold plots for lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 are presented in Figure 3.4. Fold
coverage plots shown are based upon the assumptions that subsurface reflectors are flat,
that no lateral velocity variations exist, and that the reflection point is at the geometric
midpoint between the source and receiver locations (i.e. geometric binning).
39
Figure 3.4. CDP fold relative to road stations for 1999 survey lines: (a) Test-1, and (b)
GUE-I70-1 (for both lines the source and geophone intervals were 1 ft, and source
locations were offset 2 ft north of geophones).
3.2.2.4 Data Truncation and Trace Editing
Preliminary analysis of shot records for both lines indicated that no signal of
interest would be lost by truncating the data from 750 ms to 300 ms. Therefore, data
truncation was performed in order to minimize the computational time required for data
processing and imaging. Noisy or bad traces contained within each record were visually
identified and manually killed, and the polarity of traces with a certain offset range for
shots 107 - 203 of Line GUE-I70-1 were reversed (these traces were recorded with
polarity opposite to that of the survey convention).
40
Figure 3.5. Map view of eastbound and westbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48900 to
46694, 2001 seismic survey stations 1000 to 3206) showing the location of reflection
lines EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass, and WBTravel.
3.3 Multicomponent Reflection Survey - 2001

Multicomponent seismic reflection profiles were acquired along a 2206 ft section
of the eastbound lanes of I-70 during the summer of 2001 (between road stations 46694
and 48900). Seismic lines that are referred to as EBTravel and EBPass were acquired
along the south and north edges respectively of the eastbound lanes, and seismic lines
that are referred to as WBPass and WBTravel were acquired along the south and north
edges respectively of the westbound lanes (Figure 3.5). Seismic survey station 1000
corresponded to road station 48900, and seismic survey station 3206 corresponded to
road station 46694.
41
Spread type Inline CDP split-spread
IVI “Minivib II” buggy, capable of generating preferential shear
Energy source particle motion inline and transverse to the line, and preferential
compressional particle motion
Line EBTravel: 3 configurations (3, 3-component (3-C) records
for each source station), lines EBPass and WBPass: transverse
Source configurations shear configuration (1, 3-C record for each source station), line
WBTravel: transverse and inline shear configurations (2, 3-C
records for each source station)
For line EBTravel inline and transverse shear configurations the
source interval was 1 ft for road stations 48900-47558, and 2 ft
Source interval for stations 47556-46694, for line EBTravel compressional
source configuration and line EBPass transverse shear
configuration the source interval was 2 ft for all stations
Source offset Source baseplate offset 6 ft from lines on soil (average offset)
Source locations Road stations 48900-46694
Sweep type Linear (start taper = 0.1 sec, end taper = 0.1 sec)
Sweep frequencies 50-500 Hz
Sweep, record lengths 4 sec, 1 sec (5 sec listen time minus 4 sec sweep)
Geometrics 48-channel StrataView and StataVisor modules
Recording instrument
connected in series, 24 bit A/D resolution
240 total, 80 3-component geophones deployed for each shot (3
Recording channels
channels used geophone, channel 1 of 240 used to record pilot)
Data format Recorded in SEG-2 format, converted to SEG-Y format
No field filters applied, pre-amplifier gain applied as a function
Field filter and gain of absolute offset (channels 0-30 = 0 dB, channels 30-32 = 24
dB, channels 32 - 240 = 36 dB, channel 240 = 48 dB)
Sample interval 0.25 ms
Geospace model GS-20DX (10 Hz), one 3-component
Geophones
geophone with orthogonal elements planted at each station
Geophone interval 2 ft
Road stations 48900-46694, when the source reached the last
Geophone locations
geophone the first 16 phones were leapfrogged to the line end
Table 3.2. Field acquisition and recording parameters for Lines EBTravel, EBPass,
WBPass, and WBTravel, acquired during the 2001 seismic reflection survey.
42
3.3.1 Data Acquisition
Detailed information regarding the 2001 seismic reflection survey acquisition and
recording parameters is presented in Table 3.2. Using a truck-mounted vibratory source
(capable of generating preferential shear or compressional particle motion), data were
acquired with a single 3-component (orthogonal elements) 10 Hz geophone (Geospace
model GS-20DX) planted at each station. Data were recorded using a 0.25 ms sampling
interval with 4, 48-channel Geometrics StrataView seismographs and one Geometrics
StrataVisor seismograph networked to allow simultaneous 240-channel recording. The
change in surface elevation across the profiles was less than one vertical foot per one
hundred lateral feet.
3.3.1.1 Energy Source and Configurations
The vibratory energy source employed was mounted on an Industrial Vehicles
International, Inc. (IVI) “Minivib II” buggy, and was capable (depending on vibrator
piston and baseplate orientation) of generating preferential shear particle motion in the
direction of the line (sometimes called inline, or SV) or transverse to the line (sometimes
called crossline, or SH), and preferential compressional particle motion (sometimes
called vertical, or P). Linear sweeps (upsweeps) were used to generate frequencies
ranging from 50 to 500 Hz for each record acquired. For line EBTravel the 3 possible
source configurations were used and 9-component (9-C) data were acquired using 3-
component (3-C) geophones. For both lines EBPass and WBPass the source was
configured to generate preferential shear particle motion transverse to the line, and 3-C
data were acquired using 3-C geophones. For line WBTravel two source configurations
43
were used (transverse and inline shear configurations), and 6-C data were recorded using
3-C geophones. In subsequent sections of this dissertation, components of a line will be
specified (when referring to data) in terms of orthogonal source and receiver components
in a Cartesian system. For example, the component of line EBPass recorded using a
source and geophone that were both orientated transverse to line, will be referred to as
line EBPassYY (YY refers to the source and geophone arrangements respectively in a
Cartesian system – this will be further explained in a subsequent section of this chapter
and also in subsequent chapters).
3.3.2 Data Pre-Processing
Reflection data were initially recorded in SEG-2 format and converted to SEG-Y
format. Correlated SEG-Y field records were received (from Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001),
and each source-receiver combination for each line was output as a single ProMAX
dataset before processing. The complete processing imaging operation flows applied to
reflection data that were acquired during the 2001 survey are discussed subsequently in
this dissertation.
3.3.2.1 Multicomponent Data Polarity Considerations
Proposed standards for the acquisition of multicomponent reflection data that are
consistent with previous SEG standards for data recording have been presented by
Stewart and Lawton (1999). These standards are based upon recommendations from the
SEG standards subcommittee on multicomponent data (Pruett, 1987), and were proposed
with the petroleum industry in mind, but are also applicable for reflection surveys with
44
near-surface objectives. When 3-C geophones with orthogonal elements (one vertical,
and two horizontal) arranged in a Cartesian system are employed, a right-handed
coordinate system (with X, Y, and Z axes), with the Z-axis pointing downwards is
recommended. The Z-axis corresponds to a vertically oriented geophone element, while
the X- and Y-axes correspond to horizontal geophone elements, oriented inline and
transverse to the seismic line respectively.
Standards for the acquisition of multicomponent reflection data were proposed in
order to facilitate the processing and display of data with normal polarity, as defined by
Sheriff (1999), and to provide polarity consistency between displayed components. The
proposed recommendations state that a tap on the top of a geophone case, and taps on the
sides of the geophone case in the positive X-axis direction (in the direction of source
advancement), and positive Y-axis direction (with a positive rotation angle of +90
degrees from the positive X-axis direction) should all yield consistent initial (positive)
amplitudes (Figure 3.6a). When multicomponent data are recorded following these
conventions, the processing and display of common-mode P-wave and converted-mode
(P-SV-wave) sections with the same polarity (for “normal” geologic environments) is
facilitated (Garotta, 2000). A “normal” geologic environment as stated in the previous
sentence, refers to a subsurface interface across which compressional and shear
impedances both change in the same direction.
In the above situation, a P-wave with near-normal incidence on the interface will
typically result in P- and SV-wave (mode-converted) reflected displacement amplitude
coefficients (real part) with opposite sign at positive source to receiver offsets (see
Chapter 2, Appendix B). With the SEG recommended recording polarities (Figure 3.6a),
45
Figure 3.6. Multicomponent recording polarities for 3-C geophones with elements
arranged in a Cartesian system: (a) recording convention consistent with SEG
recommendations, and (b) 2001 multicomponent survey recording convention. Raw data
were recorded during the 2001 survey with receiver polarities configured such that a tap
on the top of a geophone case yielded an initial positive amplitude, and taps on the sides
of a geophone case in the positive X and Y axis directions yielded initial negative
amplitudes. Source advancement direction is in the positive X-axis direction, and the
positive Y-axis direction has a rotation angle of +90 degrees from the positive X-axis.
both of these upward traveling wave types would produce negative initial geophone
outputs (amplitudes) at positive offsets. The polarity of traces recorded from a P-wave
source at negative source-to-receiver offsets on horizontal, inline geophone elements was
reversed during data pre-processing (Figure 3.7), and this is an established petroleum
industry multicomponent data analysis procedure (Garotta, 2000).
For the 2001 multicomponent seismic reflection survey conducted in the I-70
study area, data were acquired for lines EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass, and WBTravel
using 3-C geophones, with elements arranged in a Cartesian system. A tap on the case
top of the geophone model that was used yielded an initial positive amplitude response,
46
Figure 3.7. Shot gather (P-wave source, Z component) recorded using horizontal, inline
(X component) geophone elements: (left) before, and (right) after polarity reversal of
trailing spread. Absolute values of offset from the source on the x-axis are in ft.
however, taps on the sides of a geophone case in the positive X-axis (west) and Y-axis
(north) directions yielded initial negative amplitudes (Figure 3.6b), which differ from the
proposed multicomponent polarity acquisition standards. In order to achieve polarity
consistency between components that were recorded during the 2001 survey, the polarity
of the Z-axis data components (corresponding to vertical geophone elements) were
reversed during data pre-processing. A reverse polarity convention (according to SEG
recommendations) is used for display of the 2001 data presented in this dissertation.
3.3.2.2 Geometry
Seismic lines EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass, and WBTravel were recorded using a
2 ft geophone interval and inline and split spread CDP shooting on a nearly horizontal
47
surface (i.e. less than 1 ft elevation change per 100 ft). For each of the profiles 80, 3-
component geophones (with orthogonal elements) were deployed at one time along the
line (3 recording channels per geophone, with channel 1 of 240 used to record the pilot
sweep). When the source reached the last geophone, the first 16 geophones were
leapfrogged to the end of the line and source advancement continued down the line.
For line EBTravel shear-wave source configurations (inline and transverse), the
source was initially located at road station 48900. The source was advanced and shaken
at 1 ft increments through road station 47558, and at 2 ft increments in between stations
47556 to 46694 (Figure 3.5). For the line EBTravel vertical source configuration, the
lines EBPass and WBPass transverse shear configuration, and the WBTravel transverse
and inline shear configurations, the source was initially positioned at road station 48900,
and was advanced and shaken at 2 ft increments through the lines with a final position at
road station 46694 (Figure 3.5). CDP fold plots for lines EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass,
and WBTravel are presented in Figure 3.8 (fold coverage plots assume geometric
binning, see above for explanation of the term geometric binning).
3.3.2.3 Data Truncation and Trace Editing
After preliminary analysis of the data, truncation (from 1.0 sec to 300 ms) was
performed in order to minimize the computational time required for data processing and
imaging. Traces recorded using channels 193-240 for low numbered shots (when the
source was positioned at survey stations 1000-1158) on line EBTravel (inline and
transverse shear wave source records) were eliminated from the data because of data
acquisition system problems. This range of traces had improper channel numbers written
48
to the trace headers, events across these traces had inaccurate moveout, and traces had
inconsistent polarity. Despite this range of traces being eliminated, the fold was still high
along this part of the survey line relative to the fold obtained during typical shallow
reflection surveys.
Due to the large number of shot records acquired during the 2001 survey,
statistical processes were used to identify and isolate shots containing noisy or bad traces
in order to efficiently edit traces. A time gate for statistical processes was selected, and
statistical attribute values of average trace energy and trace spikiness (ratio of maximum
magnitude sample to trace signal amplitude) were calculated for the data. In order to
prevent large amplitude spikes from obscuring the rest of the data, a logarithmic function
was applied to the average trace energy attribute. Histograms were plotted for the log of
the average trace energy and trace spikiness attributes. Ranges of anomalously high
attributes on the histograms were selected, and these selections were projected to the shot
domain in order to isolate shot gathers that contained traces with anomalously high
amplitudes or spikiness. Bad traces for each of the isolated shots were then visually
identified and manually eliminated.
49
Figure 3.8. CDP fold relative to road stations for 2001 survey: (a) line EBTravel inline
and transverse shear source configurations (source interval was 1 ft for stations 48900-
47558, and 2 feet for stations 47556-46694, geophone interval was 2 ft), and (b) line
EBTravel compressional source configuration, lines EBPass and WBPass transverse
shear source configuration, and line WBTravel transverse and inline shear source
configurations (source and geophone intervals were 2 ft for all stations).
50
CHAPTER 4
FACTORS AFFECTING COMMON-MODE

REFLECTION SURVEYING EFFECTIVENESS
4.1 Overview
Research was conducted to compare the effectiveness of near-surface
compressional-wave (P-wave) and shear-wave (S-wave) reflection surveys for mapping
geologic and manmade features in the shallow subsurface. P-wave reflection data have
traditionally been acquired during shallow reflection surveys, but the number of reports
concerning shallow S-wave reflection surveys is relatively small (see Chapter 1 for an
overview of previous work). Very few reports concerning the concurrent acquisition and
analysis of P- and S-wave reflection data exist. Objectives of the research were
addressed experimentally by acquiring P- and S-wave reflection data in the I-70 field test
area (Appendix A) and through analyses and modeling.
S-wave reflections from the bedrock and overburden interface were consistently
measured in both the XX component (inline-inline, or SV-SV) and the YY component
(crossline-crossline, or SH-SH) field data. However, noise from surface waves resulted
in the optimum reflection window of XX component data being relatively narrow. Stacks
of traces that were produced using YY component data had a higher signal-to-noise ratio
and imaged the top-of-bedrock better than stacks produced using XX component data.
51
P-wave reflections from the unsaturated and saturated overburden interface were
recorded in ZZ component (vertical-vertical, or P-P) field data, due to a large P-wave
velocity increase across this interface. S-wave reflections from this interface however
were not observed in acquired data components. Arrival times of P-wave reflections and
characteristics of recorded noise modes made it challenging to process and use P-wave
reflections from the top of the saturated overburden. P-wave events from deeper
contrasts in impedance could not be resolved in field data due to the following: 1) surface
wave and air wave noise, 2) a high P-wave reflection coefficient at the top of the
saturated overburden, 3) low P-wave reflection coefficients at deeper interfaces, and 4)
interference effects and poor resolution.
Calculations that were based on P- and S-wave reflection velocities (determined
from NMO) and dominant wavelengths suggest that the vertical resolution of S-waves in
the study area dry overburden was more than 1.7 times the resolution of P-waves, while
the resolution of S-waves in the saturated overburden for the study area was more than
4.7 times that of P-waves. The potential of producing a map showing detailed variations
in elastic properties of subsurface media using acquired P- and S-wave reflection
information was limited by the small number of reflection events from acquired data, and
since the observed P- and S-wave events do not correlate to similar subsurface interfaces.
Comparing the known subsurface conditions with processed stacked sections
indicates that the combined P- and S-wave common-mode reflection information allowed
the near-surface geologic sequence to be imaged more effectively than using solely the S-
wave or P-wave information. Areas of the subsurface where geologic discontinuities
were present were most accurately delineated through the processing and interpretation of
52
YY component data. The mine-subsidence project-related objectives in the study area
(Appendix A) would not have been met using the traditionally acquired P-P component
data. Findings of this study demonstrate the necessity of considering the potential
usefulness of different wave-types and data components prior to conducting a near-
surface reflection survey.
4.2 Multicomponent Reflection Data
Research objectives of this study were addressed through analyses of
experimental multicomponent reflection data acquired during 2001 along a section of the
eastbound travel lane of I-70 (Figure 4.1). The reflection line acquired along this lane
during 2001 is referred to as line EBTravel. Nomenclature in this chapter that is used to
describe multicomponent data, in terms of source and receiver orientations and
preferential polarizations, is illustrated in Figure 4.2. The three seismic source
orientations that were used generated preferential shear particle motion inline and
transverse (crossline) to the seismic line (source components X and Y respectively), and
preferential compressional particle motion (source component Z). A single 3-component
geophone was placed at each receiver station. The geophones contained: 1) horizontal
(orthogonal) elements oriented inline and transverse to the line (receiver components X
and Y respectively), and 2) a vertical element (receiver component Z). This chapter
primarily focuses on the usefulness (in terms of reflection information) of common-mode
component data that were acquired for line EBTravel: the XX component (sometimes
called inline-inline, or SV-SV), the YY component (sometimes called crossline-crossline,
53
54
Figure 4.1. Map view of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48500 to 48900) showing the location of the seismic
reflection line EBTravel relative to the locations of the underground mine workings. Due to the small map scale and possible
errors that exist regarding room and pillar locations on the map, the spatial relationship between these features and the I-70 road
stations is regarded as only approximately accurate.
Figure 4.2. Nomenclature used to describe multicomponent reflection data, in terms of
the source and receiver orientations and preferential polarizations. For sources, the X and
Y symbols indicate sources configured to preferentially generate shear particle motion
inline and transverse (crossline) to the seismic line respectively, while Z indicates a
source configured to preferentially generate compressional particle motion. For
receivers, the symbols X and Y indicate horizontal geophone elements oriented inline and
transverse to the line respectively, while Z indicates a vertical geophone element. The
source and receiver pairs: XX, YY, and ZZ are referred to as the common-mode
components of the nine-component matrix (e.g. XX means a source and receiver both
oriented in the X direction).
55
or SH-SH), and the ZZ component (sometimes called vertical-vertical, or P-P). Line
EBTravel is often referred to in the text of this chapter, and on figures as either: line
EBTravelXX, line EBTravelYY, or line EBTravelZZ, in order to indicate the specific
source and receiver type of the data that are shown. Detailed information regarding the
2001 reflection survey acquisition parameters, and discussion regarding data geometry
and pre-processing were presented in Chapter 3.
4.3 XX Data Versus YY Data: Factors Affecting Imaging Potential
Shot gathers (i.e. field records showing all of the traces acquired for a single
source location) for the XX and the YY components acquired at four locations along line
EBTravel are shown in Figure 4.3. The source locations for the gathers correspond to
road stations: 48581, 48638, 48727, and 48789. (Note, road stations are in feet along the
highway from the western Guernsey county line. Highway engineers designate stationing
as hundreds of feet plus the remaining feet, for example, 485+81. In the text and the
figures of this chapter these numbers are combined, for example, 48581.) The gathers are
shown as unprocessed data (top), as data with bandpass filter and AGC applied (middle),
and as interpreted data (bottom). S-wave reflections are indicated on the interpreted data
records at zero-offset arrival times of about 0.11 seconds (110 ms). The character of
reflection events relative to reflection events observed to the east and west, and the depth
estimates using velocities derived from reflections when correlated with the available
drill log data (Table 4.1), indicate that the observed reflections (indicated on Figure 4.3)
are caused by the overburden and bedrock boundary. The average dominant frequencies
56
57
Figure 4.3. Line EBTravel shot gathers: (a) XX component, and (b) YY component. Gathers are shown: (top) unprocessed,
(middle) with a bandpass filter (50-80-160-200 Hz) and AGC (100 ms window) applied, and (bottom) interpreted. S-wave
reflections from the top-of-bedrock are indicated, and apparent NMO velocities and approximate depths are given. The x-axis
scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET) from the source locations (SOU_X; source locations are given in feet from the western
county line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet. See text for discussion.
Distance (in feet) Material
Boring log Drill date Road Depth (in feet) to water Depth (in feet)
north (N) or south encountered beneath
number (month/yr) Station during drilling to bedrock
(S) of seismic line bedrock
GC-208 11/99 48419 41’ N of EBTravel 25-27, 31-43 42 Coal
GC-218 11/99 48421 6’ S of EBTravel 22-28, 36-42 41 Not recorded
GC-209 11/99 48459 39’ N of EBTravel Not recorded 43 Not recorded
P-221A 11/99 48500 6’ S of EBTravel 31-42 42 Coal
B-38 * 12/94 48525 5’ S of EBTravel 27 (24 hour level) Not available Coal
58
B-122 ** 06/95 48570 24’ N of EBTravel 27 42 Grout
B-123 *** 06/96 48600 10’ N of EBTravel Not recorded 41 Grout
* No sampling conducted (from 36-53 feet deep) in the top-of-bedrock depth range.
** Log indicates a “broken zone” (42-44 feet deep) of poorly graded sand with fine gravel infilling between cobbles.
*** Log indicates shale unit is heavily jointed with slickensides, and that grout below bedrock is broken and jointed.
Table 4.1. Information from drill logs near line EBTravel (Figure 4.1).
59
Figure 4.4. Processed (bandpass filter and AGC gain applied) line EBTravel multicomponent shot gathers: source components
X (a), and Y (b). The S-wave reflections interpreted in Figure 4.3 are superimposed on the common-mode component (XX and
YY) gathers. The x-axis scales of absolute offset (AOFFSET) from the source locations (SOU_X; source locations are given in
feet from the western county line, see Figure 4.1) are in feet. See text for discussion.
of the reflections in the field records that were acquired using X- and Y-oriented sources
had similar values.
Processed multicomponent gathers (source and receiver component combinations:
XX, XY, XZ, YX, YY, YZ) with the same source locations as the gathers in Figure 4.3,
are shown in Figures 4.4a (source = X) and 4.4b (source = Y). S-wave reflections from
the top-of-bedrock are indicated on the gathers in Figures 4.3 and 4.4. Gathers in Figures
4.3 and 4.4 have individual trace amplitude scaling applied to enhance the later time
events.
4.3.1 Noise, Optimal Reflection Windows, and Reflection Coefficients
In order to produce an accurate image of the subsurface using seismic reflection
data, reflection energy (referred to as signal) must first be confidently identified.
Random noise and different types of coherent noise (i.e. types non-reflection energy)
recorded by geophones can destructively interfere with signal of interest, and this can
make accurate seismic imaging difficult or even impossible. A main goal of seismic
reflection data processing is to enhance identifiable signal by suppressing noise, and to
generate images of the subsurface containing minimal noise-related artifacts.
There are several types of coherent noise that can complicate or prevent shallow
seismic reflection imaging efforts. A blast of air wave noise is typically generated by
seismic sources, and coherent noise can also be generated by other environmental
sources, such as roadway traffic. Surface waves propagate along or near the ground
surface, and often serve as noise that is detrimental to reflection energy. Two types of
surface waves are commonly a concern during near-surface seismic reflection surveying:
60
Rayleigh waves and Love waves (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982). Rayleigh waves propagate
with a retrograde elliptical particle motion confined to the vertical plane in the direction
of the seismic source, and involve a combination of both compressional and shear waves
(P- and SV-waves). Love waves have a particle motion that is parallel to the surface and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (SH), with no vertical component of motion.
Rayleigh waves will propagate along a surface regardless of the near-surface velocity
structure. Love waves however, require a near-surface layer of relatively low velocity, as
they result from the interference of multiples of reflected SH-wave energy beyond the
critical angle that are confined to a near surface layer.
Traffic noise on the I-70 study area field records was higher for data recorded
using X- and Z-oriented receivers, than for data recorded using Y-oriented receivers.
Recorded traffic noise was predominantly low frequency (e.g. 5-25 Hz), and was
therefore significantly suppressed on all components through the application of a low-cut
frequency filter. Air wave noise was present in all data that were acquired using X- and
Z-oriented receivers, and could not be suppressed without degrading the reflection signal
quality. Air wave noise propagated along the receiver spread before the return of S-wave
reflections from the bedrock. Processing procedures to attenuate air wave noise were not
necessary to prevent it from severely degrading the S-wave reflection signal in the XX
component data.
Detrimental, high amplitude, dispersive Love wave noise was not observed in
most of the YY component data. This is because the S-wave velocity structure across the
study area was such that near-surface road construction-related fill materials had a higher
velocity than underlying overburden materials at most locations. For YY component data
61
at far source-to-receiver offsets where the top-of-bedrock S-wave event was degraded by
non-reflected energy, the noise was suppressed through f-k filtering and post-NMO
stretch muting.
High amplitude Rayleigh wave noise was observed in the data recorded using X-
and Z-oriented receivers (Figure 4.4). Rayleigh waves propagate in the direction of the
seismic source with retrograde elliptical particle motion in the vertical plane. Rayleigh
waves therefore strongly affect both the X and Z receiver components. The velocity of
Rayleigh waves (Vr) is dependent upon Poisson’s ratio ( σ ), and is close to that of the S-
wave velocity (Vs) with the relationship given as:
Vr = ĮVs (4.1)
where Į is a constant that is dependent upon that value of σ . An equation relating Į and
σ can be found in Davis and Selvadurai (1996). For example σ values of: 0.0, 0.25, and
0.5, Vr would be equivalent to: 87.4 percent of Vs, 92.0 percent of Vs, and 95.5 percent of
Vs respectively. Measurements made using acquired field data indicate a representative
range for values of Vr (linear group velocity) in the study area of 575 ft/s to 650 ft/s.
Rayleigh wave noise tended to mask the top-of-bedrock S-wave reflection that
was recorded in XX component data. The Rayleigh wave noise could not be sufficiently
suppressed through frequency filtering, resulting in the optimum reflection window being
narrower than the window for the YY component data (Figure 4.3).
S-wave energy reflected from the top of the bedrock (from a X-oriented source) is
strongly polarized in the horizontal component (X-oriented receiver component) in the
direction of the line (Figure 4.4a). This polarization effect is shown by high amplitude
reflections in the X-oriented receiver gathers (top of Figure 4.4a), relative to those (when
62
even observed) in Y- and Z-oriented receiver gathers (middle and bottom of Figure 4.4a
respectively). The S-wave energy that was reflected from the top of the bedrock (from a
Y-oriented source) is strongly polarized in the horizontal component in the crossline
direction as shown in Figure 4.4b. Reflections have high amplitudes in Y-oriented
receiver gathers (middle of Figure 4.4b), relative to those (when even observed) in X- and
Z-oriented receiver gathers (top and bottom of Figure 4.4b respectively). The amplitude
and polarization characteristics of the recorded noise modes, and the amplitude and
polarization characteristics of reflected energy, determines whether or not a reflection can
be observed in a given data component. In practice, acquisition geometry is never
perfect, media are not perfectly isotropic and laterally homogeneous, and reflections may
be affected by dipping interfaces. Further, seismic sources and receivers are not perfectly
pure in a polarization sense (i.e. more than one type of wave is typically generated by
sources, and receivers typically are not completely sensitive to only a single wave type).
Miller and Pursey (1955) calculated that a vertically oscillating disk on a half-space
medium (having a Poisson’s ratio of 0.25) radiates 67 percent of the total energy as
Rayleigh waves, 26 percent as SV-waves, and 7 percent as P-waves. It is unlikely when
using a Z-oriented source for example, that the X-oriented component would not contain
any reflected energy.
YY component field records generally contained a higher signal-to-noise ratio,
and a larger optimum reflection window than corresponding XX component records
(Figure 4.3). Therefore, accurate estimates of the average overburden S-wave velocity
can generally be better obtained from the YY component data. The signal-to-noise ratio
63
and the size of the optimum reflection window for the XX and YY component data also
affected the quality of images that could be constructed using these components.
Square root energy coefficients were calculated using the equations presented in
Chapter 2 for the overburden and bedrock interface. Representative P- and S-wave
velocities were calculated from the seismic data for the saturated overburden (directly
above bedrock) of 5150 ft/s and 700 ft/s respectively. An S-wave velocity of 2750 ft/s
for the bedrock, and an approximate P-wave velocity of 5500 ft/s (assuming a Vp/Vs ratio
of 2.0), were also used for calculations. The P-wave velocity of the bedrock could not be
measured directly from the field data. A density contrast of 0.63 g/cm3 was estimated for
the region across the interface between saturated overburden and bedrock for
calculations. This approximation was based on an average density value for wet
overburden materials of 1.92 g/cm3 (Telford et al., 1990), and an average bulk density of
2.55 g/cm3 measured for the study area bedrock unit in Harrison County, Ohio (ODNR,
2002). Results from calculations of the square root energy coefficients using these
velocity and density estimates are plotted in Figure 4.5 as a function of incidence angle.
These calculations are based on assumptions that the interface is planar and that the
media are isotropic.
The plots in Figure 4.5 show that the magnitude of the S-wave reflection
coefficient is high at normal incidence (0.68). The magnitudes of the SV-wave (left) and
the SH-wave (right) reflection coefficients are also seen from a qualitative standpoint to
be fairly similar to each other for most incidence angles. The maximum incidence angle
that is shown roughly corresponds to the likely maximum source-to-receiver offset at
which a top-of-bedrock S-wave reflection would be recorded in acquired field data.
64
65
Figure 4.5. Plots showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function of incidence angle for a SV-wave (left) and a
SH-wave (right) incident on the overburden (medium 1) and bedrock (medium 2) interface. Calculations were made with the
computer program presented in Appendix B. See text for discussion.
Energies of reflected and refracted mode-converted waves from an incident SV-wave are
relatively low for this geologic situation, and such modes only occur at small (< 8
degrees) incidence angles. The reflected mode-converted P-wave and refracted mode-
converted P-wave critical angles are indicated in Figure 4.5. Based on the plots in Figure
4.5 and analyses of the data presented in this section, it can be concluded that the possible
effects of reflection coefficients on the S-wave imaging potential are likely to be minor
relative to the affects of noise recorded in the S-wave data components.
4.3.2 Stacked Signal Quality
An S-wave velocity field can be more accurately constructed through analysis of
YY component data than from XX component data. In most cases, the average
overburden S-wave velocities measured from both components were similar, when the
velocity was measured at a location using both components. Small differences in the
average S-wave overburden velocities (< 3 percent) were measured from corresponding
XX and YY data in a relatively small number of cases (e.g., see the XX and YY
component shot gathers shown in Figure 4.3 that were acquired with the sources located
at road station 48581).
XX component and YY component supergathers (each consisting of 3 smashed
CMP gathers) from three locations along line EBTravel are shown in Figure 4.6. The
gathers are each shown before and after NMO-correction using S-wave stacking
velocities calculated from YY component data (Table 4.2). For the XX component
supergather centered at road station 48820 (Figure 4.6a), the event from the top-of-
bedrock is slightly overcorrected (applied velocity was too low) using the YY
66
Figure 4.6. Line EBTravel CDP supergathers: XX component (left), and YY component
(right). Gathers are shown before and after NMO correction using YY component-
derived (Table 4.2) S-wave stacking velocities of: (a) 737 ft/s, (b) 705 ft/s, and (c) 675
ft/s. Arrows next to dynamic stack functions indicate the top-of-bedrock reflection event.
This reflection is slightly over-corrected on the 48820 (a) XX component gather
(although data still stack reasonably well at the applied velocity). For supergathers
centered at the other two locations (b and c), this event is corrected similar on both the
XX and YY components. CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (given in
feet from the western county line, see Figure 4.1).
67
component-derived velocity. However, traces observed on the dynamic stack function
(plotted to the right of the NMO-corrected XX component gather in Figure 4.6a) indicate
the data still stacked reasonably well at the applied velocity. The top-of-bedrock event is
corrected and stacks give similar results for both components using supergathers that are
centered at the other two locations (Figures 4.6b and 4.6c). Analyses conducted using
XX and YY data, suggested that comparable stacks for the two components could be
obtained using a velocity field derived from YY component data. It was apparent from
these analyses that other factors previously discussed in this section (e.g., optimum
reflection windows and signal-to-noise ratios of acquired data) would have a greater
impact than the small errors in the applied stacking velocities (i.e., < 3 percent) on the
quality of constructed XX and YY component images.
The line EBTravel XX and YY component stacked time sections shown in Figure
4.7 were produced with similar parameters (shown in Table 4.2), and the NMO
corrections were applied using the same (YY component-derived) velocity field. Stacked
XX and YY component data from the line are shown with NMO corrections applied at
100 percent of the stacking velocities in Figure 4.7a, at 95 percent in Figure 4.7b, and at
105 percent in Figure 4.7c. At each velocity-field percentage, the YY component data
have a higher top-of-bedrock reflection signal-to-noise ratio than the XX component data,
and the YY component data show better resolution of the bedrock horizon than the XX
component data. This is observed in an area where no previous mining activity occurred
(between road stations 48880 and 48660), and it is reasonable to expect that a
predominately continuous and coherent bedrock horizon should be present across this
area. The amplitude of the bedrock reflection is high and the event is coherent across
68
Processing step Description
Data reformat From SEG-Y to ProMAX format
Vibroseis correlation Both lines correlated with pilot sweep
Geometry Defined using field notes and loaded to headers
Data truncation Records truncated to 300 ms
Trace editing Bad / noisy traces killed
Trace equalization 150 ms spatially varying window
f-k filter Non-reflection energy/linear noise suppression
CMP sort Sorted from shot gathers to midpoint gathers
Stacking velocity function derived from YY component
Velocity analysis through integrated analysis of shot gathers, constant velocity
stacks, and semblance plots
NMO correction Applied based on optimum stacking velocities
Stretch mute 30 percent
Bandpass filter Zero-phase Ormsby filter: 50-80-160-200 Hz
AGC scaling 100 ms window
CMP ensemble / stack Summed NMO-corrected CMP gathers
Table 4.2. Data processing flow for Line EBTravel S-wave reflection data (XX and YY
and components), acquired east of the previous roadway collapse region.
69
Figure 4.7. Line EBTravel XX and YY component time sections after similar processing
(Table 4.2), and NMO corrections made using the same velocity model: (a) 100 percent of
stacking velocities, (b) 95 percent, and (c) 105 percent. CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond
to road stations (given in feet from the western county line, see Figure 4.1). Y-axis arrows
indicate the top of the bedrock horizon. The YY component sections have a higher signal-to-
noise ratio, and provide a better stack of the bedrock horizon. No previous mining occurred
below line EBTravel between CDP locations 48880 and 48660. (continued)
70
Figure 4.7. (continued)
(b) Line EBTravel XX and YY component sections after similar processing. (continued)
71
(c) Line EBTravel XX and YY component sections after similar processing.
72
this station range in the YY component stacks relative to the XX component stacks
(Figure 4.7). The YY component data provide a better potential than XX component data
to identify disruptions in the bedrock horizon.
4.4 YY Data Versus ZZ Data: Factors Affecting Imaging Potential
Line EBTravel ZZ component shot gathers with source locations corresponding to
road stations: 48580, 48638, 48726, and 48788 are shown in Figure 4.8a. The shot
gathers are shown as unprocessed (top), with bandpass filter and AGC applied (middle),
and with interpretations (bottom). The YY component shot gathers (unprocessed,
processed, and interpreted) shown in Figure 4.3 are shown again in Figure 4.8b, for the
purpose of comparison with ZZ component gathers. The XX and YY component data for
line EBTravel were recorded approximately 2 weeks prior to the ZZ component data
(Chapter 3). A different source spacing was used for the XX and YY data compared to
the ZZ data.
Multicomponent shot gathers (components: ZX, ZY, and ZZ) with the same
source locations as the gathers shown in Figure 4.8a, are presented in Figures 4.9a
(unprocessed) and 4.9b (processed). The P-wave reflections that were indicated on ZZ
component records on Figure 4.8a are again indicated on Figure 4.9b. The frequency
spectra of multicomponent records acquired using a Z-oriented source were similar in all
cases. A bandpass frequency filter is often effective in improving the visibility of near-
surface P-wave reflections (Steeples et al., 1997). The filter that was applied to these
data was an 80-120-200-240 Hz zero-phase Ormsby filter. The shot gathers for these
data are shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9, with individual trace amplitude scaling applied.
73
74
Figure 4.8. Line EBTravel shot gathers: (a) ZZ component, and (b) YY component. Gathers are shown: (top) unprocessed,
(middle) with a bandpass filter (ZZ: 80-120-200-240 Hz, YY: 50-80-160-200 Hz) and AGC (100 ms window) applied, and
(bottom) interpreted. P-wave reflections from the top-of-saturated-overburden (a) are indicated in blue, and S-wave reflections
from the top-of-bedrock (b) are indicated in yellow, with apparent NMO velocities and approximate depths given. The x-axis
75
Figure 4.9. Line EBTravel multicomponent (source component Z, receiver components X, Y, and Z) shot gathers: (a)
unprocessed, and (b) processed (bandpass filter: 80-120-200-240 Hz, and AGC gain with 100 ms window applied). P-wave
reflections interpreted in Figure 4.8 are superimposed on the processed common-mode component (ZZ) gathers. The x-axis
4.4.1 Sensitivity of P- and S-Waves to Changes in Overburden Saturation
Reflected P-wave energy is indicated on the interpreted records in Figure 4.8a at
zero-offset arrival times of about 30 ms. Depth estimates using velocity values that were
derived from reflections when correlated with available drill log information (Table 4.1)
indicate that the observed reflections are from the top-of-saturated-overburden (where dry
or partially saturated unconsolidated overburden materials become fully saturated).
Depth estimates from the events interpreted in Figure 4.8a, agree with Hoffman et al.
(1995), where it was reported that the groundwater within the overburden was generally
within 30 feet (9.1 m) of the ground surface. Depth estimates also agree with acquired
hydrologic well data, which indicated that water levels in overburden materials ranged
from within 20 - 30 feet (6.1 - 9.1 m) of the ground surface along the eastbound lanes
during 1999-2001. No major lithologic boundaries were encountered during drilling in
this depth range.
At certain locations along line EBTravel, high amplitude P-wave reflections and
refractions from the top-of-saturated overburden were clearly observed, and were well
separated in the frequency domain from recorded noise modes (Figure 4.10). However,
at most locations along the line, the arrival times of events and the noise on the data made
it challenging to process the data to show the P-wave reflections from the top-of-
saturated-overburden. P-wave reflections from geologic interfaces below the top-of-
saturated-overburden, were not observed in any of the acquired records (this is
subsequently explained).
Reflection and refraction analyses of data acquired in the study area indicated
average P-wave velocities for unsaturated overburden around 1900 ft/s, and P-wave
76
Figure 4.10. Line EBTravel ZZ component CMP gathers: (a) uninterpreted, and (b)
interpreted. Gathers are shown with a bandpass filter (80-120-200-240 Hz) and AGC
(100 ms window) applied. P-wave reflections from the top-of-saturated-overburden are
indicated in (b), with apparent NMO velocities around 1900 ft/sec, and reflector depths of
about 32 feet. X-axis scales of CMP location (CDP_X) and receiver location (REC_X)
are in feet, and correspond to road stations. See text for discussion.
velocities around 5150 ft/s for the saturated overburden. Such large contrasts in
unconsolidated material P-wave velocities due to water saturation have commonly been
observed during near-surface reflection surveys (Miller and Xia, 1998). P-wave
velocities of fully saturated unconsolidated materials are almost always equal to or
greater than (except in cases of very high porosity, i.e., greater than or approximately
equal to 65 percent) the velocity of water (Bradford, 2002). Acquired S-wave data
(Figure 4.8b) contained S-wave reflections from the top-of-bedrock, but did not contain
events correlating to top of saturated overburden (i.e., changes in overburden saturation
77
could not be inferred using S-waves). This is because P- and S-waves are sensitive to
different physical material properties.
P-wave velocities (and amplitudes) can vary substantially with changes in pore
fluid content (Domenico, 1976), primarily because of the sensitivity of bulk modulus (k)
values to such changes. P-wave velocity (Vp), is dependent upon k, the shear modulus
(µ), and bulk density ( ρ ):
Vp = (k + 4/3µ / ρ )1/2 (4.2)
S-wave velocity (Vs) depends upon µ and ρ :
Vs = (µ / ρ )1/2 (4.3)
The rigidity of ideal gases and liquids is the same (zero). Despite possible changes in Vs
related to changes in density or cohesion (West and Menke, 2000), the saturation of an
unconsolidated material with water generally does not change the S-wave velocity
appreciably relative to the change in P-wave velocity.
4.4.1.1 Reflection Coefficients: Unsaturated and Saturated Overburden Interface
Square root energy coefficients (see Chapter 2 for equations) were calculated for
P- and S-waves incident on an interface between unsaturated and saturated overburden
using data-derived P- and S-wave velocities, and approximate bulk densities. Results are
plotted in Figure 4.11 as a function of incidence angle, and are based on assumptions that
the interface is planar, and that the media are isotropic. Representative study area media
parameters used for the square root energy calculations are presented in Table 4.3. P-
wave velocities for the unsaturated and saturated overburden of 1900 ft/s and 5150 ft/s
respectively, were used for calculations of the parameters shown in Table 4.3. A
78
79
Figure 4.11. Plots showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function of incidence angle for a P-wave (left), a
SH-wave (middle), and a SV-wave (right) incident on the interface between unsaturated overburden (medium 1) and saturated
overburden (medium 2). Calculations were made with the computer program presented in Appendix B. See text for discussion.
Vp Density P-wave S-wave
Vp Vs Vs Poisson’s
Lithology Vp/Vs Reflection Reflection
(ft/sec) (m/sec) (ft/sec) (m/sec) Ratio (ı) (g/cm3) Coefficient Coefficient
Unsaturated
1900 579 700 213 2.7 0.42 1.55
Overburden
0.54 0.11
Saturated
5150 1570 700 213 7.3 0.49 1.92
Overburden
0.08 0.61
80
Bedrock 5500 1676 2750 838 2.0 0.33 2.55
Table 4.3. Representative subsurface parameters and normal incidence P-wave and S-wave cumulative reflection coefficients
for the I-70 study area subsurface lithologies and related contrasts in impedance. See text for discussion.
variation in S-wave velocity across the unsaturated and saturated overburden interface
was not detectable using seismic data, and an S-wave velocity of 700 ft/s was assumed as
a representative value for the study area overburden in calculations. A contrast of 0.37
g/cm3 was assumed as a density contrast at the interface between the unsaturated and
saturated overburden. This was based on average density values of 1.55 g/cm3 for dry
overburden materials and 1.92 g/cm3 for wet overburden materials (Telford et al., 1990).
The plots in Figure 4.11 demonstrate that for this geologic situation:
1) The magnitude of the P-wave reflection coefficient is much larger for all
angles of incidence than the magnitude of the SV- or SH-wave
reflection coefficients.
2) The energy of the reflected and refracted mode-converted waves from
an incident P- or SV-wave are seen to be relatively small for all angles
of incidence.
For common-mode reflected P- and S-waves, the terms “square root energy coefficient”
and “reflection coefficient” represent the same quantities (Chapter 2). The P-wave
impedance contrast affecting the results in Figure 4.11 resulted from both velocity and
density contrasts, but the S-wave impedance contrast affecting the results in Figure 4.11
resulted only from density contrasts.
The magnitude of the P-wave reflection coefficient at normal incidence is 0.54,
while the magnitude of the S-wave reflection coefficient at normal incidence is 0.11
(Table 4.3, Figure 4.11). Using a bedrock S-wave velocity of 2750 ft/s, an approximated
bedrock P-wave velocity of 5500 ft/s (assuming a Vp/Vs ratio of 2.0), and an average
81
bedrock bulk density of 2.55 g/cm3 (ODNR, 2002), normal incidence (cumulative) square
root energy coefficients at the underlying overburden-bedrock interface are considered.
The cumulative square root energy coefficients of reflected P- and S-waves (from
incident P- and S-waves respectively) from the top-of-bedrock are 0.08 and 0.61
respectively (Table 4.3).
General conclusions can be made based on calculations presented in this section,
as follows:
1) P-wave energy reflected from the top-of-saturated-overburden (from an
incident P-wave) is large relative to the S-wave energy reflected from
this interface (from an incident S-wave).
2) P-wave energy reflected from the top-of-saturated-overburden (from an
incident P-wave) is large relative to the P-wave energy reflected from
the top-of-bedrock (from an incident P-wave).
3) S-wave energy reflected from the top-of-bedrock (from an incident S-
wave) is large relative to the S-wave energy reflected from the top-of-
saturated-overburden (from an incident S-wave).
4) S-wave energy reflected from the top-of-bedrock (from an incident S-
wave) is large relative to the P-wave energy reflected from the top-of-
bedrock (from an incident P-wave).
4.4.2 Noise and Optimal Reflection Windows
The air wave and high amplitude Rayleigh wave noise (in data recorded using X-
and Z-oriented receivers) had arrival times at the near offsets that were similar to those of
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P-wave reflections from the top-of-saturated-overburden in the ZZ component data. The
noise could not be sufficiently suppressed through frequency filtering without degrading
the reflection signal, since the noise existed within the optimum P-wave reflection signal
frequency range (Figure 4.8). A frequency-wavenumber (f-k) filter that was applied to
the ZZ component data (prior to stacking) suppressed the air wave and the surface wave
noise, but the necessity of attenuating the noise resulted in a narrow optimum window to
enhance the P-wave event. The YY data S-wave event from the top-of-bedrock was not
severely degraded by air wave or surface wave noise. The YY component (top-of-
bedrock) S-wave reflection window was wider than the ZZ component (top-of-saturated-
overburden) P-wave reflection window (Figure 4.8). A larger number of traces
containing reflection energy could therefore be summed and stacked for the YY
component data than for the ZZ component data.
Rayleigh wave noise, air wave noise, and P-wave energy reflected from the top-
of-saturated-overburden (from a Z-oriented source), are strongly polarized in the vertical
component, and to a lesser extent these sources of energy are also present on the
horizontal component in the direction of the line (X-component). An X-directed
component of the P-wave reflections in Figure 4.9b are observed with relatively low
amplitude in X-oriented receiver gathers (top), and are not interpretable in Y-oriented
receiver gathers (middle). The top-of-saturated-overburden could therefore be most
effectively imaged using common-mode P-wave reflections in field gathers acquired
using Z-oriented receivers. Reflected (non-converted mode) S-wave energy correlating
to the top-of-bedrock, is also observed on certain gathers in Figure 4.9b recorded using
X- and Y-oriented receivers (for instance, at about 110 ms in the 48788 ZX gather), and
83
this resulted from S-wave generation by the Z-oriented source. As previously discussed
(see above), seismic sources are not perfectly pure in a polarization sense. A substantial
amount of the total energy distributed by a vertically oscillating seismic source is
generally in the form of S-waves (Miller and Pursey, 1955).
4.4.3 Resolution Potential of ZZ Component Data
The resolution potential of common-mode S-wave reflection data is addressed in
Chapter 6, and the results apply to the S-wave data that are the focus of this chapter. This
section focuses on resolution issues related to common-mode P-wave reflection data.
Synthetic seismograms were generated in order to investigate the resolution potential of
ZZ component data relative to the field study area geology. These synthetic seismograms
were generated using an acoustic finite-difference modeling code within the ProMAX
(Landmark Graphics Corporation) software package (see Chapter 6 for details regarding
the code, and for discussion regarding the selection of modeling parameters).
The P-wave interval velocity model in Table 4.4 was used to generate the
synthetic data presented in this section, and the model was constructed using velocities
that were derived through the analysis of ZZ component shot gathers. The model
contains P-wave velocities for the unsaturated and saturated overburden materials that
were derived from NMO and refraction analyses. P-wave velocities for the bedrock and
a coal seam beneath the model overburden were approximated for modeling purposes.
These quantities were not measurable directly from the data, and were approximated by
assuming a Vp/Vs ratio of 2.0 for both materials. S-wave bedrock velocities obtained
from refraction measurements across the study area ranged from 2500 ft/s to 3000 ft/s,
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P-wave interval velocity (ft/sec) Lithology Layer thickness (ft)
1900 Unsaturated Overburden 29.5
5150 Saturated Overburden 11.5
5500 Bedrock (shale) 20
4790 Coal (bituminous) 7
Table 4.4. Velocity model used to generate the synthetic seismogram in Figure 4.12.
and a P-wave velocity of 5500 ft/s was specified for the model bedrock. An S-wave
velocity of 2395 ft/s, was measured by Wolfe et al. (1989) for the Lower Freeport Coal (a
bituminous coal located stratigraphically beneath the Upper Freeport Coal). Based upon
this coal S-wave velocity value, a P-wave velocity of 4790 ft/s was specified for the
model coal. Drill log data from the site were used to establish representative thicknesses
for materials in the model that could not be determined from the seismic data. Synthetic
seismograms generated with models containing approximations for material bulk
densities did not change the main conclusions that are demonstrated using the modeling
results presented in this section.
A velocity versus depth plot from the P-wave interval velocity and the layer
thickness model in Table 4.4 is shown in Figure 4.12a. The calculated arrival times of
events from the model interfaces are plotted as a function of offset in Figure 4.12b. An
uninterpreted seismogram generated using a zero-phase Ricker wavelet (with a center
frequency of 150 Hz) as the surface-located source is shown in Figure 4.12c. A 150 Hz
source wavelet resulted in a dominant peak-to-peak reflection frequency of 125 Hz. It is
85
Figure 4.12. Comparison of synthetic data with line EBTravel field data (ZZ component).
Plots of the velocity model (Table 4.4) and calculated event arrival times are shown in (a)
and (b) respectively. A synthetic seismogram generated using the model in (a) with a 150
Hz source is shown uninterpreted in (c), and interpreted in (d). A shot gather used as a
basis for forward modeling is shown uninterpreted in (e), and interpreted in (f). A high
reflection coefficient at the unsaturated and saturated overburden (primary) interface,
noise, and interference prevent the interpretation of secondary events in field data (f).
86
seen from the interpreted synthetic seismogram in Figure 4.12d, that the reflection from
the top-of-saturated-overburden (the primary reflection) dominates the record at all
source-to-receiver offsets. A low amplitude reflection from the top of the coal seam
(having opposite polarity than the primary reflection) is interpretable from the synthetic
data at near offsets, but reflections from the other model interfaces located beneath
saturated overburden are not interpretable.
Unsaturated and saturated overburden P-wave velocities were obtained (after
bandpass filter and AGC application) from the shot gather in Figure 4.12e (uninterpreted)
and in Figure 4.12f (interpreted). The dominant reflection frequency of the synthetic data
and field data shown in Figure 4.12 are comparable, and the interpretations in Figure
4.12d are superimposed on the field data in Figure 4.12f. The observed fit of the same
reflection hyperbola and the same linear refraction (from the top-of-saturated overburden)
to the synthetic and field data supports the initial interpretation of these events and their
velocities in the field data. There is no evidence suggesting the presence of additional
events (from the top-of-bedrock or the coal seam) beneath the top-of-saturated-
overburden in the field data. This results from many factors, including: 1) the high
amplitude surface wave noise present (after optimum bandpass frequency filtering) at
near offsets in the field data, 2) the high P-wave reflection coefficient at the unsaturated
and saturated overburden interface, 3) low reflection coefficients at interfaces located
beneath the top of saturated overburden, and 4) interference and poor resolution.
General conclusions can be made from the analysis of the resolution potential of
ZZ component data discussed in this section, as follows:
1) P-wave energy reflected from the top-of-saturated-overburden dominates
87
ZZ component synthetic data at all source to receiver offsets.
2) A high reflection coefficient at the top-of-saturated-overburden, lower
reflection coefficients at deeper interfaces, noise, interference, and poor
resolution prevent the interpretation of reflection events from below the
top-of-saturated overburden in ZZ component field records.
4.4.3.1 P-Wave Versus S-Wave Resolution
Seismic wavelength (Ȝ) affects vertical and lateral resolution, and is related to
wave velocity (V) and frequency (f): Ȝ = V / f. Using dry overburden average P- and S-
wave velocities of 1900 ft/s and 700 ft/s respectively, and average dominant P- and S-
wave data frequencies of 125 Hz and 80 Hz respectively, then the quarter-wavelengths
(Ȝ/4) of P- and S-waves in dry overburden are 3.8 feet and 2.2 feet respectively (Table
4.5). Using saturated overburden average P- and S-wave velocities of 5150 ft/s and 700
ft/s respectively, and average dominant P- and S-wave frequencies of 125 Hz and 80 Hz
respectively, then Ȝ/4 values for P- and S-waves in saturated overburden are 10.3 feet and
2.2 feet respectively (Table 4.5). Ignoring other factors that influence resolution
potential, these calculations suggest that the resolution that can be achieved using S-
waves in the study area dry overburden is more than 1.7 times that which can be achieved
using P-waves, and that the resolution of S-waves in the study area saturated overburden
is more than 4.7 times that of P-waves (Table 4.5).
88
Average Average Quarter- Quarter-
Dominant Dominant wavelength wavelength
Average Average Vs
Lithology P-wave S-wave (Ȝ/4) for (Ȝ/4) for (P-waves Ȝ/4) /
Vp (ft/sec) (ft/sec)
Frequency Frequency P-waves S-waves (S-waves Ȝ/4)
(Hz) (Hz) (ft) (ft)
Dry
1900 700 125 80 3.8 2.2 1.7
Overburden
Saturated
5150 700 125 80 10.3 2.2 4.7
Overburden
89
Table 4.5. Quarter -wavelengths calculated for P- and S-waves in the I-70 study area overburden materials.
4.4.4 Data Processing
Common-mode P- and S-wave reflection data processing and imaging operations
applied to each of the components (YY and ZZ) were established based on previous
analyses of the data (see above). The analysis flows applied to each of these data
components are described in Table 4.6. A discussion regarding data pre-processing was
presented in Chapter 3. An event correlating as the top-of-bedrock could consistently be
identified in S-wave records acquired in the region east of the previous roadway collapse.
Processing and imaging operations applied to the YY component data presented in this
chapter were determined for the purpose of enhancing reflections from this impedance
contrast. ZZ component records contained P-wave reflections correlating to depths of the
top-of-saturated-overburden, and processing of ZZ component data focused on enhancing
reflections from this impedance contrast. As previously mentioned, P-wave reflections
from the top-of-saturated overburden were not identifiable on as large of a percentage of
shot gathers, as were S-wave reflections from the top-of-bedrock (due to event arrival
times and recorded noise characteristics). S-wave data required more accurate stacking
velocities than did P-wave data for producing quality stacks. A given deviation from
optimum stacking velocity would represent a much larger percentage of the optimum
stacking velocity in the S-wave data case, since stacking velocities for S-wave data were
much lower than those for P-wave data.
4.4.4.1 Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering
For the common-mode component shot gathers presented in this chapter, high
amplitude, linear, non-reflected energy remained in records after optimum bandpass
90
Vibroseis correlation Both lines correlated with pilot sweep
f-k filter Non-reflection energy/linear noise suppression
Integrated analysis of shot gathers, constant velocity stacks,
Velocity analysis and semblance plots for YY component, Integrated analysis of
shot gathers and constant velocity stacks for ZZ component
30 percent for line EBTravelYY and 40 percent for line
Stretch mute
EBTravelZZ
Zero-phase Ormsby filters: 50-80-160-200 Hz for YY
Bandpass filter
component, and 80-120-200-240 Hz for ZZ component
Table 4.6. Data processing flow for line EBTravel S-wave (YY component) and P-wave
(ZZ component) reflection data.
91
frequency filtering. An f-k (frequency-wavenumber) filter was therefore evaluated and
applied to each of the common-mode component shot records (after amplitude balancing)
to suppress coherent, linear non-reflection energy. This processing step was critical for
suppressing high amplitude surface wave noise (having arrival times and frequency
content at near offsets similar to those of P-wave reflections) recorded in ZZ component
data. f-k filtering was not as critical of a process for the XX or YY data, as at the arrival
times of S-wave reflections linear noise was recorded at far offsets, and could therefore
be largely suppressed after NMO corrections by proper stretch muting. However,
evaluation of f-k filter effects on the XX and YY component data showed that an
improvement in stacked signal quality, with minimal artifact generation was obtained.
The effectiveness of f-k filtering in improving records (as determined by noise
suppression and reflection signal enhancement) prior to CMP sorting and stacking is
demonstrated using ZZ and YY component field records from line EBTravel (Figures
4.13a and 4.13b respectively). These data were recorded with the respective source
located at road station 48638, and both records contained identifiable reflections prior to
application of f-k filters. Bandpass filters and AGC were applied to the gathers before
generating the plots in Figure 4.13, in order to demonstrate non-reflected energy
suppression using f-k filters across reflection signal bandwidths.
The shot gathers are shown in Figure 4.13 for data prior to f-k filter application,
along with their 2-D amplitude spectra (left). Superimposed on these amplitude spectra,
are the mute polygons defined to suppress steeply dipping linear noise (of relatively low
apparent velocity) evident in both components. Noise for both components would
degrade reflection signal quality upon stacking if not suppressed. For example, see the
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Figure 4.13. Line EBTravel ZZ component (a) and YY component (b) shot gathers (source located at road station 48638, east
direction to left) and f-k spectra: (left) gathers without f-k filter applied showing reflections with zero-offset times of 32 ms (a)
and 110 ms (b), and f-k amplitude spectra showing defined mute polygons, (middle) with polygons rejected to suppress noise
(indicated in boxes 1 and 2), and (right) with polygons accepted (showing noise rejected through filter application). Bandpass
filters and AGC gain were applied to the gathers before generating these plots in order to demonstrate f-k filter non-reflection
energy suppression across reflection signal bandwidths. The x-axis scales of absolute offset from the sources are in feet.
effect of noise suppression at absolute offsets of 0.0 to 34.0 feet at ~32 ms on the left side
of the ZZ record spread (see box 1 in Figure 4.13a), and at absolute offsets of 70.0 to
90.0 feet at ~110 ms on the left side of the YY record spread (see box 2 in Figure 4.13b).
The concentration of linear, non-reflection energy for both components (within the
defined mute polygons) is seen to be well isolated from the reflected energy (energy
concentrated outside of the defined mute polygons, around the frequency axes) in the
amplitude spectra.
Steeply dipping noise is largely suppressed on the ZZ and YY component shot
gathers after applying the f-k filters (by rejecting the mute polygons as seen on the middle
plots in Figure 4.13). Applying the filters with the f-k polygons so that they accepted
rather than rejected the same f-k ranges (as seen on the right plots in Figure 4.13), shows
that the noise that is rejected through application of the filters, and demonstrates that
minimal reflection signal of interest is lost when the filters are applied. Line EBTravel
ZZ component (top) and YY component (bottom) stacked sections without and with pre-
stack f-k filtering included the processing flows (Table 4.6) are shown in Figure 4.14.
These stacks demonstrate improvements in both P-wave and S-wave stacked reflection
signal quality that were obtained through pre-stack f-k filtering.
General conclusions can be made from the analyses of f-k filtering of ZZ
component and YY component data discussed in this section, as follows:
1) f-k filtering applied to the ZZ component and the YY component data is
effective for suppressing coherent noise and enhancing reflection signal.
2) Improvement in stacked signal quality of the ZZ and the YY component
data can be obtained by f-k filtering with minimal artifact generation.
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Figure 4.14. Line EBTravel ZZ component (top) and YY component (bottom) time sections without and with f-k filtering in
processing flows (Table 4.6). Notice the suppression of noise and enhancement of reflection signal (within the circled regions)
achieved through application of f-k filters. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (units are in feet).
4.4.5 P- and S-Wave Stacked Section Imaging
Processed (Table 4.6) and stacked line EBTravel P-wave (ZZ component) and S-
wave (YY component) sections are shown in Figure 4.15. The P-wave reflection event
(with an average dominant frequency of 125 Hz) at 28 to 33 ms in Figure 4.15a correlates
as the top-of-saturated-overburden on the P-wave depth section (Figure 4.15c). The
appearance of this reflection event on the P-wave section has been affected from the
stacking of a certain amount of noise along with reflection signal. This is due to the
frequency content and related slopes and velocities of the noise relative to P-wave
reflections. Noise modes could not be as effectively suppressed in ZZ component data as
they could be in YY data. The S-wave reflection event (with an average dominant
frequency of 80 Hz) at 105 to 115 ms in Figure 4.15b correlates as the top-of-bedrock on
the S-wave depth section (Figure 4.15d). These interpretations are supported by the
results obtained through shot gather analyses, modeling, and drill log data (see above).
A comparison of sections from both (ZZ and YY) components (and consideration
of the results previously presented in this chapter) indicates that there are specific
advantages and disadvantages associated with P- and S-wave reflection data acquired in
the study area, as follows:
1) The top-of-saturated-overburden served as a detectable impedance
contrast for P-waves but not for S-waves.
2) P-wave data cannot be used to image impedance contrasts located below
the saturated overburden, while images of the top-of-bedrock can be
constructed using S-wave reflections.
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Figure 4.15. Line EBTravel ZZ component (a) and YY component (b) time sections with fold (TR_FOLD) plots. The P-wave event at 28
to 33 ms (a) is the top-of-saturated-overburden (blue) on the depth section (c). The S-wave event at 105 to 115 ms (b) is the top-of-bedrock
(yellow) on the depth section (d). The scales on the bottom x-axes of (a) and (b) show P-wave and S-wave stacking velocities respectively
(velocity scales are to the right of the sections). CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (units are in feet). (continued)
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(c) and (d) Line EBTravel ZZ component and YY component depth sections. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to
road stations (given in feet from the western county line). See previous page for complete caption.
3) S-wave data offer the potential for allowing possible areas of the
subsurface where subsidence processes have been active, to be identified
based on observations of disruptions in the bedrock horizon, whereas P-
wave data do not provide this potential.
4.4.5.1 Insitu Physical Properties Measurement Potential Using Reflections
Seismic reflection measurements offer the potential for determining insitu elastic
properties of soil and rock volumes in a cost-effective manner. Although geotechnical
measurements can be made using boreholes at a sampling interval that is typically finer
than seismic data resolution potential, elastic properties determined from seismic
measurements have the advantage of not being potentially affected by material
disturbances related to sampling or tool insertion.
It is possible in theory to produce a subsurface map showing both lateral and
vertical variations in the Vp/Vs ratio, through the correlation of P- and S-wave reflections.
This has previously been accomplished for petroleum exploration purposes, in deep earth
studies that have acquired multicomponent reflection data (Garotta, 2000). It is also
possible to produce a subsurface map showing variations in Poisson’s ratio ( σ , the ratio
of transverse contraction to the longitudinal extension when a rod is stretched), because
the Vp/Vs ratio and σ can be related. The relationship between Vp/Vs (Vp = P-wave
velocity, and Vs = S-wave velocity) and σ can be described in terms of Vp/Vs as:
Vp/Vs = ((1 - σ ) / (0.5 - σ )) 2 (4.4)
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and in terms of σ as:
σ = ((Vp 2 / 2Vs 2 ) - 1) / ((Vp 2 / Vs 2 ) - 1) (4.5)
The Vp/Vs ratio (and therefore σ ) of a geologic material is a function of many
factors, including lithology, porosity, cementation, depth, age, temperature and pressure
regime, and interstitial fluids (Tatham and McCormack, 1991). Typical values of Vp/Vs
range from 1.7 to 2.0 for rocks, and are often in the range of 2.0 to 7.0 for shallow
unconsolidated sediments (Hasbrouck and Padget, 1982). Because the elastic constants
of geologic materials are defined as positive numbers, values of σ for geologic materials
are within the range of 0.0 to 0.5 (a maximum value of 0.5 corresponds to fluids with no
shear strength). In petroleum exploration studies, σ values around 0.05 have been
measured for very hard, rigid materials, while σ values between 0.25 and 0.33 have
typically been measured for limestones, sandstones, and many common igneous and
metamorphic rocks (Telford et al., 1990; Dobecki, 1993). For soft, shallow
unconsolidated geologic materials, σ values between 0.45 and 0.49 are common
(Dobecki, 1993), with σ values in the range of 0.496 to 0.498 typical for near-surface
clayey, saturated sediments (Benjumea et al., 2001).
The potential for producing a map showing detailed variations in σ for geologic
materials in the I-70 subsurface, based on acquired data reflection information, is limited.
This limitation results from the small number of reflection events in acquired data, and
due to the fact that P- and S-wave reflections from similar subsurface interfaces cannot be
correlated (see above). Representative I-70 lithology values of σ were estimated (Table
4.3) using velocity information obtained from both reflection and refraction analyses, and
by making some assumptions.

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Using a P-wave velocity of 1900 ft/s (measured from a reflection from the top of
saturated overburden) and a S-wave velocity of 700 ft/s (measured from a reflection from
the top-of-bedrock), and by assuming that S-wave velocities above and below the top-of-
saturated-overburden are the same, a Vp/Vs ratio of 2.7 and a σ value of 0.42 are
calculated for unsaturated overburden (Table 4.3). By using a refraction-derived P-wave
velocity of 5150 ft/s, and by making the same assumption regarding S-wave velocity as
that which was made in the previous example, a Vp/Vs ratio of 7.3 and a σ value of 0.49
are calculated for saturated overburden (Table 4.3). Bedrock S-wave velocities could be
measured from refractions in field data, however, bedrock P-wave velocities could not be
directly measured from the acquired data, and calculations of a representative σ for
bedrock were therefore dependent upon an assumed Vp/Vs ratio (Table 4.3). Because no
P- or S-wave velocities could be measured for the bituminous coal, there is no potential
to estimate σ of the coal in the study area using the acquired seismic data.
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CHAPTER 5
CONVERTED-MODE REFLECTION IMAGING POTENTIAL
5.1 Overview
Research was conducted to test and evaluate the potential for effective near-
surface converted-mode (P-S and S-P) seismic reflection imaging. In recent years,
multicomponent surveying and converted-wave imaging technologies have rapidly
developed for petroleum exploration purposes, and numerous benefits of deep-earth
converted-wave acquisition and imaging (predominantly P-S) have been recognized (see
Chapter 1 for an overview of previous work). However, documented research concerning
the practicality of using converted-mode reflection information, for the purpose of
improving near-surface characterization, has been non-existent to date.
The potential for near-surface converted-mode reflection imaging was tested
experimentally and evaluated through numerical modeling. Multicomponent reflection
data were acquired along an un-mined section of the I-70 study area, where the geology
(unsaturated and saturated overburden materials overlying consolidated units) is
representative of a subsurface environment class typically encountered during near-
surface seismic studies. Common-mode P- and S-wave reflection events from known
lithologic boundaries were observed in acquired field records, and media parameters
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derived from the acquired field data were used as a basis for interface energy partitioning
analyses, event travel-time and moveout predictions, and elastic-wave modeling.
Zoeppritz equation solutions indicated that primary mode-conversions (i.e. events
resulting from mode-conversion at reflection from I-70 subsurface interfaces) have high
cumulative energies relative to other mode-converted events resulting from conversion at
transmission across subsurface interfaces. Events having arrival times and moveouts
similar to those predicted for primary mode-conversions however, were not observed in
acquired multicomponent reflection data. Analyses of synthetic seismograms indicated
that potential (resolution-related) benefits of converted-wave reflection (P-S and/or S-P)
imaging exist in theory (under noise-free conditions) for the I-70 subsurface conditions.
Modeling results also indicated that such benefits were unable to be practically realized
using field measurements, due to the low amplitudes of mode-converted reflections
relative to those of common-mode reflections, and the detrimental affects of random
noise and coherent noise modes recorded in field data.
Several factors affecting seismic mode-conversion imaging potential were found
to be different between previous deep-earth multicomponent studies (in which effective
converted-wave imaging has been possible) and the near-surface I-70 multicomponent
field study (in which effective converted-wave imaging was found to not be possible). At
deep-earth interfaces targeted for petroleum-related converted-wave imaging, there
generally is a comparable amount of mode-converted (P-S) and common-mode (P-P)
reflection energy generated at moderate angles of incidence (Stewart et al., 2002).
Targeted deep-earth converted-wave events are also often well separated in time and
space from other reflections and detrimental modes of coherent-noise. At the I-70
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subsurface interfaces of interest, it was found that (due to media impedance relationships)
there was relatively little energy partitioned into converted-modes, and that scattered
mode-converted (P-S and S-P) energy was not comparable to scattered common-mode
(P-P and S-S) energy at any recorded incidence angles. Further, arrival-times of modeled
converted-wave reflections from the I-70 interfaces were found to be similar to the
observed arrival-times of coherent noise modes recorded in the I-70 field data. The
results of this research indicate that from a practical standpoint, it will be difficult under
subsurface and environmental conditions that are similar to those of the I-70 study area,
to use mode-converted reflection imaging for improving near-surface characterization.
The analysis methods developed through this research can be used as a basis for assessing
converted-wave imaging potential in other possible future studies conducted elsewhere.
5.2 Field Multicomponent Reflection Data
Experimental multicomponent reflection data were acquired in the I-70 study area
(Appendix A) during 2001, with an objective being to allow an evaluation of the potential
for constructing near-surface mode-converted (P-S and/or S-P) images. Information
regarding the 2001 reflection survey acquisition parameters, data geometry and data pre-
processing were presented in Chapter 3. Nine-component (9C) reflection data were
acquired along the south edge of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (referred to as seismic line
EBTravel), and are presented in this chapter. For line EBTravel (Figure 5.1), three
source configurations were used, which generated: preferential shear particle motion
inline and transverse (crossline) to the seismic line (source components X and Y
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Figure 5.1. Map view of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48600 to 48850)
showing the locations of multicomponent seismic reflection lines (road stations 48630 to
48830) presented in this chapter, relative to the locations of the underground mine
workings. For line EBTravel 9 component (9C) data were acquired, and for line EBPass
3C data were acquired. Road stations are given in feet from the western county line.
respectively), and preferential compressional particle motion (source component Z).
Three-component (3C) reflection data are also presented from line EBPass, which was
acquired (across the roadway and parallel to line EBTravel) along the northern edge of
the eastbound lanes of I-70 (Figure 5.1). For line EBPass, one (Y component) source
configuration was used. For both line EBTravel and line EBPass, a single 3-component
geophone was planted at each station. Each geophone contained two (orthogonal)
horizontal elements oriented inline and transverse to the line (receiver components X and
Y respectively), and a vertical element (receiver component Z). Nomenclature used in
this chapter to describe multicomponent reflection data, in terms of source and receiver
orientations and preferential polarizations, is described in Figure 5.2.
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Figure 5.2. Nomenclature used to describe multicomponent reflection data, in terms of
the source and receiver orientations and preferential polarizations. For sources, the X and
Y symbols indicate sources configured to preferentially generate shear particle motion
inline and transverse (crossline) to the seismic line respectively, while Z indicates a
source configured to preferentially generate compressional particle motion. For
receivers, the symbols X and Y indicate horizontal geophone elements oriented inline and
transverse to the line respectively, while Z indicates a vertical geophone element. The
source and receiver pairs: XX, YY, and ZZ are referred to as the common-mode
components of the nine-component matrix (e.g. XX means a source and receiver both
oriented in the X direction)
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5.2.1 Common-Mode Reflection Information
Field shot gathers from the full 9C data set acquired along line EBTravel (Figure
5.1) are shown in Figure 5.3. The gathers are shown unprocessed with individual trace
amplitudes normalized in Figure 5.3a, and after bandpass filter and gain application in
Figure 5.3b. Common-mode S-wave reflections from the overburden and bedrock
interface are indicated on the XX component and the YY component shot gathers in
Figure 5.3b. On the ZZ component gathers in Figure 5.3b, common-mode P-wave
reflections from the unsaturated overburden and saturated overburden interface are
indicated. The reasons why these horizons could be effectively imaged using either P- or
S-wave common-mode reflection information respectively, are explained in Chapter 4.
Common-mode reflection energy was often observed on non-diagonal source and
receiver component pairs. For instance, the S-wave reflection event from the top-of-
bedrock in XX component records was also recorded in the XY component (Figure 5.3b).
Numerous factors could be responsible for this, including: source or geophone orientation
errors, the non-perfect nature of sources and geophones in a polarization sense, cross talk
between geophone elements, cross dip of reflecting horizons with respect to the seismic
line, and/or near-surface media anisotropy. S-wave common-mode reflection energy that
was occasionally observed on multicomponent field records that were acquired using a
vertical-oriented (Z component) source, suggest that the vertical source configuration put
a substantial amount of S-wave energy in to the ground. This observation suggests that it
may be possible (depending upon many factors) to obtain useful subsurface S-wave
information during traditional near-surface P-wave reflection surveys, simply by
deploying 3C rather than 1C (vertical element) geophones.

107
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Figure 5.3. Line EBTravel 9C shot gathers: (a) unprocessed, and (b) with a bandpass filter (X and Y sources: 50-80-160-200
Hz; Z source: 80-120-200-240 Hz) and AGC applied. Common-mode S-wave reflections (yellow) from the top-of-bedrock are
indicated on XX and YY shots; common-mode P-wave reflections (blue) from the top-of-saturated-overburden are indicated on
ZZ shots. Source locations (SOU_X) are in feet from the western county line; AOFFSET units are in feet. (continued)
109
Common-mode reflection energy was often observed on non-diagonal source and
receiver components, however matched source and receiver pair data contained the
highest amplitude and cleanest common-mode reflection energy. This was explained in
Chapter 4, and is further demonstrated in this chapter through a comparison of
multicomponent depth section images (Figure 5.4). Data components acquired using X-
and Y-oriented sources were processed for common-mode S-wave reflection energy
(Figures 5.4a and 5.4b), while data components acquired using a Z-oriented source were
processed for common-mode P-wave reflection energy (Figure 5.4c). The processing of
these components followed the methodologies and workflows that were previously
developed and described in Chapter 4.
A comparison of the 9C depth sections in Figure 5.4 demonstrates that the highest
quality images of target horizons (i.e. the top-of-bedrock and the top-of-saturated-
overburden) could be generated through the processing of diagonal data components.
These horizons are interpreted in the YY component section and the ZZ component
section respectively (Figure 5.4). No mining activity previously occurred beneath line
EBTravel to the east of road station 48655 (Figure 5.1), and the YY component depth
section indicates that the bedrock horizon is coherent and continuous to the east of this
road station. Acquired 3C shot gathers (Figure 5.5) and processed depth sections (Figure
5.6) from line EBPass (Figure 5.1) also demonstrate that the highest quality imaging of
the bedrock horizon could be accomplished using diagonal (YY) component S-wave
reflection information. A normal fault at road station 48643 was interpreted from YY
data to be the result of the bedrock subsiding into a mine room (Figure 5.6).
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(a) Line EBTravel 9C depth stacks: XX, XY, and XZ components.
Figure 5.4. Line EBTravel 9C depth stacks: (a) XX, XY, and XZ components, (b) YX, YY, and YZ components, (c) ZX, ZY,
and ZZ components. S-wave source configuration sections (a) and (b) were processed for common-mode S-wave reflection
energy; the S-wave reflection indicated on the YY component stack is from the top-of-bedrock. P-wave source configuration
sections (c) were processed for common-mode P-wave reflection energy; the P-wave reflection indicated on the ZZ component
stack is from the top-of-saturated-overburden. CDP locations (CDP_X) equal road stations (road stations are given in feet from
the western county line). See text for discussion. (continued)
112
(b) Line EBTravel 9C depth stacks: YX, YY, and YZ components. (continued)
113
(c) Line EBTravel 9C depth stacks: ZX, ZY, and ZZ components.
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Figure 5.5. Line EBPass 3C shot gathers: (a) unprocessed, and (b) with a bandpass filter (50-80-160-200 Hz) and AGC (100 ms
window) applied. Common-mode S-wave reflections from the top-of-bedrock are indicated on YY gathers. The x-axis unit of
absolute offset is feet. Source locations (SOU_X) are given in feet from the western county line.
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Figure 5.6. Line EBPass 3C depth stacks processed for common-mode S-wave reflection energy: (top) YX, (middle) YY, and
(bottom) YZ. The S-wave reflection indicated on the YY component stack is from the top-of-bedrock. CDP locations (CDP_X)
equal road stations (road stations are given in feet from the western county line). See text for discussion.
5.3 Converted-Mode Reflection Imaging Potential
In order to process and image possible mode-converted reflections (Chapter 2)
recorded in seismic data, such events must be confidently identified in field records.
Recognition of mode-converted reflections in field data requires that P- and S-wave
velocity and density structure (as a function of depth) be approximated, in order to
predict through modeling, mode-converted event travel-times and amplitudes.
5.3.1 Near-Surface Velocity and Density Structure
The study area subsurface (in un-mined areas) represents a subsurface
environment class that is typically addressed by shallow reflection surveying (i.e. a
relatively flat-lying geologic sequence comprised of unsaturated and saturated
overburden above consolidated units). Representative depth model velocity and density
parameters for the study area subsurface are presented in Table 5.1, and are shown
graphically in Figure 5.7. It is assumed that plane boundaries separate flat layers within
the model, and that the model layers consist of homogeneous and isotropic media.
S-wave velocities (Vs) for unsaturated overburden, saturated overburden, and
bedrock (shale) in the model (Figure 5.7) are seismic data-derived quantities. Optimum
S-wave stacking velocity differences of less than three percent were determined from XX
and YY component data (Chapter 4). The coal Vs could not be measured from acquired
seismic data, and a Vs estimate for coal was therefore specified based on measurements
by Wolfe et al. (1989) for the Lower Freeport Coal (stratigraphically beneath the Upper
Freeport Coal). Representative P-wave velocities (Vp) for unsaturated and saturated
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Model Vp Density Layer Layer
Vp Vs Vs Poisson’s
Vp/Vs Thickness Thickness
Layer (ft/sec) (m/sec) (ft/sec) (m/sec) Ratio (ı) (g/cm3) (ft) (m)
Unsaturated
1900 579 700 213 2.7 0.42 1.55 29.5 9.0
Overburden
Saturated
5150 1570 700 213 7.3 0.49 1.92 11.5 3.5
Overburden
Bedrock 5500 1676 2750 838 2.0 0.33 2.55 20 6.1
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Coal Seam 4790 1460 2395 730 2.0 0.33 2.30 7 2.1
Bedrock 5500 1676 2750 838 2.0 0.33 2.55 32 9.8
Table 5.1. Data-derived I-70 subsurface model layer parameters used for square root energy coefficient calculations and elastic-
wave modeling. See text for discussion.
Figure 5.7. Cross-section view of the I-70 depth model (Table 5.1) used for square root
energy calculations and elastic-wave modeling. See text for discussion.
overburden in the model (Figure 5.7) are seismic data-derived quantities. The Vp values
of bedrock and coal could not be measured from acquired seismic data, and Vp values for
these lithologies were therefore estimated by assuming Vp/Vs ratios of 2.0. The near-
surface velocity structure for P- and S-waves in the study area subsurface is quite
different (Figure 5.7). Density values in the model were based on average values for
unsaturated and saturated unconsolidated materials given in Telford et al. (1990), and on
averages of measured values (ODNR, 2002) for the study area bedrock and coal units in
the adjacent Harrison County, Ohio.
5.3.2 Energies of Mode-Converted Events
Using the depth model parameters in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7, energy partitioning
among wave types from model layer boundaries (i.e. the relative energies of different
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Figure 5.8. Square root energy coefficients versus incidence angle using the media
parameters in Table 5.1: (a) downgoing waves at the top of saturated overburden, (b)
downgoing waves at the top of bedrock, and (c) upgoing waves at the top of saturated
overburden. Plots were generated using the code in Appendix B. See text for discussion.
119
mode-converted events) was evaluated. The plots in Figure 5.8 were generated with the
equations in Chapter 2, which were coded in the PSHSV program (Appendix B). The
plots show calculated square root energy coefficients as a function of incidence angle, for
both incident P- and SV-waves. The energy partitioning for numerous different event
raypaths can be evaluated from the plots, with such analyses providing insight into the
potential for imaging various mode-converted reflection events from the model sequence.
5.3.2.1 Mode-Conversions at the Unsaturated and Saturated Overburden Interface
From a downgoing P-wave incident on the unsaturated and saturated overburden
interface (Figure 5.8a), there are mode-conversions (i.e. P-SV reflection and P-SV
refraction) occurring at small angles of incidence. However, the energies of mode-
converted waves are small relative to the energies of scattered common-mode P-waves
waves originating at the interface (i.e. P-P reflection and P-P refraction). For the case of
a downgoing SV-wave incident on the unsaturated and saturated overburden interface
(Figure 5.8a), it is seen that most of the energy is partitioned into the refracted SV-wave
(due to the lack of S-wave velocity contrast), with much smaller percentages of energy
going into the common-mode SV-wave reflection and mode-converted waves (i.e. SV-P
reflection and SV-P refraction). There is a small incidence angle range (just before the
reflected P-wave critical angle) where the converted SV-P reflection has greater energy
than the common-mode SV-SV reflection, but SV-P wave energy is still relatively low.
Based on analyses of energy partitioning at the unsaturated overburden and
saturated overburden interface, conclusions are made, as follows:
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1) The common-mode P-wave reflection has the highest energy of
reflected wave-types at the unsaturated overburden and saturated
overburden interface.
2) There is relatively little energy in common-mode or converted-mode
reflected waves of other types at the interface.
3) There is relatively little mode-converted energy refracted (transmitted)
across the interface from either incident (P or SV) wave-type.
5.3.2.2 Mode-Conversions at the Saturated Overburden and Bedrock Interface
To evaluate imaging potential of mode-converted reflections from the saturated
overburden and bedrock interface, energy partitioning of a downgoing wave at the top of
this interface must be considered, as must partitioning of a subsequent upgoing wave at
the unsaturated overburden and saturated overburden interface. Square root energy
coefficients resulting from downgoing waves at the top of bedrock are shown in Figure
5.8b, and coefficients resulting from upgoing waves at the top of saturated overburden
are shown in Figure 5.8c.
Many energy conversions and converted-mode reflection events (ray paths) from
the saturated overburden and bedrock interface are possible and can be considered from
the plots in Figure 5.8. For example, a P-wave originating at the ground surface can
travel (through the unsaturated and saturated overburden interface) to the saturated
overburden and bedrock interface as a P-wave, reflect as a SV-wave, and then travel back
up to the ground surface as a SV-wave (i.e. a P-P-SV-SV reflection event). This can be
referred to as a primary converted P-SV reflection, as it is a wave that converts only once,
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at the deepest reflector (i.e. a downgoing P-wave that converts on reflection at the
horizon of interest into an upcoming SV-wave). Alternatively, a P-wave originating at
the ground surface can travel to the unsaturated and saturated overburden interface as a P-
wave, be transmitted as a SV-wave across this interface, reflect as a SV-wave at the
saturated overburden and bedrock interface, and then be transmitted as a SV-wave
upwards across the saturated and unsaturated overburden interface (i.e. a P-SV-SV-SV
reflection event). Figure 5.9 shows multiple mode-conversion point possibilities to a SV-
wave from an incident P-wave for an example geologic situation. Mode-converted
reflections represented by the different ray paths in Figure 5.9 have different amplitudes,
arrival times, and moveouts depending upon media compressional and shear impedances.
It can be possible depending upon impedance relationships to transmit a
significant amount of mode-converted energy (i.e. equal to or greater than the transmitted
common-mode energy) across an interface. It was shown by Purnell (1992) that this
could occur in a case where basalt overlaid sand, due to the close match between the
basalt Vs and the sand Vp. For the I-70 subsurface model (Figure 5.7), significant mode-
converted energy would not be transmitted across the unsaturated and saturated
overburden interface from a downgoing incident P- or SV-wave (Figure 5.8a). This
means that the highest amplitude mode-converted reflections from the saturated
overburden and bedrock interface would result from incident common-mode energy
transmitted (as common-mode energy) across the unsaturated and saturated overburden
interface. As previously mentioned, a downgoing wave that converts on reflection at the
horizon of interest into an upgoing wave of different type can be referred to as a primary
mode-converted reflection. Similar to the findings of these analyses, it has been shown
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Figure 5.9. Multiple mode-conversion point possibilities to a SV-wave from an incident
P-wave for an example geologic situation. Point C indicates mode-conversion at
reflection from an interface of interest (i.e. a primary conversion), while points C’ and C”
indicate conversion of upward and downward traveling P-waves at transmission through
an overlying interface. Reflections represented by the different ray paths shown will have
different amplitudes, arrival times and moveouts depending upon media compressional
and shear impedances. Horizontal and vertical scales are not implied.
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that in deep-earth petroleum studies, transmitted or multiple P-SV conversions generally
have much lower amplitudes than the primary (P-SV) reflection (Stewart et al., 2002).
For the case of a downgoing P-wave incident on the saturated overburden and
bedrock interface (Figure 5.8b), most of the incident energy is partitioned into a refracted
P-wave, due to the small contrast in P-wave velocity across the interface. Although
having low energy relative to a refracted P-wave, P-wave and mode-converted SV-wave
reflections do occur, with the reflected SV-wave energy surpassing the reflected P-wave
energy in magnitude as the incidence angle increases. For the case of a downgoing SV-
wave incident on the saturated overburden and bedrock interface (Figure 5.8b), there is
significant energy in both common-mode reflected and refracted SV-waves (due to a
large contrast in S-wave velocity across the interface). Although energy is partitioned
into the mode-converted P-wave reflection and refraction (from an incident SV-wave) for
angles of incidence that are smaller than the refracted SV-wave critical angle, the
energies of mode-converted P-wave events are small, and are non-zero only at near-
normal incidence angles.
For the case of an upgoing P-wave incident on the saturated and unsaturated
overburden interface (Figure 5.8c), most of the energy is either reflected at or refracted
across the interface as common-mode P-wave energy (due to the small S-wave velocity
contrast across the interface). The energy of mode-converted reflected and refracted SV-
waves is relatively small at the interface for all angles of incidence considered. The case
of an upgoing SV-wave incident on the saturated and unsaturated overburden interface
(Figure 5.8c) is similar, in that most of the energy is either reflected at or refracted across
the interface as common-mode SV-wave energy, with little energy partitioned into mode
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conversions. These results indicate that there is relatively little potential for imaging
mode-conversion events occurring from upgoing wave interactions at the saturated and
unsaturated overburden interface.
Based on the analyses of mode-converted waves discussed in this section,
conclusions are made, as follows:
1) There is relatively little mode-converted energy refracted through the
unsaturated overburden and saturated overburden interface (from a
downgoing incident wave of either P- or SV-type) that will reach the
saturated overburden and bedrock interface.
2) The common-mode SV-wave reflection has the highest energy of
reflected wave-types considered at the saturated overburden and
bedrock interface.
3) Upgoing P- or SV-waves (either common-mode reflected or
converted-mode reflected at the saturated overburden and bedrock
interface) incident on the saturated and unsaturated overburden
interface will experience little energy partitioning into converted-
modes at this interface.
5.3.3 Ray Tracing of Mode-Converted Reflections
It was shown through energy partitioning analyses (Figure 5.8) in the previous
section, that mode-converted events (i.e. P-SV and SV-P) resulting from mode-
conversion at reflection from I-70 subsurface interfaces of interest have high cumulative
energies, relative to mode-converted events resulting from mode-conversion at

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transmission across interfaces. Results indicated that mode-converted reflections,
occurring at reflection from a given horizon of interest (i.e. primary mode conversions),
have the highest potential (of the possible mode-conversion reflection ray paths) of being
imaged using field multicomponent seismic reflection measurements.
Common-mode (P-P and SV-SV) and converted-mode (P-SV and SV-P)
reflection ray trace plots through the I-70 subsurface model (Figure 5.7) are shown in
Figure 5.10. The ray tracing was done using the QUIKSHOT+ application (Landmark
Graphics Corporation). Synthetic seismic reflection survey parameters consisted of a
single shot located at 0.0 feet on the ground surface, and 80 geophones located on the
ground surface. The geophones had a 2.0-foot interval and a 90-degree azimuth from the
source. The synthetic survey parameters were designed to mimic those of the actual I-70
field multicomponent seismic reflection survey (see Chapter 3). The maximum source-
to-receiver offset shown in Figure 5.10 is equivalent to the maximum source-to-receiver
offset acquired during the I-70 field survey. The mode-conversion ray path segments
shown in Figures 5.10b and 5.10d resulted from incident wave energy partitioning upon
reflection at horizon interfaces (i.e. primary mode-conversions). For instance, in Figure
5.10b, a downgoing incident P-wave is transmitted through the unsaturated and saturated
overburden as a P-wave, is then reflected as an SV-wave at the saturated overburden and
bedrock interface, and then travels upward to the ground surface as a mode-converted
SV-wave reflection (i.e. a primary P-SV reflection).
The unsaturated and saturated overburden interface reflection point for a
common-mode (P-P or SV-SV) reflection is at the mid-point between the source and
receiver (Figures 5.10a and 5.10c), however, this is not the case for mode-converted
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Figure 5.10. Ray trace plots through the I-70 model (Figure 5.7): (a) scattered P-waves from an incident P-wave, (b) scattered
mode-converted SV-waves from an incident P-wave, (c) scattered SV-waves from an incident SV-wave, and (d) scattered mode-
converted P-waves from an incident SV-wave. Mode-conversion rays that are shown occurred at reflection from horizons of
interest. Sources are located at 0 feet on the x-axis, and the receiver interval along the x-axis is 2.0 feet. See text for discussion.
reflections from this interface. The P-SV reflection mid-point lies closer to the receiver
than the P-P reflection mid-point, and the SV-P reflection mid-point lies closer to the
source (Figures 5.10b and 5.10d), because Vp > Vs for the unsaturated overburden.
Asymmetry in the converted-mode reflection raypath is described by Snell’s law (sin ș /
Vp = sin ȥ / Vs; where ș and ȥ are the P- and SV-wave angles of incidence and reflection
respectively, see Chapter 2). Increasing the Vp/Vs ratio will cause the P-SV conversion
mid-point location to move closer to the receiver, and will cause the SV-P conversion
mid-point to move closer to the source.
Due to raypath asymmetry, when converted-mode reflections can be identified in
field reflection data and targeted for imaging, a common-conversion-point (CCP) sorting
and processing approach (Figure 5.11) must be used prior to stacking. This is different
than the common-midpoint (CMP) approach that is often applied for common-mode P- or
S-wave reflection stacking. A CCP approach takes into account ray path asymmetry,
thus correcting for converted-mode reflection mid-point locations. Approximate
solutions for calculating converted-mode reflection points have been presented for
petroleum exploration purposes by Chung and Corrigan (1985), and failure to use such
sorting and processing procedures can result in a smearing of converted-wave reflection
points over a large area of the subsurface (resulting in loss of resolution and reflection
degradation). Additional factors requiring consideration during converted-wave data pre-
processing were discussed in Chapter 3, and generalized converted-wave data processing
and imaging strategies (developed for petroleum exploration purposes) can be found in
Stewart and Gaiser (1999).
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Figure 5.11. Diagrams demonstrating common-midpoint (CMP) versus common-
conversion-point (CCP) sorting/binning approaches for reflection data. The CMP
approach (a) is often used for sorting and stacking common-mode reflections, for which
the flat interface reflection point lies at the source-to-receiver midpoint. For mode-
converted reflections, the flat interface reflection point does not lie at the source-receiver
midpoint (b), due to differences in media P- and S-wave velocities. A CCP approach
based on Vp/Vs properly sorts mode-converted reflection data prior to event moveout
correction and stacking (c). Horizontal and vertical scales are not implied.
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5.3.3.1 Predicted Arrival Times and Moveouts
Common- and converted-mode reflection arrival times as a function of offset
from the I-70 model interfaces (Figure 5.7) are shown in Figure 5.12. Amplitude and
phase variations as a function of offset are not inferable from Figure 5.12. The same
synthetic seismic survey parameters that were used to generate the ray trace plots in
Figure 5.10 were used to generate the reflection travel time plots in Figure 5.12.
General differences in character of the common- and converted-mode reflections
in Figure 5.12 are apparent. Due to differences in Vp and Vs values for media, common-
mode P-wave reflections (Figure 5.12a) arrive earlier in time than converted-mode
reflections (Figures 5.12b and 5.12d) and common-mode SV-wave reflections
(Figure5.12c). The common-mode P-wave reflections have the least separation in time
between them, due to the fact that they have the highest average velocities along
raypaths. Due to geometry and media velocity values, the mode-converted P-SV and
SV-P events have similar arrival times and moveout velocities, but a reversed asymmetry
of raypaths. The SV-wave common-mode reflections have the most separation in time
between them, due to relatively low average velocities along raypaths.
Due to asymmetry along raypaths, mode-converted reflections are non-hyperbolic
at large offset-to-depth ratios. This means that if mode-converted reflections could be
identified in field data, then they would not be properly flattened at large offset-to-depth
ratios using conventional normal moveout (NMO) correction. Prior to stacking, NMO
correction (i.e. flattening) of P-P and S-S (common-mode) reflections (Figures 5.12a
and5.12c) has often been accomplished using a two-term truncation of the series
developed by Taner and Koehler (1969). For offset-to-depth ratios that are less than 1.0,
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Figure 5.12. Arrival times of common-mode and mode-converted reflections from the I-70 model interfaces (Figure 5.7): (a) P-
P reflections, (b) P-SV reflections, (c) SV-SV reflections, and (d) SV-P reflections. Respective source types are located at 0.0
feet (trace number 1) on the x-axis. Amplitude variations with offset, and the ability to resolve/image each of the reflection
events that are plotted in this figure using field reflection measurements are not implied.
results in Larson (1996) indicate that conventional NMO-correction should also be
effective in flattening converted-mode reflections. When the offset-to-depth ratio
exceeds 1.0 however, a higher order approximation, such as that developed by Slotboom
(1990) will more effectively flatten mode-converted reflection events prior to stacking.
Further discussion regarding converted-mode reflection moveout analysis can be found in
Frasier and Winterstein (1990), and in Stewart and Gaiser (2001).
5.3.3.2 Comparison of Predicted and Observed Field Data Events
The predicted event travel-time and moveout plots (Figure 5.12) were compared
with the field multicomponent reflection data acquired in the I-70 study area. The plots
were compared to the shot records shown in Figures 5.3 and 5.5, to the rest of the shot
records processed to generate the stacked sections in Figures 5.4 and 5.6, and to the
majority of the remaining thousands of shots acquired along lines EBTravel and EBPass
(for I-70 seismic reflection survey details see Chapter 3). Comparisons were made with
various bandpass filters, f-k filters, and gains applied to the field data components, and
with the field data components sorted and displayed as various types of gathers (e.g.
common-mid-point, common-receiver, and common-source).
Common-mode P- and S-wave reflections from the top-of-saturated overburden
and the top-of-bedrock respectively, were consistently found to closely agree with
predicted common-mode event travel-times/moveouts (Figure 5.12) from these
interfaces. However, P- and S-wave common-mode events from other interfaces were
not observed in field data (Chapter 4). Converted-mode events having travel-
times/moveouts similar to those in Figure 5.12 were not observed in field reflection
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records, which aside from the common-mode events mentioned above consisted of
(airwave, random, source-generated, surface-wave, and traffic-related) noise (Figure 5.3).
Because converted-mode reflections could not be confidently and consistently identified
in the field data, they could not be targeted for further processing and imaging, as could
be accomplished using the observed P- and S-wave common-mode events (see above).
Evaluation of the field data components acquired in the I-70 study area, along
with results from analyses (based on field-data derived information) that have been
discussed so far in this chapter, suggest that mode-converted reflections were not
observed in the field multicomponent data due to amplitude- and noise-related issues. In
order to further investigate and better understand why mode-conversion imaging could
not be effectively accomplished in the I-70 near-surface environment (and to provide
useful insight for possible future mode-converted wave imaging attempts elsewhere),
elastic-wave modeling was conducted.
5.3.4 Elastic-Wave Modeling
Numerical elastic-wave modeling can be useful for addressing seismic reflection
data acquisition, processing, amplitude and phase analysis, and interpretation problems.
For this study, such modeling was conducted in order to gain a better understanding of
why converted-mode reflections were not observed in multicomponent seismic field
records acquired in the I-70 study area. The I-70 subsurface (in un-mined areas)
represents a subsurface environment class that is typically encountered during near-
surface seismic reflection studies. The modeling approach and results presented in the
subsequent sections therefore have relevance, and can be applied for the purpose of
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evaluating near-surface converted-wave imaging potential, prior to data acquisition in
other studies focused on characterizing similar near-surface environments elsewhere.
5.3.4.1 Forward Modeling Approach
Elastic-wave modeling and synthetic seismogram generation were accomplished
using three (Landmark Graphics Corporation) Sierra software applications: 1) MIMIC+
(geophysical model building), 2) QUIKSHOT+ (forward ray tracing), and 3) SLIPR+
(ray trace data reformatting, convolution, and SEGY output). Synthetic data that were
output as SEGY files were then reformatted and displayed using ProMAX seismic
processing software (Landmark Graphics Corporation) for digital image output.
A 2D model that incorporated I-70 subsurface media properties (Table 5.1, Figure
5.7) was built (using MIMIC+). A reflection survey array that was similar to that of the
I-70 line EBTravel field multicomponent reflection survey (Chapter 3) was then
constructed (using QUIKSHOT+).
Full elastic raytracing through the subsurface model (Figure 5.7) was conducted
(using QUIKSHOT+) in order to calculate reflection (common- and converted-mode)
travel-times and offset-dependent reflectivity. Reflection travel-times were determined
using a straight-line propagation between each model layer, following Snell’s law (see
above). The rays that were captured depended upon user-input ray instructions defined at
each layer interface. The employed raytracing algorithm assumed that energy can be
represented by plane wave fronts, and was used such that calculated amplitudes were
dependent upon interface reflection and transmission coefficients (calculated results
obtained were similar to those that would obtained using the PSHSV code in Appendix
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B). The final amplitudes along a given raypath were a function of source-type and
amplitude, changes in the amplitude of a ray due to interface reflection and transmission
(post-critical complex reflection coefficients were considered), and geometric spreading.
Raytracing did not account for attenuation, dispersion, or absorption of energy with
distance, and events such as airwave, direct-waves, multiples, refracted-waves, source-
generated noise, surface waves, and traffic noise were not considered by the code.
Although many of these noise types contributed to converted-wave reflections not being
observed in the I-70 field records, it will be subsequently demonstrated through
modeling, that even without the presence of such coherent noise types, converted-wave
reflections from each of the I-70 subsurface interfaces would not likely be able to be used
effectively for imaging due to amplitude-, random noise-, and resolution-related issues.
A given raytracing resulted in the output of a spike seismogram file. A spike
seismogram was then reformatted, and convolved with a zero-phase Ricker wavelet to
produce a synthetic seismogram (using the SLIPR+ application). The amplitudes of a
synthetic seismogram were affected by the receiver component that was specified for
convolution (i.e. amplitude decrease resulted when the direction of particle motion was at
an angle to the receiver element axis). A geometric spreading amplitude recovery factor
was applied subsequent to convolution, and trace amplitudes were then normalized to the
maximum seismogram amplitude. Synthetic seismograms were then output, reformatted,
read into ProMAX, and displayed for digital image output. Synthetics were displayed
without filtering or AGC, with individual trace amplitudes normalized, and using the
polarity convention previously outlined in Chapter 3.
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5.3.4.2 Pure Source-Polarization Modeling Results
Synthetic seismograms generated by elastic raytracing through the I-70
subsurface model (Figure 5.7) are shown in Figure 5.13. The synthetics in Figure 5.13
were produced with the assumption that a given (surface-located) source-type propagated
a single body wave-type (i.e. compressional or shear with inline particle motion) into the
subsurface. Ray instructions at horizon interfaces were specified such that surface-
located receivers recorded common-mode and primary converted-mode reflections.
Seismograms representing four combinations of source and receiver component
pairs are presented in Figure 5.13: ZZ component (P-P), ZX component (P-SV), XX
component (SV-SV), and XZ component (SV-P). Synthetics generated using a 250 Hz
source (a higher dominant frequency than the I-70 field reflection data) are shown in
Figure 5.13a. The synthetics in Figure 5.13b were generated using center source
frequencies that were similar to the processed common-mode dominant reflection
frequencies in I-70 field data components. For the synthetics in Figure 5.13c, random
noise (having amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) was added to
each modeled component. Examples of synthetic data having varying levels of random
noise will be subsequently presented.
5.3.4.2.1 Common-Mode Reflection Synthetics
The results and conclusions reached through elastic-wave modeling of common-
mode reflections (Figure 5.13) are similar to those that were reached through finite-
difference modeling (Chapters 4 and 6). It is seen from the 250 Hz source synthetic ZZ
component data (Figure 5.13a), that the P-P reflection from the top-of-saturated-
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Figure 5.13. Synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7: (a) with 250 Hz sources, (b) with source
frequencies based on I-70 field data component frequency filtering, and (c) with random noise (amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average
spike amplitudes) added to each modeled component. Synthetics are displayed with traces normalized and using the polarity convention
outlined in Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet. See text for discussion. (continued)
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(b) Synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7. (continued)
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(c) Synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7.
overburden (the primary P-P reflection, see Figure 5.7) dominates the record. While the
saturated overburden and bedrock interface cannot be resolved at near offsets using this
source frequency, a single event resulting from interference of the bedrock and coal
reflections is seen to be separated in time from the primary P-P reflection. At a center
source frequency of 125 Hz (Figure 5.13b), which is similar to the dominant frequency of
primary P-P reflections in I-70 field data, the low amplitude bedrock and coal
interference event is still observed at near offsets, but only the interface between
unsaturated and saturated overburden is clearly resolved. After adding random noise to
the seismograms in Figure 5.13c, only the primary P-P reflection could be targeted for
processing and imaging. The modeling results discussed in this section agree with
analyses of ZZ component field records that were acquired in the I-70 study area (see
Chapter 4).
Synthetic XX component data that were generated at a dominant source frequency
of 250 Hz are shown in Figure 5.13a. At this source frequency, common-mode SV-
reflections from each of the model interfaces are well resolved at near and far offsets, and
therefore could be targeted for processing and imaging. At a center source frequency of
80 Hz, which is similar to the dominant frequency of the primary S-wave reflections
observed in XX component field data, the synthetic SV-wave reflection from the top-of-
bedrock is seen to dominate the record (Figure 5.13b). A relatively low amplitude S-
wave event from the top-of-saturated overburden (arising from a density contrast) is
separated in time from the top-of-bedrock SV-reflection. However, after adding random
noise (Figure 5.13c), it is seen that only the SV-wave reflection from the top-of-bedrock
could be targeted for processing and imaging. The modeling results discussed in this
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section agree with analyses of XX component field records that were acquired in the I-70
study area (see Chapter 4).
5.3.4.2.2 Converted-Mode Reflection Synthetics
Elastic-wave modeling shows that from a theoretical standpoint, converted-mode
reflections from the I-70 model sequence (Figure 5.7) offer resolution-related benefits
(under noise-free conditions) relative to common-mode P-wave reflections. It is seen
from the 250 Hz source synthetic ZX component and XZ component data (Figure 5.13a)
that the model interfaces are clearly resolved by converted-mode (P-SV and SV-P)
reflections. These results are contrary to the ZZ component modeling results obtained
using this source frequency, which showed that only the top-of-saturated-overburden was
resolved well using P-P reflections.
The ZX and XZ component synthetic records are shown using lower dominant
source frequencies in Figure 5.13b, which are similar to the dominant frequencies of
common-mode reflections in acquired I-70 field data. Converted-mode (P-SV and SV-P)
reflections are still separated enough in time at the lower frequencies to allow the top two
model interfaces (i.e. the top-of-saturated-overburden and the top-of-bedrock) to be
resolved over a substantial range of offsets under the noise-free conditions. After adding
random noise to each of the ZX and XZ components (Figure 5.13c), the top two model
interfaces are still resolved (the top-of-bedrock events only over a limited offset range)
however, P-SV and SV-P events representing interference of the bedrock and coal
converted-mode reflections are no longer inferable (due to their low amplitude relative to
other converted-mode events).

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Although having lower amplitudes than P-P reflections (Figure 5.8), converted-
mode (P-SV and SV-P) reflections offer relative resolution benefits under noise-free
conditions, because a portion of the converted-mode raypaths propagate at shear-
velocities, thus separating events better in time. These observations suggest that if the
noise-conditions were such that converted-mode reflections could be identified in actual
field records (which they were not in the I-70 multicomponent field data case), near-
surface characterization benefits could be realized through the processing and imaging of
converted-wave reflections.
5.3.4.3 Mixed Source-Polarization Modeling Results
Analyses of multicomponent data acquired in the I-70 study area indicated that
the employed seismic sources were not pure in a polarization sense, as in addition to
propagating the respective desired body wave-type they also generated other types of
body-waves (see above). It is generally known that when employing a seismic source
designed for P-waves for example, that a certain amount of SV-wave energy also would
be propagated into the earth. Consequently, it can be expected that in addition to
recording converted-mode P-SV wave energy, an X-oriented receiver would also record
common-mode SV-wave reflection energy that was initially propagated by the vertical
source. It has previously been shown during petroleum exploration studies that a vertical
(P-wave) vibrator may also generate enough S-wave energy to allow the direct
construction of a quality common-mode S-wave section, if multicomponent receivers are
used (Fyfe et al., 1993). The potential for constructing such images using
multicomponent receivers, is also dependent upon other factors (such as the noise
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sensitivity of different receiver orientations), in addition to the magnitudes of body wave
energies that are generated by a source.
For the modeling results presented in this section, the seismic source propagated
equal amounts of compressional (P-wave) and inline shear (SV-wave) energy into the
earth (i.e. the seismic source was equally divided between Z and X components). These
modeling efforts allow an investigation into common- and converted-mode reflection
interference, demonstrate relative differences in amplitudes of common- and converted-
mode reflections, and allow a determination to be made regarding the relative theoretical
imaging potentials of converted-mode (SV-P and P-SV) reflections for the modeled
subsurface conditions (Figure 5.7).
5.3.4.3.1 SV-P and P-P Synthetics
Synthetic seismograms generated using a seismic source that was equally divided
between P- and SV-wave energy, and Z-oriented receivers are presented in Figure 5.14.
A spike seismogram (Figure 5.14a) shows the arrival times and moveouts of common-
mode (P-P) and converted-mode (SV-P) reflections from the subsurface model interfaces
(Figure 5.7). Results from convolving the model reflectivity sequence with a 250 Hz
source wavelet, and with a 125 Hz source wavelet are shown in Figures 5.14b and 5.14c
respectively (traces are each normalized to their maximum amplitude). At both of these
dominant source frequencies, it is seen that the primary P-P reflection from the top-of-
saturated-overburden has the highest amplitudes. The SV-P reflections from the top two
model interfaces are lower amplitude than, and are separated in time (arriving later) from
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Figure 5.14. Synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7. Source energy was equally divided between P-
and SV-waves (Z and X components respectively), and vertical receivers (Z component) were used. The synthetic in (d) had random noise
(amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) added. Synthetics are displayed with traces normalized and using the polarity
convention outlined in Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet. See text for discussion.
the primary P-P reflection. Under noise-free conditions (as the modeling results
indicate), it should be possible to observe each of these events in field reflection records.
Adding random noise (having amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike
amplitudes) to the synthetic data (Figure 5.14d) demonstrates that because of their
relatively low amplitudes, it would be difficult with the presence of such random noise to
process and image the converted-mode SV-P reflections. The affects of applying varying
levels of random noise to the synthetic data are demonstrated in Figure 5.15. The
primary P-P reflection, because of its high amplitudes could be imaged over a range of
random noise levels, whereas the converted SV-P reflections are only observed at low
random noise levels. The recording of coherent noise modes (e.g. airwave, source-
generated, surface-wave, and traffic-generated) in addition to random noise in acquired
field data, further degrades low amplitude converted-mode (SV-P) reflections from the I-
70 subsurface interfaces, causing them to not be observed in the field data.
5.3.4.3.2 P-SV and SV-SV Synthetics
Shown in Figure 5.16 are synthetic seismograms that were generated using a
seismic source that was equally divided between SV- and P-wave energy, and X-oriented
receivers. A spike seismogram (Figure 5.16a) shows the arrival times and moveouts of
converted-mode (P-SV) and common-mode (SV-SV) reflections from the I-70 model
subsurface interfaces (Figure 5.7). The results from convolving the model reflectivity
sequence with a 250 Hz source wavelet, and with an 80 Hz source wavelet are shown in
Figures 5.16b and 5.16c respectively (traces are each normalized to their maximum
amplitude). At both of these dominant source frequencies, it is seen that the common-
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and SV-waves (Z and X components respectively), and vertical receivers (Z component) were used. The synthetics in (b) - (f) had random
noise (amplitudes equal to a percentage of average spike amplitudes) added. Synthetics are displayed with traces normalized and using the
polarity convention outlined in Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet. See text for discussion.
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and SV-waves (Z and X components respectively), and inline receivers (X component) were used. The synthetic in (d) had random noise
(amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) added. Synthetics are displayed with traces normalized and using the polarity
convention outlined in Chapter 3. The x-axis unit of absolute offset is feet. See text for discussion.
mode S-wave reflection from the top-of-bedrock has the highest amplitudes of all
reflections. The P-SV reflections from the top two model interfaces are separated in time
(arriving earlier) than common-mode S-wave reflection energy, but are relatively low
amplitude. Under noise-free conditions (as the modeling results indicate), it should be
possible to observe each of these events in field reflection records. However, when
random noise (having amplitudes equal to 30 percent of average spike amplitudes) is
added to the data (Figure 5.16d), only the top-of-bedrock common-mode S-wave
reflection is observed in the synthetic record. As was concluded regarding SV-P
reflections (see above), the recording of coherent noise modes in addition to random
noise in acquired field data, further degrades low amplitude P-SV reflections from the I-
70 subsurface interfaces, causing them to not be observed in the field data.
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CHAPTER 6
SH-WAVE REFLECTION DATA ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Overview
near-surface interfaces and subsidence-related discontinuities to be effectively imaged are
described in this chapter. The necessity of considering resolution issues, velocity model
construction methods, and imaging approaches during SH-wave reflection data analysis
to ensure accurate subsurface interpretation is demonstrated. Numerical models and
analyses of data acquired across a section of the I-70 study area (Appendix A) roadway
where a collapse previously occurred into underground coal mine workings are presented.
A data analysis workflow is developed, that given the study area subsurface
conditions and acquired SH-wave data characteristics, provides a methodology for
delineating subsurface areas where subsidence processes have been active. The
processing and imaging flow was developed to allow an accurate subsurface
interpretation to be made, but it was also designed to be efficient so that it could be used
as a basis for the processing of an additional large volume of SH-wave reflection data
(Appendix C) acquired as part of an ongoing research program in the study area.
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The effectiveness of developed data analysis strategies for meeting the seismic
reflection survey objectives is demonstrated, and it is shown that SH-wave reflection
surveys can be used to assess mine-subsidence problems along roadways. Field data
quality permitted vertical offsets of 3-4 feet and laterally discontinuous zones of about 20
feet in the otherwise continuous bedrock reflection to be resolved in the study area.
Processed SH-wave data indicate that there are two locations near the previous roadway
collapse where a relatively high potential for future mine-related surface failure exists.
6.2 Shear-Wave Reflection Data
The data presented in this chapter were acquired in an effort to determine whether
subsurface subsidence processes had continued subsequent to remediation, at a location
of the I-70 study area (Appendix A) roadway that had previously collapsed into
underground coal mine workings. The data were also acquired in an effort to identify
additional possible areas where a high potential for future failure exists along a 200-foot
(61 m) section of the roadway encompassing the previous surface collapse.
The locations of the SH-wave reflection (Chapter 2) lines that are analyzed in this
chapter are shown relative to the eastbound lanes of I-70, and relative to the location of
the previous collapse and underground mine workings in Figure 6.1. Data were analyzed
from a 1999 survey, during which reflection line Test-1 was positioned parallel to and 60
feet south of the southern edge of the eastbound lanes of I-70. Line GUE-I70-1 was also
acquired during the 1999 survey, and was positioned along the southern edge of the
eastbound lanes. Data from a 2001 survey were also analyzed, during which Line
EBPassYY was positioned along the north edge of the eastbound lanes of I-70. These
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Figure 6.1. Map view of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 48300 to 48500)
showing the locations of seismic reflection lines (Test-1, GUE-I70-1, and EBPassYY)
relative to the locations of the underground mine workings. The area of previous
roadway failure is also shown, where a surface collapse feature roughly 10 ft in diameter
was centered in the travel lane at road station 48345. Road stations are given in feet from
the western county line. Due to the small map scale and possible errors that exist with
regards to room and pillar locations, the spatial relationship between these features and
the road stations is regarded as only approximately accurate.
data were acquired using sources that generated preferential shear particle motion
transverse to the line, and geophones containing horizontal elements oriented transverse
to the line. Information regarding acquisition of the data, and discussion regarding data
geometry and pre-processing are presented in Chapter 3.
6.3 Shot Gather Analysis
A consistently strong reflection event with zero-offset times ranging from 105 to
120 ms, and apparent NMO velocities ranging from 600 to 800 ft/s, was observed on shot
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gathers acquired in the previous roadway collapse region. For line Test-1 and line GUE-
I70-1 filtered shot gathers, the average dominant reflection frequency was 80 Hz. For
line EBPassYY filtered shot gathers, the average dominant frequency was 100 Hz. Depth
estimates using velocities derived from reflections when correlated with drill logs
indicate that this strong reflection is from the overburden and bedrock boundary.
Shot gathers from lines Test-1, GUE-I70-1, and EBPassYY with computer-
generated hyperbolae fit to interpreted reflections are shown in Figure 6.2. For the line
Test-1 shot gather (Figure 6.2a), depth conversion indicates that the reflector is about 39
ft deep. Assuming the velocity and zero-offset time picks used for this calculation were
no more than 0.3 percent and 2 ms in error respectively (reasonable ranges of error in
picking using this approach), this calculated depth would be within plus or minus 2 feet
of the actual reflector depth. A borehole logged near this line (25 feet north of line Test-1
at road station 48350) indicates that bedrock is at a depth of 38 ft.
A reflection correlating to the overburden and bedrock interface was consistently
identified in the majority of shot gathers from the three reflection lines. Relatively lower
amplitude reflections above this interface were also evident, but on a much smaller
percentage of shots, and generally exhibited moveout similar to that of the local top-of-
bedrock reflection. Such events correlated as unconsolidated sandy units within the
overburden that were mapped from drill logs.
6.3.1 Sources of Noise
Love waves (surface waves) require a low velocity near surface layer to exist, and
are a concern during shallow S-wave surveying as they can make reflection imaging
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Figure 6.2. Examples of shot gathers (uninterpreted and interpreted) with zero-phase
Ormsby bandpass filters (< 12 dB/octave slopes) and AGC gain (100 ms window)
applied: (a) line Test-1 gather (source located at road station 48382.5, eastbound direction
is to the left) with 80-180 Hz filter and gain, (b) line GUE-I70-1 gather (source located at
road station 48363.5, eastbound direction is to the right) with 100-180 Hz filter and gain,
and (c) line EBPassYY gather (source located at road station 48464, eastbound direction
is to the right) with 80-160 Hz filter and gain. Road stations are given in feet from the
western county line. Hyperbolic reflection events interpreted on shot gathers correlate as
the top-of-bedrock. The x-axes scales of absolute offset from the source are in feet.
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difficult or impossible (Deidda and Ranieri, 2001; Miller et al., 2001). Background
information regarding Love wave propagation and other noise sources is provided in
Chapter 4. Because the S-wave velocity structure across this portion of the study area
was such that near-surface road-construction materials (asphalt and road-fill) had a higher
velocity than the underlying overburden materials at most locations, detrimental Love
wave noise was not observed on the majority of the shot gathers. On a small percentage
of the shot gathers (predominantly line Test-1 gathers), Love wave noise with a relatively
low apparent velocity was observed to interfere with reflection energy from the bedrock
boundary. Such Love wave energy did not require the application of surface wave
attenuation processes (it could be largely suppressed by appropriate post-NMO stretch
muting), and did not degrade the quality of imaged reflections or lead to data
misinterpretations.
Lines Test-1 and EBPassYY were acquired with the source baseplate located on
relatively soft soil, whereas line GUE-I70-1 was acquired with the source baseplate
positioned on the relatively hard roadway pavement. As shown in Figure 6.3, line GUE-
I70-1 correlated shot gathers contained high amplitude periodic noise (at an average
dominant frequency of 65 Hz) that resulted from decoupling of the source baseplate.
Frequencies were introduced through baseplate decoupling within the frequency range of
reflection signal, and source-related noise could therefore not be entirely suppressed
through frequency filtering without degrading reflection quality. As a result, line GUE-
I70-1 data had a lower signal to noise ratio than the line Test-1 and line EBPassYY data
after optimum frequency filtering (after suppressing as much noise as possible without
degrading reflection signal quality).
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Figure 6.3. Line GUE-I70-1 shot gather (source located at road station 48361.5,
eastbound direction is to the right) with various zero-phase Ormsby bandpass filters (<
12 dB/octave slopes) and AGC gain (100 ms window) applied: (a) unprocessed, (b)
unfiltered with gain, (c) 40-100 Hz filter with gain, (d) 80-140 Hz filter with gain, (e)
120-180 Hz filter with gain, and (f) 160-220 Hz filter with gain. High amplitude periodic
noise evident in shot gathers (predominantly in the range of 50-80 Hz) is related to source
decoupling. The x-axis scale of absolute offset from the source is in feet.
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Because Interstate traffic was heavy and unable to be stopped during data
acquisition, noise from roadway vehicles was frequently observed on shot gathers. An
example of noise recorded from a passing roadway vehicle is shown in Figure 6.4.
Recorded traffic noise was predominantly low frequency (5-25 Hz, see Figure 6.4a), and
this characteristic of traffic noise has been observed in other shallow S-wave reflection
studies conducted near roadways (Zhang, 1990). Traffic noise was significantly
suppressed through the application of a low-cut frequency filter (Figure 6.4b).
6.3.2 Overburden and Bedrock Interface Reflection Coefficients
The consistently high amplitude of the overburden and bedrock reflection event
observed in the previous roadway collapse region indicates that a high impedance
contrast exists at this interface. For a case where the overburden and bedrock boundary is
a plane that is parallel to the polarization of an incident SH-wave, only scattered SH-
waves would be produced from an incident SH-wave (no mode conversion would occur),
regardless of the incident angle (Chapter 2). Analysis of the shot gather shown in Figure
6.5a, indicates a dominant reflection frequency of about 80 Hz (Figure 6.5b), and
approximate overburden and bedrock S-wave velocities at this location of 670 ft/sec
(apparent NMO velocity) and 2500 ft/sec (unreversed refraction velocity) respectively
(Figure 6.5c). Depth conversion and drill log correlation indicates that the interpreted
reflector is the overburden and bedrock interface. Using the velocity and depth values
derived from the interpreted shot gather in Figure 6.5c, an expected critical distance (the
offset at which the reflection time equals the refraction time) of about 22 ft from the
source is calculated, which agrees with the critical distance observed in the field record.
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Figure 6.4. Line EBPassYY shot gather (source located at road station 48464, eastbound
direction is to the right) and amplitude spectrum: (a) unprocessed, and (b) with zero-
phase Ormsby bandpass filter (80-160 Hz, < 12 dB/octave slopes) applied. Noise from
roadway traffic (indicated in the circled region) is predominantly low frequency (e.g. 5-
25 Hz), but is also evident in the optimum frequency range for imaging reflection signal.
The x-axis scale of absolute offset from the source is in feet.
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Figure 6.5. Line Test-1 shot gather (source located at road station 48397.5, eastbound
direction to the left): (a) processed and uninterpreted, (b) amplitude spectrum indicating a
dominant frequency of about 80 Hz, and (c) interpreted. An apparent NMO velocity of
670 ft/sec indicates the hyperbolic reflection is from the top of bedrock at a depth of 39
ft. An apparent refraction velocity (unreversed) of 2500 ft/sec is also interpreted. The x-
axis scale on the shot gathers of absolute offset from the source is in feet.
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The critical distance (xc) is equivalent to:
xc = 2z*tan(șc) (6.1)
where z is the reflector depth, and șc is the critical angle. When the velocity of the
incident medium is less than that of the refracted / transmitted medium, the refraction
angle is equivalent to 90 degrees at the critical angle (șc), which is defined as:
șc = sin-1(Vs1 / Vs2) (6.2)
where Vs1 and Vs2 are the incident and refracted media shear velocities.
Assuming these data-derived velocity values are constant for the overburden and
bedrock media, and assuming a density ratio of unity, square root energy coefficients (for
equations see Chapter 2) were calculated as a function of incidence angle for a SH-wave
incident on the overburden and bedrock interface, and are plotted in Figure 6.6. As seen
in Figure 6.6, the reflection coefficient is 0.5773 at normal incidence (the square root
energy coefficient curve for the reflected SH-wave is equivalent to the magnitude of the
displacement amplitude or the “reflection coefficient”). When compared with typical
normal incidence reflection coefficient values observed during petroleum exploration
studies, the calculated coefficient value indicates that the overburden and bedrock
boundary at this location can be considered as a high impedance contrast. Reflection
coefficient values for geologic materials are generally classified by Reynolds (1997) as: <
0.1 (weak reflection), 0.1 - 0.2 (moderate reflection), and > 0.2 (strong reflection),
whereas Yilmaz (2001) considers a reflection coefficient > 0.3 as high.
The reflected- and refracted-wave curves change only slightly for near-vertical
values of incidence (Figure 6.6). As the incidence angle increases past 10 degrees
however, the reflected wave curve rapidly approaches zero and the refracted-wave
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Figure 6.6. Plot showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function of
incidence angle for a SH-wave incident on the overburden (medium 1) and bedrock
(medium 2) interface. Calculations were made using the velocities determined from
analysis of the shot gather in Figure 6.5c, with the computer program presented in
Appendix B. Note the critical angle (șc) at about 15.5 degrees.
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curve begins to increase significantly. As the incidence angle increases towards the
critical angle, refracted rays become more horizontal, the surface area between refracted
rays becomes smaller, and the refracted-wave amplitude therefore becomes large. The
refracted-wave curve increases significantly prior to a critical angle due to geometric
reasons (Lay and Wallace, 1995). The amplitude of a wave is proportional to the square
root of the energy per surface area (the refracted wave amplitude is therefore inversely
proportional to the surface area between refracted rays). At the critical angle the
refracted ray is horizontal, and for angles of incidence greater than the critical angle no
real SH-wave energy is transmitted into the bedrock medium normal to the interface.
6.4 Target Resolution Potential
The ability to distinguish two separate features and observe detail using reflection
data is related to resolution. Both vertical and lateral (horizontal) resolution must be
considered in order to assess the potential of data for allowing reflecting horizons to be
detected and resolved, reflectors and diffractors to be differentiated, and discontinuities in
reflecting horizons to be inferred. Lines Test-1, GUE-I70-1, and EBPassYY were
acquired with high CDP (common-depth-point, i.e. the midpoint between a source and
receiver) sampling intervals (0.5 ft, 0.5 ft, and 1 ft respectively) relative to the sampling
intervals used for the majority of near-surface reflection surveys that are conducted.
6.4.1 Reflecting Horizon Resolution Potential
Synthetic shot gathers were generated for comparison with field data and to
investigate the resolution potential of field data relative to the study area geology. The
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synthetic seismograms were produced using a finite-difference (Alford et al., 1974; Kelly
et al., 1976) modeling code within the ProMAX software package. This code was written
for the purpose of modeling P-wave reflections in acoustic media, but because it does not
consider media elastic parameters or mode conversions, it is also suitable for modeling
SH-wave reflections. Polarity and intromission angle occurrence is different for P-waves
in acoustic media and SH-waves in elastic media, see Chapters 2 and 7, but this does not
affect reflection travel-times, or the objectives of the modeling that was conducted.
Direct arrivals, multiples, and refractions are modeled using the code, but surface
waves are not. A zero-phase Ricker wavelet was used as the source for each model that
was generated, and the source was located at the surface of each model. Reflecting
boundary conditions were specified, and it was computationally feasible to extend the
model bottom to a depth such that bottom reflections were not recorded during the time
range of interest. Grid dispersion was minimized by specifying at least 7 grid points per
wavelength in each region (regardless of velocity) of the models (e.g., at a velocity of 670
ft/s and a frequency of 100 Hz, the grid spacing would be at least 0.96 feet).
The S-wave interval velocity model in Table 6.1 was used to generate synthetic
seismograms, with geometries equivalent to the shot gather in Figure 6.5. Velocity and
depth estimates in Table 6.1 were obtained through analysis of the shot gather shown in
Figure 6.5. Velocity and depth approximations are also included for a 7 ft thick coal
seam, that according to drill log information exists beneath 20.5 ft of bedrock near the
location of the shot gather in Figure 6.5. Reflections correlating to the top or bottom of
the coal seam were not observed in field records and, therefore, the coal’s shear velocity
could not be directly measured. Instead, to model the Upper Freeport Coal the S-wave
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S-wave interval velocity (ft/sec) Lithology Layer thickness (ft)
670 Overburden 39
2500 Bedrock (shale) 20.5
2395 Coal (bituminous) 7
Table 6.1. Velocity model used to generate synthetic data shown in Figures 6.7 and 6.8.
velocity of 2395 ft/s from the Lower Freeport Coal (Wolfe et al., 1989) was used. The
Lower Freeport coal (middle Pennsylvanian series) is a bituminous coal that is located
stratigraphically beneath the study area Upper Freeport Coal.
Uninterpreted seismograms are shown in Figure 6.7a (300 Hz center frequency
source wavelet) and Figure 6.7c (100 Hz center frequency source wavelet), with
interpretations of these seismograms shown in Figure 6.7b and Figure 6.7d respectively.
When a 300 Hz source wavelet is used, a dominant peak-to-peak reflection frequency of
250 Hz resulted, and reflections from the three model impedance contrasts were
distinguishable at near source to receiver offsets, with a phase reversal evident at these
offsets for the bedrock and coal interface reflection (Figure 6.7b). Reflections from the
coal top and bottom are low amplitude relative to the overburden-bedrock event, but the
reflected wavelets from the top of the bedrock and coal layers (coal layer reflections are
of opposite polarity to one another) are seen to be separated in time because the thickness
of the model coal (7 ft) is greater than half of the wavelength of the seismic wavelet in
the coal (4.8 ft).
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Figure 6.7. Uninterpreted synthetic seismograms generated using the model in Table 6.1
with a center source frequency of 300 Hz (a), and 100 Hz (c). The three model interfaces
are resolved at near and far offsets with a source frequency of 300 Hz (b), while only the
primary event is easily interpreted with a source frequency of 100 Hz (d). Also shown is
the uninterpreted (e) and interpreted (f) shot gather (from Figure 6.5) used as a basis for
forward modeling. A high reflection coefficient at the overburden-bedrock interface,
near offset noise, a lower signal to noise ratio, interference, and wavelet ringiness result
in only the overburden and bedrock reflection being interpretable from the field data.
The x-axis scale of absolute offset from the source is in feet.
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The resolution potential of data is strongly dependent on frequency and velocity
(Widess, 1973), however numerous additional factors also influence the resolving
potential of shallow reflection data (Miller et al., 1995). It is apparent from Figure 6.7b
that data with a dominant reflection frequency of 250 Hz should provide the potential to
resolve the top and bottom of a coal seam in this geologic sequence. The bedrock
reflection and refraction interpretations in Figure 6.7b are the same (the same velocities
and zero-offset times) as those that were made for the data in Figure 6.5c.
As a result of the relatively low overburden velocity and the high overburden and
bedrock velocity contrast, the primary reflection event corresponding to this interface in
Figure 6.7b is distorted over a certain range of offsets where deeper reflections from the
coal top and bottom cross this event. Despite interference, the shape and amplitude of the
composite wavelet over this range of offsets is still dominated by the character of the
overburden and bedrock reflection. The primary reflection arrives later in time at
increased offsets than the coal reflections, despite the raypath distances of the coal
reflections being greater than that of the primary reflection. Beyond the offsets where
interference from crossing reflections occurs, the three reflection events are imaged as
separate events, and are also distinguishable from the bedrock refraction.
An interpreted synthetic seismogram generated using the velocity model in Table
6.1 and a dominant source frequency of 100 Hz (resulting in a dominant peak-to-peak
reflection frequency of 80 Hz) is shown in Figure 6.7d. For comparison purposes, the
same interpretations that were given in Figure 6.7b are superimposed on the data in
Figure 6.7d. The high amplitude primary reflection is clearly observed and interpretable
at near source to receiver offsets. Interference of reflection energy does not allow lower
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amplitude events from the coal top and bottom to be as easily interpreted however, and a
phase reversal from the bedrock and coal interface is not clearly evident.
At near offsets the opposite polarity events from the bedrock and coal tops
interfere (the composite wavelet is dominated by the primary reflection), because the coal
thickness (7 ft) is less than half of the dominant wavelength in the coal (15 ft).
Interference of the primary reflection and lower amplitude crossing events associated
with the coal seam occurs across a larger range of offsets than in Figure 6.7b.
Interference effects have no evident effect on the composite wavelet across this offset
range though, which is still dominated by the character of the primary reflection. It is
therefore unlikely that lateral changes in material properties beneath the overburden-
bedrock interface could be inferred using interference observations and / or amplitude-
based criteria at the dominant field data frequency. At far offsets where reflection energy
from the coal arrives earlier in time than the primary reflection energy, coal top and
bottom reflections cannot be interpreted from the synthetic seismogram.
The shot gather shown in Figure 6.5 is again shown in Figure 6.7e (uninterpreted)
and Figure 6.7f (interpreted). The dominant frequency of the field data and the synthetic
seismogram generated using a 100 Hz source wavelet (Figure 6.7d) are comparable, and
interpretations of the overburden and bedrock interface reflection and refraction events
are the same for the synthetic data and the field data. The observed fit of the same
reflection hyperbola and the same linear refraction event to the field and synthetic data
supports the initial interpretation of these events in the field data and their apparent
velocities. Evidence suggesting the presence of a coal seam beneath the overburden and
bedrock interface does not exist in the field data, likely as a result of the high reflection
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coefficient at the overburden-bedrock interface, the lower signal to noise ratio of field
data, interference effects, wavelet ringiness (additional wavelet cycles), and the source-
related noise present at near source to receiver offsets.
The specification of different coal S-wave velocities in the model shown in Table
6.1 did not change the main conclusions obtained from forward modeling. Shown in
Figure 6.8 are uninterpreted (left) and interpreted (right) synthetic seismograms generated
using a 100 Hz source wavelet, with varying S-wave velocities (1500 ft/s, 2000 ft/s, and
3000 ft/s) specified for the coal seam. In each of the synthetics shown in Figure 6.8, a
primary reflection from the overburden-bedrock interface dominates the record, and
interference of reflection energy does not allow lower amplitude events from the coal top
or bottom to be easily interpreted.
Based on the modeling in this section, general conclusions are made as follows:
1) The coal seam in the study area subsurface cannot be imaged using
acquired SH-wave reflection data due to: a high reflection coefficient at
the overburden and bedrock interface, inadequate signal-to-noise ratio
of field data, source-related noise, wavelet ringiness, interference and
poor resolution.
2) Lateral changes in material properties beneath the overburden and
bedrock interface cannot be inferred using field data interference
observations and / or amplitude-based criteria. Interference effects from
deeper reflections have no evident effect on the top-of-bedrock
reflection event at the dominant frequency of acquired field data.
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Figure 6.8. Uninterpreted (left), and with the top of bedrock reflection and refraction
interpreted (right) synthetic seismograms (center source frequency = 100 Hz) generated
using different S-wave velocities for the coal seam specified than those in Table 6.1.
Interference of reflection energy does not allow lower amplitude events from the coal top
or bottom to be easily interpreted at any of these modeled coal S-wave velocities.
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6.4.2 Discontinuity Resolution Potential
In addition to affecting the potential for imaging reflecting horizons, vertical
resolution also affects the potential for inferring discontinuities along reflecting horizons.
A generally accepted threshold (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982; Yilmaz, 2001) used to
estimate the vertical resolution of reflection data is a quarter of the dominant wavelength.
A similar threshold for easily inferring vertical offset along a reflecting horizon is that the
offset must be at least equivalent to a quarter of the dominant wavelength (Yilmaz, 2001).
A synthetic stacked section that was generated using the overburden and bedrock
velocity and depth values determined from the field data in Figure 6.7f as a basis, is
shown in Figure 6.9. Five faults (associated with mine subsidence in this example)
across an interface separating overburden and bedrock materials were modeled, with the
amount of vertical offset for each fault specified as a fraction of the dominant
wavelength. For the modeled center frequency of 80 Hz, the corresponding dominant
wavelength in the overburden is 8.4 ft.
Vertical offset of the bedrock interface must be at least a quarter of the dominant
wavelength to be easily inferred (Figure 6.9). In field data with a high signal to noise
ratio, inference of offset less than a quarter of the dominant wavelength can be possible
using diffractions. The modeled overburden and bedrock boundary was 39 ft deep at
CDP 100 (the modeled CDP spacing was 0.5 ft), and due to continued downward offset
along faults this boundary existed at a depth of 55.3 ft at the location of CDP 600.
Lateral resolution can be addressed using the concept of Fresnel zones. The first
Fresnel zone (also known as the half wavelength Fresnel zone) is defined as the portion
of a reflecting surface from which energy arrives at a receiver within a half cycle after the
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Figure 6.9. A synthetic section generated using the overburden and bedrock velocity and
depth parameters determined from the field data in Figure 6.7f as a basis. Five faults
(fault locations are indicated by arrows on the x-axis) were modeled, with the amount of
vertical offset for each fault specified as a fraction of the dominant wavelength (Ȝ). As
seen by the modeled results, vertical offset of the bedrock interface must be at least a
quarter of the dominant wavelength to be easily inferred without relying on diffraction
events (which may not be observed in field data with a lower signal to noise ratio). The
overburden and bedrock boundary is 39 feet deep at CDP 100, and due to continued
downward offset this interface is at a depth of 55.3 ft at CDP 600 (CDP spacing is 0.5 ft).
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onset of reflection from the Fermat reflecting point (Waters, 1987). Energy reflected
from this zone (containing all points within a certain radius from the Fermat point)
interferes constructively, and thus contributes positively to the reflected amplitude.
Energy reflected from a second Fresnel zone (surrounding the first Fresnel zone) arrives
at a receiver between a half to one cycle later than the onset of reflection, and interferes
destructively. A pattern of alternating zones of constructive and destructive interference
continues outward away from the Fermat point, although, the major contributions to the
reflected signal come from the first Fresnel zone (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982). The
diameter (d) of the Fresnel zone (the adjective “first” is typically dropped) is defined as:
d = 2((V / 2)(t / f)1/2) (6.3)
where V is the average velocity above the reflector, t is the arrival time (two-way travel
time), and f is frequency.
The Fresnel zone diameter can be used to estimate lateral resolution (a smaller
diameter corresponds to higher lateral resolution), and therefore to estimate the potential
of data to allow reflectors and diffractors to be differentiated. Using the field data
parameters in Figure 6.7f, the diameter of the Fresnel zone for the bedrock interface (at a
depth of 39 feet) for a dominant wavelength of 8.4 ft is calculated to be 25.6 ft.
Assuming a higher dominant reflection frequency of 100 Hz, the Fresnel zone diameter
for this interface would be 22.9 ft. For an increasing overburden thickness or overburden
velocity, or a decreasing frequency, the diameter of the Fresnel zone would increase.
For a situation where an otherwise continuous bedrock horizon has collapsed
between stable coal pillars into a mine room, diffractions (with twice the moveout of
reflections from the horizon) would occur at the horizon edges. If the width of the down-
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dropped bedrock segment were much smaller than width of the first Fresnel zone, it
would be beyond the data lateral resolution. The horizon in this case would appear to be
continuous across the non-reflecting segment on a seismic section, and the non-reflecting
segment would not likely be inferred from field data unless the signal to noise ratio was
high enough to allow diffraction events to be observed. This concept is demonstrated in
Figure 6.10, which shows an unmigrated synthetic stacked section generated at a
dominant frequency of 80 Hz. The overburden and bedrock velocity and depth
parameters determined from the field data in Figure 6.7f were used as a basis for the
synthetic section shown in Figure 6.10. Four graben structures (each resulting from a
segment of the bedrock horizon and overburden being down-dropped by 7 feet into a
mined coal room) were modeled, with the width of each feature specified as a fraction of
the Fresnel zone diameter (d). The top-of-bedrock reflection appears to be continuous
across the modeled subsidence feature when the spatial extent of the feature is much
smaller than the Fresnel zone diameter (Figure 6.10).
Based on the modeling in this section, general conclusions are made as follows:
1) Vertical offset of the bedrock interface (along mine subsidence-related
normal faults) must be at least a quarter of the dominant wavelength to
be easily inferred using field data.
2) Reflections will appear to be continuous across a graben feature
resulting from bedrock subsidence into a mine room when the feature’s
spatial extent is much smaller than the size of the Fresnel zone diameter.
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Figure 6.10. A synthetic stacked section generated using the overburden and bedrock
velocity and depth parameters determined from the field data in Figure 6.7f as a basis.
Four bedrock graben structures resulting from mine-related subsidence activity (graben
locations are indicated by arrows on the x-axis) were modeled, with the width of each
structure specified as a fraction of the Fresnel zone diameter (d). As seen by the modeled
results, reflections appear to be continuous across a bedrock subsidence feature when the
spatial extent of the feature is much smaller than the size of the Fresnel zone. The top of
bedrock exists at a depth of 39 feet at all CDP locations, except where this boundary has
subsided to a depth of 46 ft in the grabens (CDP spacing is 0.5 ft).
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6.5 Data Processing
Data processing and imaging operations were performed using ProMAX software
(Landmark Graphics Corporation). The processing flow applied to the each of the lines
was similar, efficient, and effective in allowing the survey objectives to be accomplished.
The processing flow applied to the data in this chapter is shown in Table 6.2. Discussion
regarding data pre-processing and geometry definition was presented in Chapter 3.
6.5.1 Processing Strategy
There were two objectives during the selection of processes and process
parameters for the shear-wave reflection data acquired in the previous collapse region.
One objective was to image the subsurface so that possible areas where subsidence
processes have been active could be accurately delineated. A second objective was to
design the processing flow so that it could be used as a basis for, and applied towards the
analysis of additional SH-wave reflection data acquired in the study area.
Because an event correlating to the overburden and bedrock interface could
consistently be identified in field records, data processing and imaging operations
predominately targeted this high impedance contrast. The resolution potential of the data
(see above) suggested that it should be possible to infer bedrock horizon offsets on the
order of several feet, and disrupted or discontinuous areas along the horizon with lateral
extent less than that of the width of mined-out rooms between coal pillars (Figure 6.1).
Focusing on the character of the bedrock horizon in shot gathers and processed images
seemed to be a reasonable approach for identifying possible subsurface areas where
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Line Test-1 correlated with synthetic sweep, line GUE-I70-1
Vibroseis correlation correlated with AUX channel –2, line EBPassYY correlated
with pilot sweep
Integrated analysis of shot gathers, constant velocity stacks,
Velocity analysis
and semblance plots
Stretch mute 30 percent
Zero-phase Ormsby filter: 40-80-180-220 Hz for line Test-1,
Bandpass filter 60-100-180-220 Hz for line GUE-I70-1, and 50-80-160-200
Hz for line EBPassYY
Table 6.2. Data processing flow for shear-wave reflection data.
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mine-related subsidence processes have been active, because in order for a mine-related
collapse feature to propagate up to the surface, the bedrock horizon overlying the coal
mine must first be disrupted.
6.5.2 Processing Flow
Trace editing and bandpass filtering were initially conducted to improve the data
quality and to suppress noise outside the optimum signal frequency range. A scalar trace-
to-trace amplitude balancing function was also calculated and applied to the shot gathers
of each line (trace equalization) in order allow a statistically optimum stack to be
produced (Hatton et al., 1986). By calculating this balancing function using CMP gathers
(150 ms spatially varying window), differences in sample amplitudes due to differences
in acquisition equipment performance and source and receiver coupling with location
were minimized (i.e. the negative effect of occasional high amplitude noise would be
reduced, and traces within each gather would contribute equally to stacked sections).
Elevation static corrections did not need to be performed because the data were
acquired on a flat, horizontal surface (less than 1 foot change in elevation per 100 lateral
feet). In many of the field records direct arrival and refraction static shifts were observed
to be inconsistent with reflection static shifts, indicating that for these records reflections
would be incorrectly shifted by applying corrections based on earlier arriving events. For
example, in the EBPassYY shot gather shown in Figure 6.2c, the observed refraction
static delay between offsets of 80 and 100 ft (at 135-140 ms) differs significantly from
that of the later arriving reflection in this offset range. The shooting geometries were
such for lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 that the necessary offsets for refraction static
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calculations were not recorded for most field records (for example, see Figure 6.2b). The
application of surface-consistent residual static corrections (plus or minus 2 ms maximum
shift) did not lead to significant improvements in stacked signal quality or the continuity
of reflections, and did not effect structural interpretations based on the data.
The effectiveness of refracted arrival muting was evaluated, and as expected the
inclusion of top muting into the processing flow significantly increased the required
amount of processing time. As previously mentioned, the line Test-1 and GUE-I70-1
recording geometries were such that for many of the field records, long offsets containing
high amplitude refraction energy from the bedrock interface were not recorded. For
records containing refraction energy, it was found that top muting without degrading the
quality of reflection signal was difficult. For these reasons, and because muting did not
significantly enhance constructed images, refraction mutes were not applied to these data.
A major concern when top muting is not conducted is that non-muted refraction
energy can appear as high amplitude (and often relatively low frequency) coherent events
on processed images (Steeples and Miller, 1998). Care was taken to ensure that structural
interpretations of the subsurface based on constructed images were not affected from top
muting not being conducted. As is demonstrated using synthetic data in Figure 6.11, and
as will be shown in a subsequent section using field data, most refraction energy was able
to be eliminated during stretch muting, due to the fact that refraction arrivals undergo
greater stretching than reflections during NMO correction. As further evidence that
stacked refraction energy did not result in data misinterpretation, the zero-offset arrival
times of reflections on the shot and CMP supergathers presented agree with those
interpreted events on the processed images presented.
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Figure 6.11. Synthetic seismograms (100 Hz center source frequency) that demonstrate the effectiveness of a 30 percent post-
NMO stretch mute in eliminating most refracted energy. The models shown both consist of a 40 ft thick overburden above
bedrock (bedrock velocity = 2500 ft/sec). In example 1 (a) the overburden velocity is 600 ft/sec, and in example 2 (b) the
overburden velocity is 800 ft/sec. The x-axis scale on the gathers of absolute offset from the source is in feet.
6.5.2.1 Velocity Analysis
Velocity analysis can be one of the most time-consuming aspects of processing,
and given the large amount of data acquired in the study area it was necessary to
determine an efficient procedure for obtaining a subsurface velocity model for common-
mode reflection data. It was determined from the analysis of shot gather events
correlating to the overburden and bedrock boundary that the apparent average overburden
velocity varied along lines in the previous collapse region by as much as 20 percent.
Relatively lower amplitude events that were present on certain shot gathers correlated as
unconsolidated sandy units within the overburden, and exhibited moveout similar to that
of the local overburden and bedrock event. A single layer overburden velocity model
with laterally varying velocity above bedrock was therefore determined to be appropriate
for each line for image construction purposes. The procedure for determining velocity
models for the lines acquired in the previous roadway collapse region involved an
integrated analysis of shot gathers, constant velocity stacks, and semblance plots.
Shown in Figure 6.12 are constant velocity stacks of the EBPassYY data with
stacking velocities ranging from 700 to 800 feet per second. Differences in stacked
signal quality and apparent continuity of events are evident at different stacking velocities
(see the circled region on the stacks in Figure6.12). While an event at approximately 110
ms stacks coherently using a velocity of 800 ft/sec at CDP location 48320, an event at
this time at CDP location 48480 (160 feet east of CDP location 48320) stacks coherently
using a velocity of 700 ft/sec.
Shown in Figure 6.13a is the velocity spectrum and velocity pick for a line
EBPassYY supergather (also shown) centered at road station 48415 (corresponding to
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Figure 6.12. Constant velocity stacks generated for line EBPassYY using a velocity
increment of 25 feet per second (stacking velocities from 700-800 feet per second are
shown). Note the change in event coherency within the circled region at different
stacking velocities. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations.
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Figure 6.13. Velocity spectrum and pick for line EBPassYY CDP supergather: (a) before
NMO correction, (b) after NMO correction showing significant stretch at large offsets,
and (c) after stretch mute application. The supergather is centered at road station 48415.
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CDP_X 48415 in Figure 6.12). The velocity spectrum was derived from the CDP
supergather and represents a measure of coherency, or how well a given hyperbolic
trajectory (dependent on time and velocity) fits the supergather data. Figure 6.13b shows
the Figure 6.13a supergather after the application of an NMO correction based on the
velocity pick (about 700 ft/sec). The hyperbolic reflection event with a zero-offset time
of 110 ms is flattened as a result of this correction, as is a lower amplitude event with a
zero-offset time of about 90 ms, which correlates as a sandy unit above the bedrock
interface. The application of a 30 percent stretch mute (Figure 6.13c) effectively
minimized reflection and refraction energy distorted at large supergather offsets by the
NMO correction. Also shown in Figure 6.13c is a dynamic stack function for the NMO
corrected and stretch muted supergather.
Shown in Figure 6.14 are velocity spectra and picks for 3 additional line
EBPassYY CDP supergathers (shown before and after NMO correction). The centered
locations of these supergathers correspond to road stations 48470 (Figure 6.14a), 48410
(Figure 6.14b), and 48320 (Figure 6.14c). These velocity spectra and picks indicate that
the optimum stacking velocity for the overburden and bedrock event (zero-offset time of
about 110 ms in these supergathers) ranges along this line from about 700 ft/sec at road
station 48470, to about 660 ft/sec at road station 48410, and to about 790 ft/sec at road
station 48320. A relatively lower amplitude event also stacks at these velocities on each
of the supergathers at a zero-offset time of about 90 ms, and the depth of this event
correlates as a sandy unit above the bedrock horizon. The semblance-based velocity
model for each of the reflection lines was built by incorporating only the highest quality
velocity picks, such as the ones shown in Figures 6.13 and 6.14.
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Figure 6.14. Velocity spectra and picks for line EBPassYY CDP supergathers (before
and after NMO correction and stretch mute application) demonstrating lateral variation in
optimum stacking velocity along this line. The supergathers are centered at: (a) road
station 48470, (b) road station 48410, and (c) road station 48320.
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6.5.3 CMP Stacking Versus Common Offset Imaging Approaches
Based on aspects of the data and the study area subsurface, it was determined that
the study objectives could be effectively addressed through the combined analysis and
interpretation of individual data gathers and CMP stacked sections. Since the associated
acquisition and processing costs have become affordable for a wide range of near surface
problems, CMP stacking of shallow reflection data has become a common imaging
approach. Because there are potential advantages of the common offset method over
stacking however, the potential effectiveness of this imaging approach for allowing the
study objectives to be met was considered.
CMP stacking involves summing traces that have different source to receiver
offsets, but geometrically correspond to the same subsurface midpoint. The main
advantage of CMP stacking is that the data signal-to-noise ratio can be improved.
Common offset imaging typically involves identifying an optimum offset range within
which reflection energy of interest can consistently be observed with minimal noise and
interference from other events, and then constructing an image using only the traces from
this offset range. There are other potential advantages of the common offset imaging
approach, but the main advantage that is typically experienced is a decrease in acquisition
and processing costs relative CMP stacking. Images of the subsurface produced by CMP
stacking require NMO corrections to be made, whereas common offset images do not.
In areas where severe distortions in reflection curvature exist, or when the
objective is to produce a detailed image of sub-spread length features on a rough horizon
or an image of a horizon with severe relief (Hunter et al., 1984), the common offset
approach may be more applicable than stacking, and may allow more detailed
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interpretations to be made. A certain amount of frequency distortion and smoothing of
horizon features likely occurred during the NMO correction and stacking of field gathers
that exhibited slight distortions in moveout. However, detailed information regarding
localized horizon structure could still be inferred by paying attention to the character of
reflection events in non-corrected gathers while interpreting stacked sections.
The optimum window for imaging events of interest varied for the acquired data.
For example, the optimum window based upon the shot gather in Figure 6.2b would
include the near normal incidence traces, while this offset range would not likely be
included in the optimum window based upon the gathers shown in Figures 6.2a and 6.2c.
By stacking all offsets of the data (data were of high fold relative reflection data acquired
for the majority of shallow studies), it was possible to improve the signal-to-noise-ratio
and most effectively image the overburden and bedrock interface (Figure 6.15). This was
important for attenuating non-reflection energy and allowing the bedrock horizon and
weaker reflectors within the overburden to be accurately imaged and distinguishable from
non-reflection energy. CMP stacking was determined to provide a better basis for
allowing the study objectives to be met than common offset imaging.
6.6 Results and Interpretations
The strong reflection event correlating to the overburden and bedrock boundary in
shot and CDP gathers is interpretable across stacked sections for each of the three lines.
Lower amplitude and less continuous reflectors above the bedrock horizon are evident on
stacked sections also, and correlate to sandy units mapped within the overburden. The
average dominant frequency of the bedrock horizon on processed sections is 80 Hz for

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Figure 6.15. Line Test-1 data stacked using different ranges of source to receiver offsets
(ranges specified on stacks are in feet). Stacking all offsets allowed the overburden and
bedrock interface (110 to 120 ms) to be most effectively imaged. Fold (TR_FOLD) plots
are shown on stacks, and CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations.
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lines Test-1 and GUE-I70-1 (the dominant frequency increases slightly to 90 Hz on the
east end of the line Test-1 section), and 100 Hz for line EBPassYY.
6.6.1 Line Test-1
The processed and stacked line Test-1 (Figure 6.1) data are shown in Figure 6.16.
The reflection event imaged at 110 to 120 ms (Figure 6.16a) correlates to drill log data,
and is the top of bedrock (Figure 6.16b). The horizon is continuous across the line, with
slight apparent dip of the bedrock surface evident between road stations 48345 and
48380. The slight apparent dip in the horizon is also evident after time-to-depth
conversion (Figures 6.16c and 6.16d). No significant vertical displacements or lack of
continuity can be detected along the bedrock horizon in line Test-1 sections, and
therefore no areas of severe disruption related to mine-related subsidence activity (which
would indicate a potential risk for surface collapse) are interpreted across this line.
Inferences regarding the possible effects of the mine on the bedrock horizon
topography and stacking velocities are difficult using line Test-1 data, as no data
regarding the location of room and pillars relevant to the location of line Test-1 were
available (Figure 6.1). However, the coal pillar mapped to the north of the eastern half of
line Test-1 (Figure 6.1) can be projected to intersect line Test-1 at road station 48345. To
the immediate east of this road station is where the apparent dip in the horizon is evident
from stacked data, and where a transition (decrease) in horizon stacking velocity occurs
(Figure 6.16a). These observations suggest that the absence of a coal pillar may have
influenced the bedrock topography along this line, and may have also resulted in a
decrease of the overburden material stiffness.

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Figure 6.16. Line Test-1 stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The continuous reflection event at 110 to 120 ms (a), is
the top of bedrock (b). The color bar on the bottom x-axis of (a) shows bedrock horizon stacking velocities. Uninterpreted (c)
and interpreted (d) depth sections are also shown. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (road stations
are given in feet from the western county line). To the east of CDP 48345 the overburden-bedrock horizon dips down to the east
and stacking velocities decrease, suggesting that the removal of coal in this region (see text for discussion) may have influenced
the bedrock topography and resulted in a decreased overburden stiffness. (continued)
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(c) and (d) Line Test-1 stacked depth section.
6.6.2 Line GUE-I70-1
The processed and stacked line GUE-I70-1 data are shown in Figure 6.17. This
line was acquired to the immediate south of the previous roadway collapse feature along
the southern berm of the roadway (Figure 6.1). The reflection event imaged at 110 to 120
ms (Figure 6.17a) correlates to shot gather events and drill log data, and is the top of
bedrock (Figure 6.17b). A number of additional weak reflectors between 50 and 100 ms
are also evident within the bedrock overburden. Due to the frequent presence of
discontinuous overburden units (as indicated by drill log data), it is difficult to infer
whether apparent discontinuity or truncation of these events at certain locations is
depositional / lithological in nature, or due to possible subsidence process-related
fracturing or faulting within the overburden materials.
Apparent dip and undulations of the bedrock horizon are apparent across time
sections, and are evident in depth sections (Figures 6.17c and 6.17d). A bedrock high at
CDP location 48460 agrees with the location of a bedrock high interpreted from drill log
data (Figure 6.18) acquired at approximately the same time as these seismic data. A coal
pillar is present beneath bedrock at this location (Figure 6.1), and the bedrock stacking
velocities are relatively high at this location (Figure 6.17a). These observations suggest
that the coal pillar (by supporting overlying materials) may have allowed the original
bedrock topography and overburden material stiffness to be maintained at this location
subsequent to mining activity. Moving to the west of this location (where Figure 6.1
indicates a room beneath line GUE-I70-1), an apparent dip in the bedrock horizon is
evident from stacked sections, and stacking velocities begin to decrease. It is possible
that this apparent dip in the bedrock surface is related to coal absence, however, it is also
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Figure 6.17. Line GUE-I70-1 stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The reflection at 110 to 120ms (a), is the top of
bedrock (b). The color bar on the bottom x-axis of (a) shows bedrock stacking velocities. Uninterpreted (c) and interpreted (d)
depth sections are also shown. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (road stations are given in feet from
the western county line). A bedrock discontinuity is interpreted at CDP_X 48391, and an area of disrupted bedrock is
interpreted between CDP_X 48380 and 48408 (indicated by x-axis arrows and dashed lines). The interpreted area of disruption
is based upon on wavelet character and analysis of the shot gathers (x-axis flags indicate locations) in Figure 6.19. (continued)
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(c) and (d) Line GUE-I70-1 stacked depth section.
possible that the horizon exhibited apparent dip (in this area) prior to mining (data
regarding bedrock elevation prior to mining were not available).
The geologic cross-section shown in Figure 6.18 was interpreted based
predominately upon the wells with core recovery (indicated by solid as opposed to
dashed vertical lines in the figure). Between CDP locations 48330 and 48360 a relative
bedrock low was interpreted from drill log data, and bedrock is also seen to be relatively
low in this region on the seismic sections (from CDP locations 48330-48370). Figure 6.1
indicates the presence of a mine room in this region, and the previous localized collapse
occurred at road station 48345 (about 15 feet north of line GUE-I70-1), however stacking
velocities are somewhat higher this area relative to laterally adjacent areas, and offset or
significant disruption of the bedrock horizon is not evident in seismic sections (Figure
6.17). These observations indicate that either the subsidence processes (at depth) that
were responsible for the previous roadway collapse were predominately active to the
north of Line GUE-I70-1, or that remediation efforts of the previous collapse area have
prevented the continuation of subsidence activity at this location. It is also possible that
evidence for bedrock disruption resulting from ongoing subsidence processes since
remediation was not seismically detectable at this location using these data.
There is no evidence on the seismic sections that indicates that the voids
encountered beneath the bedrock surface during drilling to the west of the previous
collapse (Figure 6.18) have continued to propagate upwards through the bedrock surface
and pose an immediate risk for surface collapse. This interpretation is supported by
cross-hole radar data analyses and drill log data acquired (subsequent to this seismic data
interpretation) during 2002 (Appendix D).
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Figure 6.18. Geologic cross-section constructed from 1999 drill log data acquired along the southern edge of the eastbound
travel lane of I-70 (Modified from BBC&M Inc., 1999).
A discontinuity in the bedrock that resulted in vertical horizon offset is interpreted
on the seismic sections (Figures 6.17b and 6.17d) at CDP location 48391. Based on the
apparent differences in travel time (and depth on the depth sections) across the
discontinuity, the vertical offset is estimated from the seismic section to be between 3 and
4 ft (which is greater than a quarter of the dominant seismic wavelength in the
overburden). The applied stacking velocity did not change abruptly in the vicinity of this
discontinuity (the stacking velocities were relatively low across this region, possibly due
to a fractured and relatively weak overburden), and the horizon appears to be fairly
continuous on either side of the discontinuity. A well drilled during 2002 at road station
48395 based on this interpretation, confirmed that bedrock had in fact been down-
dropped along a normal fault between road stations 48380 and 48395, and indicated
heavy fracturing of the bedrock with no coal encountered in the borehole (Appendix D).
Despite the stacked sections indicating a fairly continuous horizon in the immediate
vicinity of the mapped discontinuity, indications of severe disruption in the bedrock
surface across this area exist in the seismic data.
Figure 6.19a shows uninterpreted shot gathers acquired at the source locations
indicated by flags on the x-axis of Figures 6.17b and 6.17d, and the gathers are
interpreted in Figure 6.19b. For the 48365.5 source location gather, the bedrock event is
represented by a fairly well behaved hyperbola. The apex of this event is shifted to the
right of the source in the 48375.5 gather, indicating an apparent dip of the bedrock
surface (updip direction to the east) at this location (which agrees with the dip apparent at
this location on the seismic sections). Dip-moveout (DMO) corrections were not applied
to the data to compensate for occasionally apparent dips, and as a result less confidence
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Figure 6.19. Line GUE-I70-1 uninterpreted (a) and interpreted (b) shot gathers with
source locations corresponding to the flag locations on the x-axis of Figures 6.17b and
6.17d. Source locations (SOU_X) and CDP locations (CDP_X) correspond to road
stations. The reflection at 110 to 120 ms (b) is the top of bedrock. The 48375.5 shot
gather indicates an apparent updip direction to the east at this location. The 48389.5 shot
gather supports the interpretation in Figures 6.17b and d of discontinuity and offset in the
bedrock horizon at approximately CDP location 48391. Based on shot gather reflection
character, an area of disrupted bedrock is interpreted between CDP’s 48380 and 48408
(indicated on the x-axis of interpreted gathers by arrows).
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in a calculated depth of the bedrock horizon estimated using the stacking velocity would
result at such locations. The bedrock horizon event is severely distorted in the 48389.5
source location gather at near offsets, and this supports the interpretation of the
discontinuity at CDP location 48391 on the stacked sections in Figures 6.17b and 6.17d.
Based on disruptions in the character of the bedrock horizon in the shot gathers in
Figure 6.19b, an area of bedrock disturbance resulting from mine-related subsidence
processes is evident between CDP locations 48380 and 48408. Therefore, it is apparent
that a relatively high potential risk for future surface collapse exists along this section of
the roadway. Cross-hole radar data analyses conducted subsequent to this interpretation
indicated that disruption of the bedrock horizon in this region has occurred between the
boreholes and directly beneath the seismic line (Appendix D). The interpreted extent of
the range of subsurface disruption is also supported by the character of near surface
reflectors (within the overburden) in this area, which exhibit apparent dip and offset
across this CDP range on the seismic sections (Figure 6.17). The lateral extent of the
interpreted area of disturbance is indicated by the x-axis arrows in Figures 6.17b and
6.17d, and is also indicated by dashed vertical lines across the bedrock horizon.
Applying NMO corrections using velocities that best flattened the bedrock event to these
shot gathers resulted in a certain amount of smoothing of such sub-spread length features
on the stacked sections. However, by paying attention to event character in shot gathers
(Figure 6.19) during stacked data interpretation, such features were not overlooked.
A void was encountered beneath the bedrock surface at CDP location 48380
during 1999 drilling that was conducted at approximately the same time as the seismic
survey (Figure 6.18). The geologic cross-section interpreted from 1999 drill logs
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indicates a coherent and continuous bedrock surface to the east of this location (across the
disrupted area interpreted from the seismic data), because a well logged at CDP location
48420 indicated an intact bedrock surface. The mine map (Figure 6.1) indicates that the
southwest end of a coal pillar (with a northeast strike) is present beneath line GUE-I70-1
between road stations 48375 and 48400. Based on the location of the interpreted area of
disruption (between road stations 48380 and 48408), two different mechanisms (pit or
sag subsidence, see Appendix A) were considered as the responsible mechanism for the
observed bedrock horizon disruption. A complete crushing of the pillar between road
stations 48375 and 48400 would have likely resulted in a broad region of bedrock
subsidence, but the seismic data indicate that bedrock is intact and at a relatively high
elevation at road station 48380 (Figure 6.17). It therefore appears that the observed
bedrock disruption resulted from a collapse of the bedrock horizon into the mine room
located to the immediate southeast of the coal pillar. Cross-hole radar data analyses and
2002 drill log data indicate that the mine map in Figure 6.1 has placed the eastern edge of
this coal pillar too far to the east (Appendix D).
6.6.3 Line EBPassYY
The processed and stacked line EBPassYY data are shown in Figure 6.20. This
line was acquired to the north of the previous roadway collapse feature (Figure 6.1). The
reflection event imaged at 105 to 120 ms (Figure 6.20a) correlates to shot gather events
and drill log data, and is the top of bedrock (Figure 6.20b). Bedrock is seen to be
continuous across the length of line EBPassYY from the time sections and the
uninterpreted (Figure 6.20c) and interpreted (Figure 6.20d) depth sections, except for
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Figure 6.20. Line EBPassYY stacked section with fold (TR_FOLD) plot (a). The reflection at 105 to 115 ms (a), is the top of
bedrock (b). The color bar on the bottom x-axis of the uninterpreted section (a) shows bedrock horizon stacking velocities.
Uninterpreted (c) and interpreted (d) depth sections are also shown. CDP location numbers (CDP_X) correspond to road
stations (road stations are given in feet from the western county line). The bedrock horizon is continuous across the section,
except between CDP_X 48329 and 48354 (indicated by x-axis arrows), where discontinuity is interpreted. (continued)
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(c) and (d) Line EBPassYY stacked depth section.
between CDP locations 48329 and 48354. In this range (indicated in Figures 6.20b and
6.20d by arrows on the x-axis and normal faults on seismic data), the bedrock horizon is
interpreted to have been down-dropped, and experienced significant disruption resulting
from pit-type mechanism (Appendix A) mine-related subsidence processes. Cross-hole
radar data analyses indicate that disruption of the bedrock horizon in this region has
occurred between the boreholes and directly beneath the seismic line (Appendix D). The
mine map in Figure 6.1 indicates that a mine room is present beneath line EBPassYY to
the immediate east of road station 48330. Cross-hole radar data analyses and drill log
data suggest that the mine map has placed the eastern edge of the coal pillar at 48330 too
far to the east (Appendix D).
The stacking velocities slowly increase towards the west across the disrupted
bedrock region, and the horizon would not stack coherently across this region at any of a
wide range of applied stacking velocities (Figure 6.12). Based on the apparent
differences in depth on the seismic sections, the downward displacement of the horizon is
estimated from the seismic data to be between 3 and 4 ft in the CDP location ranges of
48329 and 48339, and 48348 and 48354. Between CDP locations 48339 and 48348, it
appears that a greater amount of downward displacement has occurred. Disruption
responsible for a seismic anomaly does not necessarily need to be centered directly
beneath the seismic line, due to the Fresnel zone concept (the diameter of the Fresnel
zone at the time of the bedrock horizon for these data is about 23 ft). Low amplitude
scattering was recorded above the down-dropped bedrock across the disrupted region,
and is possibly the result of an impedance contrast that formed from overburden material
subsidence into the collapse feature. Alternatively, this low amplitude energy could have
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resulted from out of plane scattering related to previous remediation efforts conducted to
the south of this line (i.e. backfilling of the previous roadway collapse feature). The fact
that the previous collapse feature was located approximately 20 feet to the south of this
line however (centered at station 48345 in the eastbound travel lane) suggests that the
latter is less likely.
A geologic cross-section interpreted from drill logs acquired during 1999 along
the north berm of the eastbound passing lane is shown in Figure 6.21. The cross-section
interpreted from these logs indicates that bedrock is continuous across the length of the
seismic line, except for in the vicinity of the disrupted zone interpreted from the seismic
data. Drill log data indicate that a bedrock low exists in the approximate road station
range of 48314 to 48340. Voids were also encountered during drilling below the bedrock
surface in this region. The western edge of the disturbed area in seismic data is about 10
feet to the east of the bedrock low interpreted from the drill log data, indicating that
interpretation based on drill log data placed the western edge too far to the west, or that
the seismic data were not able to exactly delineate the western edge of disturbance. It is
not possible from these data alone, to say whether these features (both with lateral extents
of about 25-26 ft) are the same, as the drill log data and seismic data were not co-
registered to the same survey. Based on the modeled results in Figure 6.10, the apparent
width of a subsidence feature interpreted from seismic data would be expected to be
somewhat less than the actual width of the feature, which may also explain this
interpretation difference.
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Figure 6.21. Geologic cross-section interpreted from 1999 drill log data acquired along
the north edge of the eastbound passing lane of I-70 in the previous roadway collapse
region (Modified from BBC&M Inc., 1999).
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A drill log at road station 48340 indicated that bedrock had not subsided at this
location (Figure 6.21), however, the seismic data (Figure 6.20) indicate that mine-related
subsidence processes have been active to the east of road station 48340. Analyses of
cross-hole radar data conducted during 2002, subsequent to the interpretation of these
seismic data, indicate that the area of mine-related bedrock horizon disruption directly
beneath line EBPassYY extends from road stations 48314 to 48354 (Appendix D). Voids
were also encountered beneath the bedrock surface in a well drilled at road station 48360.
The seismic data show an intact bedrock surface at this location, and indicate that these
voids have not yet propagated upwards through the bedrock surface.
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CHAPTER 7
DEVELOPMENT OF SH-WAVE INTROMISSION ANGLE THEORY
7.1 Overview
With regards to SH plane-wave reflection coefficients, there exists an incidence
angle (intromission angle) for which the reflection coefficient is zero (total transmission)
given certain material property conditions. A SH-wave intromission angle is somewhat
analogous to a P-wave intromission angle (Ziomek, 1995) that can occur under certain
conditions in acoustic media. By knowing the conditions under which a SH-wave
intromission angle can occur, the recognition of such an angle from SH-wave reflection
events in field source or CMP sorted gathers could allow certain inferences regarding
media physical property relationships to be made. This concept could be especially
useful for characterizing the deepest detectable interface, in a situation where it consists
of a relatively high shear velocity layer overlying a layer of lower shear velocity, as a
critically refracted arrival (which would allow the velocity of the lower layer to be easily
determined) would not be recorded. The SH-wave intromission angle concept and its
potential applications in seismology have not previously been discussed in literature to
my knowledge. A brief overview of the concept is presented, along with equations
(derived from the SH plane-wave reflection coefficient) to define this angle.
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7.2 P-Wave Intromission Angle in Acoustic Media Overview
For P-waves in acoustic media, the plane-wave reflection coefficient (Rayleigh
reflection coefficient) for any angle of incidence is defined by the following equation
(nomenclature modified from Ziomek, 1995):
P1P1 = Z2cosșP1P1 - Z1cosșP1P2 / Zs2cosșP1P1 + Zs1cosșP1P2 (7.1)
Where P1P1 is the P-wave reflection coefficient, șP1P1 is the angle of P-wave incidence
and reflection, șP1P2 is the angle of P-wave refraction, and Z1 and Z2 are the incident
(medium 1) and refracted (medium 2) media compressional impedances.
The P-wave acoustic media reflection coefficient is zero when the incidence angle
is equal to the P-wave intromission angle (șI), defined by Ziomek (1995) as:
șI = sin-1(((ȡ2 / ȡ1)2 - (Vp1 / Vp2)2) / ((ȡ2 / ȡ1)2 - 1))1/2 (7.2)
Or written in terms of impedances and velocities from the Ziomek (1995) equation as:
șI = sin-1(((Z2 / Z1)2 - 1) / ((Z2 /Z1)2 - (Vp2 / Vp1)2))1/2 (7.3)
Where ȡ1 and ȡ2 are the incident and refracted media densities, and Vp1 and Vp2 are the
incident and refracted media compressional velocities.
The P-wave intromission angle is a particular real angle of incidence between
zero and 90 degrees. In order to obtain a real solution to either of the equations
describing this angle, it is seen that the numerator and denominator in the equations must
have the same sign, and the absolute value of the numerator must be equivalent to or less
than the absolute value of the denominator. From Equation 7.2 it is seen that these
conditions will be met if: (ȡ2 / ȡ1) ≥ (Vp1 / Vp2) ≥ 1, or if: 1 ≥ (Vp1 / Vp2) ≥ (ȡ2 / ȡ1).
When: (ȡ2 / ȡ1) = (Vp1 / Vp2) = 1, the reflection coefficient is zero for all incidence angles.
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Compressional Velocity (Vp) and
Physical Property Scenario
Density (ȡ) Relationships
1 (Vp1 / Vp2) > 1 > (ȡ2 / ȡ1)
2 (ȡ2 / ȡ1) > (Vp1 / Vp2) > 1
3 (ȡ2 / ȡ1) > 1 > (Vp1 / Vp2)
4 1 > (Vp1 / Vp2) > (ȡ2 / ȡ1)
Table 7.1. Incident and refracted media (media 1 and 2 respectively) physical property
scenarios used to model the synthetic seismograms and obtain the solutions presented in
Figures 7.1a - 7.1d.
P-wave intromission angle occurrence in acoustic media and potential usefulness
are demonstrated using synthetic seismograms and plots of reflection coefficient
magnitudes and phase (Figures 7.1a - 7.1d), generated for the four physical property
scenarios in Table 7.1. A P-wave intromission angle has been observed in actual field
data, acquired in a marine environment (at a water and low velocity mud interface) by
Winokur and Bohn (1968). Synthetic seismograms were generated using an acoustic
finite-difference modeling code in the ProMAX software package (for details regarding
this code and modeling parameters see Chapter 6). A zero-phase Ricker wavelet (center
source frequency of 100 Hz) was used for each model. Each model consisted of two
layers (layer one parameters represent water in all cases, and layer two parameters vary
between cases), with the interface between layers at a depth of 60 ft. Relationships
between layer densities and P-wave velocities in models are listed in Table 7.1, and the
actual density (units of g/cm3) and velocity (units of m/s) values used for each model are
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(a) Synthetic data, reflection coefficients, and phase changes as a function of incident
angle for scenario 1 in Table 7.1.
Figure 7.1. Synthetic seismograms (modeled with a center source frequency of 100 Hz)
and plots showing plane-wave reflection coefficients (magnitude) and phase changes
(versus incidence angle) resulting from an incident P-wave in acoustic media, for the
scenarios in Table 7.1: (a) scenario 1, (b) scenario 2, (c) scenario 3, and (d) scenario 4.
The density (units of g/cm3) and velocity (units of m/s) values used for modeling are
shown on each of the outputs in this figure. Absolute offset values from the source on the
x-axis of synthetic data are in feet. Values of critical distance (xc), critical angle (șc),
intromission distance (xI), and intromission angle (șI) are indicated. Each model
consisted of two layers, with the interface between layers at 60 ft depth. See text for
discussion. Plots were generated using the code listed subsequently. (continued)
208
(b) Synthetic data, reflection coefficients, and phase changes as a function of incident
angle for scenario 2 in Table 7.1. (continued)
209
(c) Synthetic data, reflection coefficients, and phase changes as a function of incident
angle for scenario 3 in Table 7.1. (continued)
210
(d) Synthetic data, reflection coefficients, and phase changes as a function of incident
angle for scenario 4 in Table 7.1.
211
shown on the outputs presented in Figures 7.1a - 7.1d. The plots of reflection coefficient
magnitudes and phase presented in Figures 7.1a - 7.1d were generated using the program
p_acoustic.m (written in MATLAB, version 6), and the short source code for this
program is listed subsequently.
Figure 7.1a contains solutions for a situation where: (Vp1 / Vp2) > 1 > (ȡ2 / ȡ1). In
this case no angle of intromission occurs, and because the incident media (medium 1)
velocity is less than the refracted media velocity (medium 2) no critical refraction occurs
either. The refracted media impedance is less than that of the incident media, and as a
result a polarity reversal occurs from the model interface (the phase is constant with
offset). A low amplitude multiple reflection (at around twice the arrival time of the
primary) is seen on each of synthetic seismograms presented.
For the Figure 7.1b model parameters: (ȡ2 / ȡ1) > (Vp1 / Vp2) > 1. The reflection
event has the same polarity as the direct wave up until the intromission angle (about 53
degrees), at which the reflection coefficient goes to zero, and beyond which a polarity
reversal is evident. In this case there is no refracted arrival, which would allow an easy
velocity determination of the lower model layer. Assuming we did not already know the
model parameters, we could determine the interface depth and the average velocity of
medium 1 above the interface from the arrival time and apparent NMO velocity of the
reflection. By observing the intromission distance (xI) and using the calculated interface
depth we could then determine the angle of intromission. Because the polarity of the
reflection and direct arrival are similar at normal incidence we would know that the
media property relationships must be: (ȡ2 / ȡ1) ≥ (Vp1 / Vp2) ≥ 1, and we could then (by
212
assuming a flat interface, and a density relationship if density measurements were not
available) approximate the velocity of the lower layer.
For the Figure 7.1c model parameters: (ȡ2 / ȡ1) > 1 > (Vp1 / Vp2), and as a result no
intromission angle is observed, but a critical angle occurs at about 42 degrees (the critical
distance, xc, is indicated on the synthetic seismogram). For the Figure 7.1d model
parameters: 1 > (Vp1 / Vp2) > (ȡ2 / ȡ1), and as a result both an intromission angle and a
critical angle are observed (an intromission angle value is always less than a critical angle
value). A polarity reversal is seen to occur across the intromission angle, with the phase
then constant until the critical angle is reached, beyond which the phase is variable
(Figure 7.1d). FDTD modeled acoustic P-wave snapshots using the Figure 7.1d model
parameters are shown in Figure 7.2. The reflection amplitude null and phase changes
indicated in Figure 7.2d are associated with the intromission angle occurrence for these
media physical property conditions.
7.3 Conditions for SH-Wave Intromission Angle
When an interface between two homogenous, isotropic solids is parallel to the
polarization of an incident SH-wave, only scattered SH-waves are generated, regardless
of the incident angle (Chapter 2). For SH-waves, the reflection coefficient for any angle
of incidence is defined by the following equation (nomenclature modified from Shearer,
1999):
SH1SH1 = Zs1cosșSH1SH1 - Zs2cosșSH1SH2 / Zs1cosșSH1SH1 + Zs2cosșSH1SH2 (7.4)
Where SH1SH1 is the SH-wave displacement amplitude reflection coefficient, șSH1SH1 is
the angle of SH-wave incidence and reflection, șSH1SH2 is the angle of SH-wave
213
214
Figure 7.2. FDTD modeled snapshots of acoustic P-wave scattering from a planar interface (located at 60 feet depth), for the
physical properties scenario number 4 in Table 7.1: (a) 35 ms, (b) 45 ms, (c) 55 ms, and (d) 65 ms. The reflection amplitude null
and phase change in (d) are associated with intromission angle occurrence under these modeled media conditions.
refraction, Zs1 is the incident media (medium 1) shear impedance, and Zs2 is the refracted
media (medium 2) shear impedance.
The SH-wave reflection coefficient is zero when the incidence angle is equal to
the SH-wave intromission angle (șI), and this occurs when:
Zs1cosșI = Zs2cosșSH1SH2 (7.5)
To solve for șI:
Zs1 / Zs2 = cosșSH1SH2 / cosșI (7.6)
Using sin2x + cos2x = 1:
Zs1 / Zs2 = (1 - sin2șSH1SH2)1/2 / (1 - sin2șI)1/2 (7.7)
And using Snell’s law to eliminate șSH1SH2:
Zs1 / Zs2 = (1 - (Vs2 / Vs1)2 sin2șI)1/2 / (1 - sin2șI)1/2 (7.8)
Which yields a solution for șI in terms of media shear velocities and impedances:
șI = sin-1(1 - (Zs1 / Zs2)2 / (Vs2 / Vs1)2 - (Zs1 / Zs2)2)1/2 (7.9)
Or a solution for șI in terms of media shear velocities and densities:
șI = sin-1((Vs2 / Vs1)2 - (ȡ1 / ȡ2)2 / (Vs2 / Vs1)4 - (ȡ1 / ȡ2)2)1/2 (7.10)
Where ȡ1 and ȡ2 are the incident and refracted media densities, and Vs1 and Vs2 are the
incident and refracted media shear velocities.
The SH-wave intromission angle is a particular real angle of incidence between
zero and 90 degrees. In order to obtain a real solution to either of the equations
describing this angle above, it is seen that the numerator and denominator in the
equations must have the same sign, and the absolute value of the numerator must be
equivalent to or less than the absolute value of the denominator. From Equation 7.9 it is
seen that these conditions will be met if: (Zs1 / Zs2) ≥ 1 ≥ (Vs2 / Vs1), or if: (Vs2 / Vs1) ≥
215
Physical Property Scenario Shear Velocity (Vs) and Impedance (Zs) Relationships
1 1 > (Vs2 / Vs1) = (Zs1 / Zs2)
2 (Zs1 / Zs2) > 1 > (Vs2 / Vs1)
3 (Vs2 / Vs1) = (Zs1 / Zs2) > 1
4 (Vs2 / Vs1) > 1 > (Zs1 / Zs2)
Table 7.2. Incident and refracted media (media 1 and 2 respectively) physical property
scenarios used to obtain the solutions presented in Figures 7.3 and 7.4.
1 ≥ (Zs1 / Zs2). When: (ȡ1 / ȡ2) = (Vs2 / Vs1) = 1, the reflection coefficient is zero for all
incidence angles.
In order to demonstrate SH-wave intromission angle occurrence and potential
usefulness in elastic media, plots of reflection coefficients and phase (along with
refraction coefficients, square root energy coefficients and energy coefficients) were
generated for the four physical property scenarios listed in Table 7.2, and are shown in
Figures 7.3a - 7.3d. The relationships between the layer densities and shear velocities
used to obtain the solutions presented are listed in Table 7.2, and the actual density and
velocity values used for each case are listed on the plots presented as Figures 7.3a - 7.3d.
The solutions in Figures 7.3a - 7.3d were obtained using the program PSHSV (written in
MATLAB, version 6), and the source code for this program is described and listed in
Appendix B. Synthetic SH-wave reflection seismograms were also generated using the
Sierra (Landmark Graphics Corporation) modeling program, for physical property
scenarios 1 and 2 in Table 7.2, and are shown in Figure 7.4. An impedance contrast was
specified at 29.5 feet depth for the synthetic models, with the shear velocity, impedance,
and density relationships that were used shown on the seismograms in Figure 7.4.
216
217
(a) Solutions for scenario 1 in Table 7.2.
Figure 7.3. Amplitude, square root energy, and energy coefficients, and phase changes from an incident SH-wave, for scenarios
in Table 7.2: (a) scenario 1, (b) scenario 2, (c) scenario 3, and (d) scenario 4. Density (ȡ) units are g/cm3, and shear velocity
(Vs) units are m/s. See text for a discussion of plots. Plots generated using the PSHSV code in Appendix B. (continued)
218
(b) Solutions for scenario 2 in Table 7.2. (continued)
219
(c) Solutions for scenario 3 in Table 7.2. (continued)
220
(d) Solutions for scenario 4 in Table 7.2.
Figure 7.4. Synthetic SH-wave reflection seismograms (modeled with a center source
frequency of 100 Hz), for the scenarios in Table 7.2: (a) scenario 1, and (b) scenario 2.
The shear velocity, impedance, and density relationships used are shown on the plots.
Absolute offset values from the source on the x-axes are in feet. The intromission
distance (xI) in (b) is indicated. Each model consisted of two layers, with the interface
between layers at a depth of 29.5 ft. See text for discussion.
221
Figures 7.3a and 7.4a contain solutions for a situation where: 1 > (Vs2 / Vs1) = (Zs1
/ Zs2). In this case no angle of intromission occurs, and no critical angle occurs because
the incident media (medium 1) velocity is less than that of the refracted media (medium
2). The refracted media impedance is greater than that of the incident media, and no
change in phase occurs from the media interface (phase is constant with offset).
For the Figures 7.3b and 7.4b model parameters: (Zs1 / Zs2) > 1 > (Vs2 / Vs1). The
reflected SH-wave phase is constant until the intromission angle (about 46 degrees), at
which the reflection coefficient goes to zero, and beyond which a 180 degrees phase shift
of the reflected pulse is evident. In this case there is no critically refracted wave, which
should allow an easy velocity determination of the lower layer from field data. Assuming
we has acquired a source (or CMP gather) over media with these physical properties, and
we did not already know the media properties, we could determine the interface depth
and the average velocity of medium 1 above the interface using arrival time and an
apparent NMO velocity of the reflection. By observing the intromission distance (in the
vicinity of which a dimming of the event amplitude may be noticeable, or beyond which
a phase shift may be recognizable) and using the calculated interface depth, we could
then determine the angle of intromission. Because the polarity of the reflection event and
the direct arrival in field data would be similar at normal incidence for these media
properties, we would know that the media property relationships must be: (Zs1 / Zs2) ≥ 1
≥ (Vs2 / Vs1). We could then (by assuming a flat interface, and a density relationship if
density measurements were not available) approximate the velocity of the lower layer. If
a reflection beneath this lower layer was recorded in field data, the velocity of the lower
layer could be approximated using an approach such as the Dix (1955) method.
222
However, in a situation where no reflection from beneath the lower model layer was
recorded, the intromission angle approach for estimating the lower layer velocity could
be especially useful.
For the Figure 7.3c solutions: (Vs2 / Vs1) = (Zs1 / Zs2) > 1, and as a result no
intromission angle is observed, but a critical angle occurs at about 65 degrees. For the
Figure 7.3d solutions: (Vs2 / Vs1) > 1 > (Zs1 / Zs2), and as a result both an intromission
angle and a critical angle are observed. A 180 degrees phase shift for the reflected SH-
pulse is seen to occur at the intromission angle (about 42 degrees), and the phase is then
constant until the critical angle (at about 64 degrees) is reached, beyond which the
reflected pulse phase is variable.
7.4 Source Code Listing: p_acoustic.m
The MATLAB program p_acoustic.m is listed next:
% p_acoustic.m - written and last modified by Erich D. Guy on 3/27/02 %%%%%%%%

% Program computes the magnitude of reflection coefficients (Rayleigh reflection
% coefficients) and phase for compressional plane wave scattering from a planar
% interface in acoustic media.
% User input = P-wave velocity and density values for incident and refracted media.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
clear all; close all;
% User Input
Vp1 = input ('Enter Vp1 (Incident Medium P-Wave Velocity): ');
Vp2 = input ('Enter Vp2 (Refracted Medium P-Wave Velocity): ');
Rho1 = input ('Enter Rho1 (Incident Medium Density): ');
Rho2 = input ('Enter Rho2 (Refracted Medium Density): ');
thetadeg = 0.01:.1:89.99; % Incident angles in degrees

deg = pi/180; rad = 180/pi;
thetarad = thetadeg*deg;
pp = sin(thetarad)/Vp1; % Horizontal slowness
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Zp1=Vp1*Rho1; Zp2=Vp2*Rho2; % Impedances
% Reflection and refraction angle cosines

costhetaP1P1 = Vp1*(sqrt((1/(Vp1^2))-(pp.^2)));
costhetaP1P2 = Vp2*(sqrt((1/(Vp2^2))-(pp.^2)));
% Critical angle
P1P2thetac = (asin(Vp1/Vp2));
% P intromission angle
thetaI = asin(sqrt((((Rho2/Rho1)^2)-((Vp1/Vp2)^2))/(((Rho2/Rho1)^2)-1)));
% Reflection coefficients
P1P1 = (Rho2*Vp2*costhetaP1P1-
Rho1*Vp1*costhetaP1P2)./(Rho2*Vp2*costhetaP1P1+Rho1*Vp1*costhetaP1P2);
% Plot solutions
set(0,'Units','normal');
ss = get(0,'ScreenSize');
pos = [ss(3)/2-0.8/2,ss(4)/2-0.6/2,.8,.4];
nb = [0,0,.5];
figure('Units','normal','Position',pos,'Name','Incident P-Wave In Medium

1','NumberTitle','off');
subplot(1,2,1);
plot(thetadeg,abs(P1P1),'b-','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Amplitude Coefficients (Magnitude)');
legend('Reflected P');
set(legend,'position',[.001 .003 .113 .067]);
grid on;axis([0 90 -0.05 1.05]);
set(gca,'XTick',0:15:90);
xlabel('Incidence Angle (degrees)');
set(gca,'YTick',0:.25:2);
ylabel('A / A_0');
text(-33,1.1,'Incident P-Wave','fontweight','bold','color',nb);
text(-33,1.05,'In Medium 1','fontweight','bold','color',nb);
N = num2str(Vp1);text(-33,.95,'Vp_1 =','color',nb);text(-21,.95,(N),'color',nb);
O = num2str(Vp2);text(-33,.88,'Vp_2 =','color',nb);text(-21,.88,(O),'color',nb);
P = num2str(Rho1);text(-33,.81,'\rho_1 =','color',nb);text(-21,.81,(P),'color',nb);
Q = num2str(Rho2);text(-33,.74,'\rho_2 =','color',nb);text(-21,.74,(Q),'color',nb);
R = num2str(Rho1*Vp1);text(-33,.67,'Z_1 =','color',nb);text(-21,.67,(R),'color',nb);
S = num2str(Rho2*Vp2);text(-33,.60,'Z_2 =','color',nb);text(-21,.60,(S),'color',nb);
W = num2str(thetaI*rad);text(-33,.38,'\theta_I =','color',nb);
text(-23,.38,(W),'color',nb);
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X = num2str(real(P1P2thetac)*rad);text(-33,.31,'\theta_c Refracted P =','color',nb);
text(-33,.24,(X),'color',nb);
Y = num2str(Rho2/Rho1);text(-33,.10,'\rho_2/\rho_1 =','color',nb);
text(-19,.10,(Y),'color',nb);
Z = num2str(Vp1/Vp2);text(-33,.03,'Vp_1/Vp_2 =','color',nb);
text(-33,-.04,(Z),'color',nb);
subplot(1,2,2);
plot(thetadeg,angle(P1P1)*rad,'b-','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Phase Changes');
grid on;
axis([0 90 -200 200]);
set(gca,'XTick',0:15:90);
xlabel('Incidence Angle (degrees)');
set(gca,'YTick',-180:90:180);
ylabel('Phase Angle (degrees)');
% End program
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CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
This dissertation has improved near-surface characterization potential by testing
and developing non-intrusive methodologies, analyzing key aspects of high-resolution
multicomponent reflection surveying, and designing effective data analysis workflows.
This chapter summarizes the importance and practical application, of developments and
findings that were attained through this dissertation, and provides recommendations on
certain topics for future research.
8.1 Importance of Considering P- and S-Wave Imaging Potential Prior to

Conducting High-Resolution Reflection Surveys
Research concerning the effectiveness of near-surface P- and S-wave reflection
surveys for mapping features in the shallow earth was conducted. Factors influencing the
effectiveness of common-mode P- and S-wave reflection information for allowing near-
surface horizons to be imaged, and discontinuities to be detected were described. Results
of this study demonstrate the necessity of considering the probable usefulness of
recording and analyzing different data components/wave-type reflections for meeting the
objectives of a project, prior to conducting a near-surface seismic reflection survey.
226
Conducting a multicomponent data acquisition test phase and/or modeling based
on geophysical well log information prior to a high-resolution reflection survey will have
associated cost, and for this reason such work is not typically done. Information obtained
through this type of pre-survey work however, will often outweigh the costs of
conducting it, as data components/wave-type reflections can be selected for acquisition
during the actual production-phase survey that will provide the best potential for meeting
project objectives. Dependent upon numerous factors, near-surface characterization may
be able to be most effectively accomplished through the acquisition of one particular data
component/wave-type reflection, or through the acquisition of multiple data
components/wave-type reflections.
The risk of acquiring only one reflection data component without first evaluating
the probability that it will allow project objectives to be successfully met can be great.
For example, in the case of the I-70 mine-subsidence project, seismic reflection survey
objectives would not have been able to be met if only the traditional ZZ (sometimes
called vertical-vertical, or P-P) reflection component had been acquired. Due to
numerous factors (discussed and demonstrated in this dissertation), the acquisition of SH-
wave reflection data was necessary for allowing the I-70 seismic reflection survey
objectives to be effectively met.
8.1.1 Applicability of P- and S-Wave Common-Mode Reflection Information
Due to the field study area subsurface conditions and acquired data
characteristics, the bedrock horizon could be effectively imaged using YY component
(sometimes called crossline-crossline, or SH-SH) reflection information, whereas it could
227
not be effectively imaged or imaged at all using other acquired components. S-wave
reflections from the top-of-bedrock were consistently identified in both XX component
(sometimes called inline-inline, or SV-SV) and YY component data, however, high
amplitude Rayleigh-type surface waves resulted in the optimum reflection window of XX
component data being relatively narrow. Because YY component field records had a
higher reflection signal-to-noise ratio, and a larger optimum reflection window than
corresponding XX component records, accurate estimates of S-wave stacking velocities
could be better obtained, and the targeted bedrock horizon could be more effectively
imaged (and its integrity more accurately inferred) using YY component data.
Although not effective relative to YY component data in the field study area, XX
component data acquisition and analysis may be worthwhile for other near-surface
characterization studies. The near-surface shear-velocity structure was such that high
amplitude Love wave noise did not prevent SH-reflection imaging in the I-70 study area.
In situations where detrimental Love wave noise does saturate the Y-receiver component
however (and prevents effective SH-wave reflection imaging), the XX component may
allow better common-mode S-wave reflection image construction if a large percentage of
incident SV-wave energy is not converted to P-wave energy at a target horizon, and if the
optimum target reflection window is adequate (this will be dependent upon reflection
arrival time, and characteristics of noise modes recorded on X-component receivers).
Although not an objective of this dissertation, and a topic requiring further research, it
may be advantageous to acquire and concurrently analyze multiple S-wave reflection data
components for the purpose of measuring near-surface media anisotropy.
228
S-waves were relatively insensitive to changes in overburden moisture content in
the study area subsurface, whereas common-mode P-wave reflections from the top-of-
saturated-overburden (located above the bedrock) were recorded in ZZ component data,
due to a large P-wave velocity increase across this interface. Airwave and high
amplitude Rayleigh-type surface wave noise had arrival times at near offsets in ZZ
component data that were similar to those of P-wave reflections from this interface. The
frequency content of these noise modes overlapped the optimum P-wave reflection
frequency range, and the necessity of suppressing these noise modes prior to stacking
resulted in a narrow optimum reflection window for this P-wave event. Event arrival
times and characteristics of recorded noise modes made it challenging to process and use
P-wave reflections from the top-of-saturated overburden in the study area.
Forward modeling, shot gather analyses, and consideration of reflection
coefficients indicated that common-mode P-wave reflections from impedance contrasts
beneath the top-of-saturated overburden were not observed in study area field data due to:
1) surface wave and airwave noise, 2) a high-P-wave reflection coefficient at the top-of-
saturated-overburden, 3) low P-wave reflection coefficients at deeper interfaces, and 4)
interference and poor resolution. The percentage of incident P-wave energy reflected (as
P-wave energy) from the top-of-bedrock was small relative to the percentage reflected
from the top-of-saturated overburden, and was also small relative to the percentage of
incident S-wave energy reflected (as S-wave energy) from the top-of-bedrock. Further,
the top-of-bedrock S-wave reflection in YY component data was not severely degraded
by airwave or surface wave noise, and the S-wave reflection window for this event was
wider than the P-wave reflection window for the top-of-saturated overburden event.
229
Because S-waves travel at lower velocity than P-waves, it is possible to increase
resolution potential by using S-wave reflections. In the I-70 study are for example, the
resolution potential of S-waves in dry overburden was calculated as being more than 1.7
times that of P-waves, and in saturated overburden the S-wave resolution potential was
calculated as being more than 4.7 times that of P-waves. Despite the dominant frequency
of recorded S-wave reflections being lower than that of P-wave reflections, recorded
dominant S-wavelengths were smaller than dominant P-wavelengths. The ability to
increase resolution potential (using S-waves) during near surface studies will be
dependent upon media P- and S-wave velocities, P- and S-wave frequencies that can be
generated and recorded, and absorption per unit wavelength of propagating P- and S-
waves in subsurface media.
This study demonstrated that due to differences in P- and S-wave propagation,
media compressional and shear impedance contrasts, and variations in receiver sensitivity
(as a function of orientation), it is necessary to consider the usefulness of recording and
analyzing different data components/wave-type reflections for meeting near-surface
seismic reflection survey objectives. In some situations, one particular component/wave-
type reflection may be necessary, whereas in other cases multiple components/wave-
types may be needed to image all of the targeted horizons. The concurrent analysis of P-
and S-wave reflection information also provides the potential in theory for allowing insitu
elastic media property variations (vertical and lateral) to be mapped in detail. This
objective was unable to be met in the field study area, do to the small number of
reflection events in recorded data, the fact that observed P- and S-wave reflections did
not correlate to similar subsurface interfaces, and the lack of insitu density measurements.
230
8.1.2 Potential for Improving Near-Surface Characterization Using Converted-
Mode Reflection Imaging
The potential for near-surface mode-converted (P-S and S-P) seismic reflection
imaging was tested and evaluated. This topic was addressed experimentally using high-
resolution 9C field reflection data that were acquired over relatively flat-lying geology
(consisting of unsaturated and saturated overburden materials overlying consolidated
units), as well as numerically/theoretically using Zoeppritz equation solutions and elastic-
wave modeling. Primary converted-mode events, having arrival times and moveouts
similar to those predicted from calculations based on acquired common-mode reflection
information, were not observed in acquired multicomponent reflection field data.
Forward modeling results demonstrated that possible (resolution-related) advantages of
near-surface mode-converted reflection imaging could be achieved under noise-free
conditions. Findings of this study also suggested however, that due to the relatively low
amplitudes of mode-converted events and the presence of detrimental random and
coherent noise in field data, it would be difficult from a practical standpoint to use mode-
converted reflection imaging for improving near-surface characterization potential in
studies conducted elsewhere under similar near-surface conditions. Analysis methods
were developed that can be used as a basis for assessing converted-wave imaging
potential in future studies conducted elsewhere.
Factors affecting seismic mode-conversion imaging potential that were different
between previous petroleum multicomponent studies (in which effective P-S converted-
wave imaging has been accomplished) and the engineering-related I-70 multicomponent
field study were recognized. Whereas there is generally an amount of reflected mode-
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converted energy that is comparable to reflected common-mode energy (at moderate
angles of incidence) for interfaces targeted for petroleum converted-wave imaging, this
was not the case for the I-70 subsurface media conditions. At I-70 subsurface interfaces
of interest, it was found that (due to media impedance relationships) there was little
energy partitioned into converted-modes; scattered mode-converted (P-S and S-P) energy
was not comparable to scattered common-mode (P-P and S-S) energy at any incidence
angles. Further, arrival times of modeled mode-converted reflections from the I-70
interfaces were found to be similar to the observed arrival times of various modes of
high-amplitude coherent noise in the acquired field data. Contrary to this situation, deep-
earth converted-wave events targeted for imaging are often well separated in time and
space from other reflections and detrimental coherent noise modes.
Future field experimentation and theoretical work are necessary to further test and
develop the idea of near-surface converted-wave reflection imaging. Further field
experimentation is necessary in order to investigate the potential for converted-wave
imaging under different environmental/geologic conditions and noise (coherent and
random) levels. Further theoretical work is necessary in order to identify subsurface
media situations that may yield near-surface converted-mode reflections with amplitudes
that are comparable (at moderate angles of incidence and over a substantial range of
incident angles) to those of common-mode reflections.
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8.2 Factors Affecting SH-Wave Reflection Method Applicability for
Shallow Earth Characterization
near-surface horizons to be effectively imaged, and the delineation of subsurface
discontinuities were investigated and described. This was done through modeling and
analyses of SH-reflection data acquired during 1999 and 2001 in the vicinity of a
previous I-70 roadway collapse feature. Results from this study also demonstrated that
the SH-wave reflection technique could be used to image near-surface stratigraphy and
discontinuities in the subsurface that have developed as a result of mine-related
subsidence. A small number of reports have demonstrated that P-wave reflection
methods can provide a means for detecting subsidence activity, however, no examples of
using S-wave reflections for this purpose have been published in refereed literature to
date. By discussing and demonstrating capabilities and limitations of the SH-wave
reflection technique, this study has also increased understanding regarding the
practicality of using S-wave reflection information for near-surface characterization.
This is important considering that the number of published shallow seismic reflection
reports concerning S-waves is very small compared to the number concerning P-waves.
8.2.1 Shallow SH-Reflection Imaging in Complex and High Noise Environments
SH-wave reflection measurements were effective for characterizing the field test
area subsurface, but using these measurements to do so was challenging due to several
factors. The reflection signal-to-noise ratio of acquired SH-wave data suffered from
source-generated noise and high frequency components of traffic noise (which could not
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be suppressed without degrading reflection quality), and these factors often limited the
range of useful reflection offsets in recorded data. A highly heterogeneous (laterally and
vertically varying) subsurface required that investigations be conducted regarding data
resolution issues, velocity model construction methods, imaging approaches, and
subsurface interpretation criteria prior to data analysis workflow establishment.
This study demonstrated the importance of considering the vertical and lateral
resolution potential of acquired reflection data, as this was a key factor in allowing the
development of an effective processing and interpretation workflow for application to a
large data volume. Through forward modeling it was determined that it was not feasible
to image the complete geologic sequence at a given location in the field study area. Due
to numerous factors, modeling indicated that it was only feasible to image (using SH-
wave reflections) and base interpretations upon the overburden and bedrock interface.
Reflections correlating to this interface could consistently be identified in field records,
and resolution analyses indicated that vertical offsets on the order of several feet and
disrupted or discontinuous areas along this interface with lateral extent less than the
width of mined-out rooms could be inferred from processed reflection information.
Interpretations regarding near-surface media are often based upon shallow seismic
sections that were generated with the assumption of a laterally constant velocity field.
This study demonstrated that large lateral variations in near-surface media velocities are
possible, and must therefore be considered during processing in order to produce accurate
stacked time and depth sections. Over a lateral distance of one hundred feet, variations of
more than 20 percent were observed for average overburden S-wave velocities in the I-70
study area. Due to the low velocity of S-waves (relative to P-waves), the construction of
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an accurate velocity field for imaging purposes is much more important when using S-
wave reflections than when using P-wave reflections. An integrated velocity analysis
scheme based on shot gathers, constant velocity stacks, and semblance plots was
demonstrated to allow the construction of accurate velocity models, while at the same
time allowing potential drawbacks associated with each of the individual means for
establishing a subsurface velocity field to be avoided.
Due to lower data acquisition and analysis costs than seismic reflection CMP
methods, shallow earth characterization problems are often addressed using common-
offset imaging approaches. In some situations common-offset imaging can offer
additional advantages relative to CMP stacking, and the effectiveness of both approaches
for allowing the I-70 study objectives to be met was therefore evaluated. Common-offset
images that were generated contained a high amount of coherent noise, whereas through
the stacking process CMP sections were produced that had a much higher reflection
signal-to-noise ratio. Although a certain amount of smoothing of the bedrock horizon
was found to occur as a result of NMO corrections prior to CMP stacking, detailed
information regarding localized bedrock structure could still be inferred by paying
attention to the character of reflections in non-corrected field gathers. This study
demonstrated that although more expensive than common-offset imaging approaches,
CMP data acquisition and processing is necessary in some situations for allowing shallow
subsurface characterization to be accomplished using seismic reflection measurements.
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8.3 Potential Application of SH-Wave Intromission Angle Equations
Equations were derived and presented in this dissertation, which define an
incidence angle for which the SH-wave reflection coefficient is zero (i.e. an angle of
intromission). The potential application of inferring the presence of such an angle from
SH-wave reflection data was also discussed. Such equations and discussion on their
potential application have not been published in the seismology-related literature to date.
Conditions in terms of media density and shear velocity relationships, under
which the SH-wave reflection coefficient will be zero in theory, were described and
demonstrated in this dissertation. Based upon theory, recognition of a SH-wave
intromission angle from reflection events in field source- or CMP-gathers should allow
certain inferences regarding media physical property relationships to be made. This has
previously been demonstrated in the refereed literature under acoustic media conditions
through the recognition of a (somewhat analogous) P-wave angle of intromission in field
data, and was modeled for acoustic media situations in this dissertation.
The SH-wave intromission angle concept could be especially useful for
characterizing the deepest detectable media interface, in a situation where it consists of a
relatively high shear velocity layer overlying a layer of lower shear velocity (an SH-wave
intromission angle can also occur in the opposite case). In this situation a critically
refracted arrival (which would allow the velocity of the lower layer to be easily
determined) would not be recorded. The average velocity and thickness of the overlying
layer (relatively fast in this case) could be determined using the normal incidence arrival
time and measured NMO velocity of a SH-wave reflection. By observing the
intromission distance (in the vicinity of which a dimming of the event amplitude may be
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noticeable, or beyond which a phase reversal may be recognizable) and using the
calculated interface depth, the angle of intromission could then be determined. By then
considering the direct arrival and reflection (normal incidence) polarities (which would
be similar in this case), assuming a flat interface and a media density relationship (if
density measurements were not available), and applying the SH-wave intromission angle
equations, the shear velocity (and impedance) of the lower layer could be estimated.
Future work and field experimentation are necessary to test the SH-wave
intromission angle theory presented in this dissertation. Such work is necessary in order
to better isolate naturally occurring geologic situations where this theory may be applied,
to determine the practical application of this theory, and to determine the affect that
various factors (e.g. noise modes, other amplitude and phase variations with offset, and
interference) will have on the ability to infer a SH-wave intromission angle from field
reflection data.
8.4 Importance of Developed PSHSV Computer Program
A computer program (PSHSV) was developed that calculates and plots (as a
function of incident angle) amplitude (reflection and refraction/transmission) coefficients,
square root energy ratios, energy coefficients, and phase changes for elastic waves of P-,
SH-, or SV-type incident on a planar interface between elastic media. Source code for
the program is listed and described in this dissertation, and code such as this has not
previously been made publicly available.
The PSHSV program makes rapid analysis of results possible (program
functionality is demonstrated in this dissertation), and it was rigorously tested to ensure

237
solution accuracy. This is important considering the abundance of errors in previous
refereed publications related to seismic amplitude and energy partitioning equations. An
original and intuitive nomenclature that was used for equations in the program source
code is explained, and the equations are well documented in the source code (allowing
the program to be easily modified). Equations describing the amplitude and energy
partitioning of seismic waves at planar geologic interfaces have a wide range of
applications in the earth and physical sciences, and the PSHSV program will therefore be
useful for engineers and scientists that are conducting research, performing exploration
work, and/or teaching.
8.5 Applicability of Cross-Hole Radar for Subsidence Studies: Data

Acquisition and Analysis Considerations
The ability of cross-hole radar methods for providing useful information for mine-
related subsidence studies was demonstrated, by analyzing constant offset profile (COP)
and multiple offset gather (MOG) radar data that were acquired in the I-70 study area.
Data were analyzed, which were acquired using boreholes located near several
subsidence features that had been imaged using SH-wave seismic reflection. This study
demonstrated for the first time that cross-hole radar surveying could provide useful
information for mine-related subsidence studies. Results showed that cross-hole radar
surveys can provide insight into the nature and extent of fracturing and void space within
near-surface media, and reduce uncertainty regarding the locations and extent of mine
rooms, coal pillars, and seismically imaged subsidence features.
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8.5.1 Borehole Radar Data Acquisition Considerations
Factors influencing the decision on what type of borehole radar data to acquire
and analyze include the surveying objectives, radar system/antenna characteristics,
attenuation characteristics of subsurface media, and separation distances of available
boreholes. Single-hole radar measurements offer the potential for allowing physical
property changes associated with subsidence activity to be detected. Therefore, in studies
where the spacing of available boreholes prevents the recording of high-quality cross-
hole radar data, single-hole measurements can be considered as a valid option for
addressing subsidence concern. In cases where the spacing between wells is generally
small enough to allow the acquisition of high-quality COP and MOG cross-hole data
however, there are benefits of acquiring cross-hole as opposed to single-hole radar data.
It is worthwhile to first acquire and analyze COP data prior to MOG data acquisition.
For most commercial radar systems the antennas are omni-directional, meaning
that potential anomalies in recorded data can be spatially isolated more accurately and
efficiently by acquiring cross-hole measurements. Cross-hole surveys are also better
suited for addressing subsidence concern than single-hole surveys, because media
physical property distributions can be more accurately mapped between boreholes. An
additional factor that must be considered during the design of borehole radar surveys is
that the single-hole receiver response can be strongly influenced by conductive cable-
related affects, and such affects can severely complicate single-hole data analysis.
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8.5.2 Cross-Hole Radar Data Analysis Considerations
Processing and imaging flows were presented and discussed in this dissertation
for COP and MOG radar data. These flows yielded data-derived plots and images that
conjunctively served as a basis for interpretations regarding mine-subsidence activity in
the subsurface. The data analysis workflows presented in this dissertation, are robust
enough to serve as a basis (with modification of field data-specific process parameters)
for data analyses in other near-surface cross-hole radar studies.
Plots of average absolute amplitude versus depth were shown to be useful for
allowing signal loss related to increases in (fully saturated) media conductivity and
discontinuity scattering to be inferred. Field data amplitude anomalies correlated in
many cases with seismic reflection data discontinuities and fracture zones and voids that
were encountered during drilling. In studies where such correlations/interpretation
quality controls do not exist, consideration of the somewhat qualitative nature of such
amplitude information is important. Recent reports in the literature have demonstrated
that in order to quantitatively relate amplitude values with actual media conductivity and
attenuation values, it will be necessary to consider and correct for the affect that borehole
and surrounding media characteristics have on source and receiver antenna patterns.
Processed velocity tomograms were shown to be useful for allowing lateral and
vertical media variations, and increases in secondary porosity due to subsidence activity
between boreholes to be inferred in the I-70 subsurface. Media depths that were
investigated using cross-hole radar in the I-70 study area were below measured
groundwater levels. For studies that are concerned with detecting fracture zones and
voids in dry/non-fully saturated media, using velocity tomography to detect such features
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is possible but more difficult. This is because the relative dielectric constant of air is
much closer to relative dielectric constant values of geologic media than that of water,
and changes in secondary porosity in dry media will therefore result in measured velocity
variations of much smaller magnitude than those in fully saturated media cases.
Due to the problem of non-uniqueness, it is important to establish confidence in
processed tomograms prior to basing interpretations on them. In this study, such
confidence was established by considering only high-quality travel time picks for
inversions, initially conducting trial inversions using different starting models, placing
field data analysis-based constraints on inversion solutions, and quality-checking
tomogram velocities against drill logs and COP-data derived average velocities.
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APPENDIX A
SEISMIC REFLECTION FIELD TEST AREA
A.1 Location
The Interstate 70 (I-70) study area is a 2200 ft section of the highway (between
road stations 46700 and 48900) located between Cambridge and Old Washington in
Guernsey County, Ohio, approximately 4 miles east of Route 77 (Figure A.1). Road
stations are specified in feet from the western Guernsey county line. The site is located
in the unglaciated region of the Appalachian Plateau physiographic province and lies in a
broad valley with steep sloping sides that is drained by the Mud Run Creek. The Mud
Run Creek channel and drainage was significantly altered during the construction of I-70
from 1961-1962 (Hoffman et al., 1995), and surface drainage since construction
additionally flows into poorly graded ditches on the south and north sides of the roadway.
The ground surface elevation in the study area ranges from 821 feet at the east end (road
station 46700) to 830 feet at the west end (road station 48900).
A.2 Geologic Setting
Regionally, the area encompassing the I-70 study site (Figure A.2) is generally
characterized as relatively flat to mildly dipping Paleozoic sedimentary rocks with
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Figure A.1. Location of study area along I-70 in Guernsey County, Ohio, where the
roadway crosses approximately 2200 feet of the underground Murray Hill No. 2 mine.
The study area is east of Cambridge, Ohio, roughly 4 miles east of Route 77.
occasional gently plunging folds. Unconsolidated overburden materials in the region
were formed by periglacial (glacial margin) erosion and deposition processes. The upper
5-15 feet of material beneath the highway consists of silt and clay fill, and beneath this
fill are silts and clays down to bedrock, with interbedded lenses of sand and gravel
frequently observed. Geologic cross-sections for certain sections of the study area were
constructed using tightly spaced drill log information, and will be presented subsequently
in this dissertation. The total thickness of unconsolidated materials above bedrock
generally ranges from 30-50 feet across the study area, and is predominantly in the range
of 40-50 feet for most of the study area.
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244
Figure A.2. Photograph and map view of the I-70 study area (stations 46700 to 48900) in Guernsey County, Ohio.
Bedrock beneath the overburden correlates as the Lower Mahoning Sandstone and
Shale (upper Pennsylvanian series) member in the Lower Glenshaw Group, which is
formally classified as a unit consisting of interbedded sandy shales and sandstones
(Crouch et al., 1980). The inspection of drill cores acquired at various locations indicates
that the Lower Mahoning Sandstone and Shale can be predominantly characterized in the
I-70 study area as arenaceous shale. Bedrock above the coal ranges in thickness from 25
feet at the east end, to 10 feet at the west end of the study area, with a regional strike of
N30oE and a dip of less than one degree to the southeast. Stratigraphically, the Lower
Glenshaw Group is located at the bottom of the Conemaugh Formation, which is a thick
(average of 425 feet) repetitive sequence of sandstone, mudstone, sandy shale, and thin
beds of coal, clay, and limestone (Condit, 1912). The Conemaugh Formation lies just
below the Monongahela Formation, and just above the Upper Freeport Coal (No. 7) of
the Allegheny Formation (middle Pennsylvanian series).
The Upper Freeport Coal ranges from 5-7 feet thick at the study site, dips in some
locations as much as 5 or 6 degrees, and is underlain by claystone (also part of the
Allegheny Formation). The inspection of drill cores acquired at various locations
indicates that the Upper Freeport can be characterized in the I-70 study area as
bituminous coal. Condit (1912) indicates that abrupt changes in thickness of the Upper
Freeport coal are common in the Cambridge area, with the thickness generally varying
where the mine top is sandstone, but generally uniform where the mine top is shale. The
coal is reduced in thickness or entirely cut out in many places regionally where overlying
channel sandstones are present. Historically, the Upper Freeport has been the lead low
sulfur coal produced in the Pittsburgh area (Gray and Meyers, 1970), and was mined an
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average of 6 feet in thickness in the study area. The elevation of the bottom of the coal
ranges from 750-760 feet (60-80 feet below ground surface) in the study area.
Hydrologic well data (static water level measurements) were obtained on a
monthly basis from fully screened monitoring wells that penetrate to the mine level in the
study area. Measurements indicate that water levels in overburden materials have ranged
from within 20-30 feet of the ground surface (above 800 feet elevation) during 1999-
2001, and that the mine had been flooded during this period.
A.3 Subsidence History
Over 6000 abandoned underground mines (the majority of which are coal mines)
exist throughout 35 Ohio counties, and mine-related subsidence has been a problem in the
state dating back to 1923 (Crowell, 1997a). In the study area, I-70 crosses over
underground mine workings that are part of the abandoned Murray Hill No. 2 mine
complex. The location of the I-70 study area relative to the mine, superimposed on a
United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map is shown in Figure A.3. A
map showing the I-70 study area relative to the extent of the coal mine room and pillar
workings is presented in Figure A.4. The location and extent of the mine workings
relative to the highway are based upon a map of the Murray Hill No. 2 coal mine (USDI,
1935) that was drafted at a small scale during 1935. Certain areas of the mine workings
were not mapped during mining, and due to the small map scale and possible errors that
exist with regards to room and pillar locations on this map, the mapped spatial
relationship between these features and the I-70 road stations is regarded as approximate.
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Figure A.3. Location of the I-70 study area relative to the Murray Hill No. 2 coal mine,
superimposed on a USGS topographic map (Modified from BBC&M Inc., 1998).
Figure A.4. Location of the I-70 study area relative to the Murray Hill No. 2 coal mine
room and pillar workings (Modified from ODNR, 1981).
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During March of 1994 a mine-related collapse pit was recognized by ODOT in
the median of I-70 just east of the 47800 road marker, with two additional subsidence pits
identified off of the berm of the westbound lane just east of the 46800 road marker
(Figure A.5). Studies conducted during April of 1994 concluded that overburden in the
study area was weakened in some locations, and that a high risk for future subsidence at
certain locations along the roadway existed. During August of 1994 the abandoned,
underground Kings coal mine (down dip and south of the Murray Hill No. 2 mine) was
intercepted by a surface mining operation, and pumping of the mine water was necessary
to recover flooded mining equipment and complete surface mining at the location. As a
result, an extensive dewatering (and related roof support loss) of the Murray Hill No. 2
mine complex occurred (the Kings and the Murray Hill No. 2 are connected by main
entries). This dewatering facilitated localized roof failure and soil piping above the mine
workings in the I-70 study area (Hoffman et al., 1995), and subsidence of the weak
overburden resulted in numerous new areas of roadway depression (Figure A.5). ODOT
immediately conducted work (in conjunction with Gannett Fleming Corddry &
Carpenter) to address the accelerated subsidence caused by the mine dewatering. Drilling
conducted at this time encountered voids beneath the roadway and debris in mined areas,
indicating collapse of the mine roof had occurred in several locations in the study area.
Catastrophic failure of the eastbound lanes of I-70 occurred during March of 1995
between the 48300 and 48400 road markers (Figure A.5), resulting in an eastbound travel
lane surface collapse pit roughly 10 feet in diameter that was centered at road station
48345 (Figure A.6). As a consequence of this sudden collapse, a serious accident
involving four vehicles occurred, which resulted in vehicle damage and one person being
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249
Figure A.5. Study area map: locations of observed subsidence and roadway depression relative to mapped mine workings.
Road stations are in feet from the western county line.
hospitalized. The mine-water pumping conducted at the Kings mine location that
resulted in accelerated subsidence activity in the study area had ceased by this time, and
water levels had returned to pre-dewatering levels (Hoffman et al., 1995).
A.3.1 Remediation Efforts
Immediately subsequent to the recognition of collapse areas along the roadway
during 1994 and 1995, an aggregate material was used to fill depression features, and
they were then patched with asphalt. Following the 1995 collapse the roadway was
closed for 4 months, during which time a mine remediation project was conducted. This
work consisted of drilling and grouting along the study area to secure voids and fill rock
fractures, and the construction of reinforced land bridges (composed of reinforced
concrete) along the westbound lane. Two land bridges were constructed along the
westbound lane at this time: one between the 46850 and 46950 road markers, and one
between the 47400 and 48100 road markers.
After the roadway reopened, additional surface depressions developed during the
spring of 1996, at which time exploratory drilling revealed voids in several locations
where grouting had been previously performed. A second phase of grouting was then
conducted from May through September of 1997. During the two phases of grouting,
approximately 1800 exploratory boreholes were drilled along the roadway in a grid
pattern (Gannett Fleming Corddry & Carpenter, 1995) between the 46882 and 48822
road markers (hereafter referred to as the grouted region of the study area). Relatively
high grout takes were recorded between road stations 46850 and 48700, and grout was
actually pumped into approximately 1500 boreholes in this region (over 18,800 cubic
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Figure A.6. Photographs of the March 1995 surface collapse pit centered in the
eastbound travel lane of I-70 at road station 48345. The top photograph is from Gannett
Fleming Corddry & Carpenter, and the bottom photograph is from the Ohio Division of
the Federal Highway Administration.
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yards of grout were pumped into these holes). A map view of the study area showing the
approximate extent of grouting and a contour map indicating grout takes per borehole
relative the I-70 roadway lanes is presented in Figure A.7. Areas of grout takes are seen
to correlate fairly well in this figure with the mapped locations of mine room workings.
Three different types of grout mixtures were used in the study area: 1) barrier, 2)
production, and 3) 80-20 (ODOT, 1995a). A grout curtain was created by tremie
injecting a barrier grout mixture under low pressures into open mine voids that were
encountered in boreholes drilled along the south and north sides of the roadway lanes. A
spacing of 12 ft was used for barrier grout injection boreholes, and the barrier grout
mixture consisted of approximately 10 percent cement, 65 percent flyash, and 25 percent
sand and # 57 gravel. A production grout mixture was tremie injected under low
pressures within the grout curtain when boreholes encountered open mines, and this
mixture consisted of approximately 10 percent cement, 65 percent flyash, and 25 percent
sand. A spacing of 12 ft was used for production grout injection boreholes along the
eastbound and westbound lanes, and a spacing of 24 ft was used for production grout
boreholes drilled along the roadway berms and median. When boreholes encountered
open mine workings a low-pressure injection of a cement grout into the rock overburden
was also conducted. When boreholes encountered coal pillars, an 80-20 grout mixture
(with variable content, but predominantly consisting of 80 percent flyash and 20 percent
cement when used in the grouted region) was tremie injected into the coal pillars, and no
grouting of the rock overburden was conducted.
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253
Figure A.7. Map of the I-70 study area showing the approximate grouting limits and grout takes (in cubic yards per borehole).
Road stations are in feet from the western county line.
Since the completion of grouting phases in the study area, the roadway has not
collapsed again, however, concern has existed in regards to roadway stability. Research
has continued in the study area to further characterize the subsurface, to determine
whether subsidence processes are ongoing, and to locate potential areas along the
roadway with a risk for future collapse. As a result of subsidence and remediation efforts
(extensive drilling and grouting) that have occurred along the roadway, subsurface
conditions are somewhat more complicated. Cross-sections of the subsurface constructed
from tightly spaced drill logs are presented for certain sections of the study area in this
dissertation (Chapter 6 and Appendix D).
A.4 Coal Mine-Related Subsidence
Subsidence risk associated with coal mining is related to both the method used to
extract coal and the percentage of coal extracted. Additionally, risk is related to the
bearing capacity of the materials above and below the mine, the thickness and weight of
the mine overburden, fractures, hydrogeology, and changes in conditions within the mine
over time (Gray and Meyers, 1970; Speck and Bruhn, 1995). Accelerated subsidence
rates can be caused by soil piping, mine water circulation which can erode pillars and the
mine roof, and by fluctuations of mine water levels which can weaken overlying and
underlying rock, leaving the mine roof unsupported.
A.4.1 Underground Coal Mining Methods
Two mining methods are typically employed for underground coal extraction
(Isphording, 1992): longwall extraction, and the room and pillar method (which has
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historically been most commonly used in the United States). The longwall mining
method extracts long rectangular coal panels without leaving any pillars to support roof
rock, and although surface subsidence is usually certain, an advantage of the method is
that the related surface subsidence is somewhat controlled and occurs almost immediately
after extraction. The room and pillar method seeks to extract as much coal as possible
(typically 50-70 percent in Ohio mines) while still providing roof support with remaining
coal pillars, wooden or steel supports, and roof bolts (Crowell, 1997b). In some cases a
secondary (sometimes total) extraction of the remaining pillars is conducted in order to
extract the maximum possible amount of coal. Despite the fact that pillars remain in
cases where only an initial (partial) extraction is conducted, a disadvantage of this mining
method is that uncontrolled and unpredictable subsidence often occurs after mining has
ceased (ranging from immediately after to many years later).
A.4.2 Partial Extraction Mining Subsidence Mechanisms
Coal mine-related subsidence in cases where partial extraction (room and pillar)
mining has been conducted can generally be classified as either sag (also referred to as
trough) or pit (also referred to as pothole) subsidence. Sag subsidence is generally
characterized by the settling of a relatively broad area of the surface (referred to as a sag
or trough), while pit subsidence is generally characterized by the formation of a relatively
small and localized collapse feature (referred to as a chimney, crownhole, pit, or pothole).
Whereas sag subsidence features frequently fill with water when they intercept a water
table, pit features generally do not, as they drain into the underlying mine workings
(Crowell, 1997a).
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Typical examples of subsidence mechanisms into partially extracted room and
pillar coal mine workings are shown in Figure A.8. Sag subsidence (Figure A.8a) is
caused by the failure of coal pillars, either when pillars are crushed under the weight of
overburden, or when the overburden weight causes pillars to punch into an underlying
weak material. Somewhat similar to a situation in which the longwall extraction mining
method is employed, or to a situation in which a high amount of extraction is conducted
when the room and pillar method is employed, differential horizontal strains can occur
(with their magnitudes and directions changing as a function of time) in the marginal
region of a developing sag subsidence feature (Speck and Bruhn, 1995). As seen in
Figure A.8a, a zone of tensile horizontal strain has developed in the area corresponding to
the extent of sag subsidence, whereas a zone of compressive strain (oriented
perpendicular to tensile strain) has developed in the area laterally closer to the center of
the sag feature.
In the case of pit subsidence (Figure A.8b), coal pillars are relatively stable, and
subsidence at the surface results from the upward migration of collapse features that
develop due to the mine roof rock failing between coal pillars. Pit subsidence features
often correlate with the location of mine entry or working intersection locations (where
roof rock spans a large extracted area), with the adjacent pillars and overburden
remaining unaffected (Hoffman et al., 1995). Empirical data (from numerous partial
extraction coal mine subsidence studies) indicate that in situations where there is no
unconsolidated overburden, pit (subsidence) features are typically no larger than 16 feet
across or deep (Waltham, 1989). In situations where unconsolidated overburden does
exist however, a broader expression of subsidence may develop at the surface due to
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Figure A.8. Typical subsidence mechanisms into room and pillar coal mine workings
(scale is not implied): a) sag subsidence (after Whittaker and Reddish, 1989), and b) pit
subsidence (after Waltham, 1989). Sag subsidence results in the settling of a relatively
broad surface area, and is caused by the failure of coal pillars (when pillars are either
crushed or punched into the underlying material due to overburden weight). Pit
subsidence usually results in the formation of relatively small pit features at the surface,
and is caused by the upward migration of collapse features that develop due to mine roof
failure between coal pillars. See text for a detailed discussion of subsidence mechanisms.
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the downward migration of overburden material into a collapse feature. In certain cases,
numerous collapse features resulting from adjacent pit subsidence events have coalesced
upon reaching overburden materials, and have resulted in an even broader, non-typical
subsidence feature at the surface (Waltham, 1989).
Empirical criteria (developed through the analysis of data acquired in numerous
partial extraction mine subsidence studies) suggest that pit subsidence often occurs in
situations where the total thickness of overburden (unconsolidated and consolidated) is
less than 165 ft (Crowell, 1997a). For a general pit subsidence case, vertical subsidence
at the surface decreases with increasing overburden thickness and mine depth due to
incomplete compaction of collapse material (Rahn, 1996), and the lateral extent of
subsidence at the surface increases with increasing mine depth (Leveson, 1980). The
amount of vertical subsidence (in situations where piping of overburden materials does
not occur) usually does not exceed the height of the mined area. Detailed methods for
predicting the vertical amount and lateral extent of pit subsidence are presented in Brady
and Brown (1993), Waltham, (1989), and Whittaker and Reddish, (1989).
A.4.3 Interstate 70 Mining and Subsidence Mechanisms
The Murray Hill No. 2 coal mine, which underlies the study area was in operation
from 1912-1935, and was developed using room and pillar methodology (partial
extraction). Four main entries (each consisting of two parallel entries with a remaining
pillar between) were advanced through the mine workings with an orientation of N79oW.
Two of the mine entries (near markers 46900 and 47500) connected large sections of the
mine (Figure A.5), while the other two main entries (near markers 48100 and 48500)
258
were not continuous. Butt entries were driven to the left and right of the main entry
system, with an orientation of N11oE. The rooms from which most of the coal was
extracted were driven at right angles to the butt entries.
Two processes were identified as being responsible for accelerated subsidence
during 1994-1996 in the study area: mine roof failure and soil piping into mine voids
(Hoffman et al., 1995). Localized mine roof failures resulted due to the mine dewatering
caused by the pumping of the nearby Kings mine. Dewatering of the Murray Hill No. 2
mine left roofs unsupported, lowered lateral support pressures on the coal pillars, and of
lesser importance caused overburden materials to be weakened due to air exposure. The
dewatering created a downward flow gradient, which carried soil into the mine workings
through collapsed areas (piping), and caused the upward progression of collapse features
towards the ground surface (Hoffman et al., 1995). Additionally, it was suspected that
water rushing out of the mine workings during dewatering could have removed roof fall
material that was supporting areas where roof failure had previously occurred (ODOT,
1995b). Other factors that are suspected to have possibly contributed to previous
subsidence in the study area were the rotting and weakening with time of timber supports
within the mine workings, and the heavy interstate travel of more than an average of
25,000 vehicles per day.
Although it is possible that pillars have been crushed or have punched into
underlying material within the study area (punching of the Upper Freeport Coal into
weak underclay has previously been observed in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania region),
previous studies and data acquired to date indicate that this has not likely occurred in the
study area, and that study area subsidence mechanisms can be predominantly
259
characterized as pit-type (Figure A.8b). When the collapse or punching of a single coal
pillar occurs, increasing loads are placed on adjacent pillars, and this typically will result
in the subsequent failure of additional pillars (Bell, 1999). As seen in Figure A.5
however, the lateral extent of previous surface collapse and roadway depression areas
have not spanned multiple coal pillars, and these areas have been relatively localized in
terms of the previously discussed sag and pit types of subsidence.
Although some uncertainty exists in regards to the exact locations of the mine
workings relative to the I-70 roadway (as previously discussed), the locations of previous
collapse features and roadway depressions correlate fairly well with mine room and
haulage way locations that have been mapped (Figure A.5). These observations serve as
further evidence that past subsidence events in the study area have occurred due to the
mine roof rock collapsing between stable coal pillars. These observations also suggest
that possible ongoing subsidence processes in the study area would be occurring as the
result of similar pit-type subsidence mechanisms, and that the lateral extent of any future
collapses of the surface would most likely be at most on the order of the width of mine
rooms where they are crossed by the roadway.
260
APPENDIX B
PROGRAM FOR APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS DESCRIBING

ELASTIC WAVE SCATTERING FROM PLANAR INTERFACES
B.1 Introduction
A computer program (PSHSV) was written that calculates and plots displacement
amplitude coefficients, normalized square root energy ratios, energy coefficients, and
phase changes for plane P- SH- or SV-waves incident on a planar interface between two
homogeneous and isotropic solids. In subsequent sections of this appendix, functionality
of the program is discussed and demonstrated, and the program source code is listed.
Code such as that which is presented has not previously been made publicly available.
The source code will be available in digital form in the public domain (www.iamg.org) as
part of a paper that has been accepted (during 2002) for publication in the journal
Computers and Geosciences (see vita section of this dissertation for the paper reference).
The complexity of the equations describing seismic amplitude and energy
partitioning has led to numerous papers and books containing erroneous results and
misprints, and many of these mistakes have been recognized and discussed (Gutenburg,
1944; Singh et al., 1970; Hales and Roberts, 1974; Young and Braile, 1976; Denham and
Palmeira, 1984). Additional misprints related to these equations that have not previously
been reported in the literature were recognized during the development of the computer
261
code presented in this appendix. In Table 3.1 of Lay and Wallace (1995), the equation
for variable b is in error. The equation should read: b = ρ 2(1-2β22p2) + 2ρ1β12p2 and not:
b = ρ 2(1-2β22p2) - 2ρ1β12p2 as it is shown. Additionally, in Figure 3.28 of Lay and
Wallace (1995), the y-axis reads: Ai / A0 = (E / Ei)1/2, and this is incorrect for three of the
four curves that are plotted. The quantities plotted in the figure are the magnitudes of the
displacement amplitude coefficients, and only for the reflected P-wave is the plotted
curve equivalent to the square root energy curve that would be plotted. The y-axis should
therefore read: Ai / A0 in the figure. One of the energy coefficient plots in Figure 2 (for
reflected P-wave energy) presented in Baker (1998) also appears to be in error (input
media parameters for the two cases shown in this figure were also reversed).
The abundance of errors in previous refereed publications related to seismic
amplitude and energy-partitioning equations, demonstrates the importance of making
publicly available the program that was developed and presented in this appendix.
B.1.1 Solutions Obtained From Program Application
The developed program was rigorously tested against solutions previously
published (and not subsequently found to be in error) in refereed literature. Displacement
amplitude coefficient solutions were consistent with those for reflected and refracted P-
and SV-waves from incident SV-waves in Costain et al. (1963), reflected and refracted P-
and SV-waves from incident P-waves in Lay and Wallace (1995), reflected and refracted
SH-waves from incident SH-waves in Shearer (1999), and reflected P- and SV-waves
from incident P-waves in Brown (2000). Displacement amplitude coefficient solutions
were also consistent with those for reflected and refracted P- and SV-waves from incident
262
P-waves in Koefoed (1962). The sign of refracted SV-wave coefficients was opposite of
those calculated by Koefoed (1962) however, and this was simply due to opposite
specified conventions for positive refracted SV-wave particle motion direction.
Square root energy coefficient solutions were consistent with those for reflected
and refracted P- SH- and SV-waves from incident P- SH- and SV-waves in Gutenberg
(1944), and reflected and refracted P- SH- and SV-waves from incident SH- and SV-
waves in Crampin (1987). Energy coefficient solutions were consistent with those for
reflected and refracted P- and SV-waves from incident P-waves in Muskat and Meres
(1940), reflected and refracted P- and SV-waves from incident SV-waves in Costain et al.
(1963), reflected and refracted P- and SV-waves from incident P-waves in Tooley et al.
(1965), and reflected and refracted P- and SV-waves from incident P- and SV-waves in
Young and Braile (1976).
B.2 Program Description
The computer program (PSHSV) presented in this appendix was written in
MATLAB (version 6, release 12). Upon execution, the user is prompted to enter media
P- and S-wave velocities and densities. After user-specified parameters are input, exact
solution displacement amplitude coefficients, normalized square root energy ratios,
energy coefficients, and phase changes for plane P- SH- or SV-waves incident on a
planar interface between two homogeneous and isotropic solids are calculated and plotted
as a function of incident angle.
The program was developed using the equations presented in Chapter 2, which
were primarily from, and derived or modified from, those presented by Aki and Richards
263
(1980), Sheriff and Geldart (1982), and Shearer (1999). The signs of calculated
displacement amplitude coefficients depend upon the specified directions of positive
particle displacement in equations. The direction of wave propagation was specified as
the direction of positive polarization for P-waves, and the direction towards the interface
between incident and refracted media was specified as the direction of positive
polarization for SV-waves (SV-wave particle motion is perpendicular to the propagation
direction and in the plane containing the SV-wave ray). The nomenclature used for user-
input parameters, and for variables within the source code, is consistent with that used in
Chapter 2.
B.2.1 Critical Angles and Phase
When the velocity of the incident medium is less than that of the reflected or
refracted medium, the reflected or refracted angle (ș2) is equivalent to 90 degrees for a
certain incident angle (ș1), which is known as the critical angle (șc). In terms of ș1, the
incident medium velocity (V1), and the reflected or refracted medium velocity (V2), ș2 can
be expressed from Snell’s law as:
ș2 = sin-1((sinș1)(V2 / V1)) (B.1)
and a critical angle (șc) is defined as:
șc = sin-1(V1 / V2) (B.2)
For each common-mode component (i.e. P-to-P, SH-to-SH, SV-to-SV) there is
one possible critical angle to consider, which is the incident angle at which total internal
reflection (in medium 1, the incident medium) is produced, and beyond which no
refracted energy is transmitted normal to the interface into medium 2. An evanescent
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wave (with no vertical energy flux) will continue to propagate along (parallel to) and
decay exponentially away from the interface post-critical angle. For converted wave
components (i.e. P-to-SV, SV-to-P) additional critical angles must be considered. A
possible incident angle may result in the angle of a mode-converted refracted wave being
equivalent to 90 degrees (for example, when the incident SV-wave velocity is less than
the velocity of a refracted P-wave). An SV-wave incident angle may also result in the
angle of a mode-converted reflected P-wave being equivalent to 90 degrees. Considering
all components, possible critical angles for all cases are given in the following set of
equations:
P1P2șc = (sin-1(Vp1 / Vp2))
P1SV2șc = (sin-1(Vp1 / Vs2))
SH1SH2șc = (sin-1(Vs1 / Vs2))
SV1P1șc = (sin-1(Vs1 / Vp1))
SV1SV2șc = (sin-1(Vs1 / Vs2))
SV1P2șc = (sin-1(Vs1 / Vp2)) (B.3)
Where P1P2șc is a critical angle associated with a refracted P-wave from an incident P-
wave, P1SV2șc is a critical angle associated with a refracted SV-wave from an incident P-
wave, SH1SH2șc is a critical angle associated with a refracted SH-wave from an incident
SH-wave, SV1P1șc is a critical angle associated with a reflected P-wave from an incident
SV-wave, SV1SV2șc is a critical angle associated with a refracted SV-wave from an
incident SV-wave, and SV1P2șc is a critical angle associated with a refracted P-wave
from an incident SV-wave.
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For angles of incidence greater than critical angles, complex values of ș2 (ray
angles of reflected and refracted waves) may be used in order to satisfy Snell’s law,
calculated values of displacement amplitude coefficients (reflection and refraction)
dependent on ș2 become complex, and variable phase changes occur. Phase angle
calculations made using the code consider both real and imaginary parts of complex
coefficients. The phase angle for a given wave type and incidence angle, is calculated as
the angle between +180 degrees and -180 degrees (with 0 degrees specified between
quadrants 1 and 4) whose tangent is the real part of (b / a), written as:
ĳ = tan-1 (b / a) (B.4)
Where ĳ is phase angle, and a and b are the real and imaginary parts respectively of a
given displacement amplitude coefficient.
B.3 Program Functionality
Functionality of the program is demonstrated through application to an example
gas reservoir detection problem (a type of problem commonly addressed by considering
amplitudes and reflection coefficients at different incidence angles to infer physical
material properties). Although bright spots (one type of hydrocarbon indicator) in P-
wave sections have been recognized as often being associated with gas presence in shale
and sand sequences, they can also be caused by geologic features other than gas, such as
carbonate or hard streaks, igneous intrusions, lignites or wet sands (Spratt et al., 1993).
Because the bright spot method cannot distinguish between gas and non-gas anomalies,
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Lithology Vp (m / s) Vs (m / s) ρ (g / cm3)
Shale 3811 2263 2.4
Sand (without gas) 3811 2302 2.25
Sand (with gas) 3453 2302 2.1
Coal 2652 1280 1.27
Table B.1. Lithologic parameters used to obtain the solutions plotted as a function of
incidence angle in Figures B.1 - B.3.
more definitive methods, involving the analysis of amplitude variation with offset (Allen
and Peddy, 1993; Castagna, 1993; Hilterman, 2001), and the comparison of P- and S-
wave amplitudes (Ensley, 1984) have evolved for anomaly verification.
The program was applied to obtain solutions for three different geologic interface
scenarios: 1) an overlying shale and an underlying sand (no gas), 2) an overlying shale
and an underlying sand (with gas), and 3) an overlying shale and an underlying coal. P-
and S-wave velocities and densities that were used as program input parameters are given
in Table B.1, and were taken as representative values from Dey-Sakar and Svatek (1993).
Shown in Figure B.1, are the three figures that were generated upon program
execution using scenario 1 (shale to sand without gas) parameters. Figure B.1a contains
results from an incident P-wave, Figure B.1b contains results from an incident SH-wave,
and Figure B.1c contains results from an incident SV-wave. Each incident wave-type
figure contains six subplots that show how calculated displacement amplitude
coefficients, normalized square root energy ratios, energy coefficients, and phase angles
change as a function of incident angle, for each wave type generated at the interface. The
267
268
(a) Plots for an incident P-wave.
Figure B.1. Plots (generated with the PSHSV program) showing displacement amplitude, square root energy, and energy
coefficients, and phase changes as a function of incidence angle for a: (a) P-wave, (b) SH-wave, and (c) SV-wave incident on a
shale (medium 1) and sand (medium 2) interface (Table B.1). See text for discussion. (continued)
Figure B.1. (continued)
269
(b) Plots for an incident SH-wave. (continued)
270
(c) Plots for an incident SV-wave.
271
shale (medium 1) and gas sand (medium 2) interface (Table B.1). See text for discussion. (continued)
272
273
274
shale (medium 1) and coal (medium 2) interface (Table B.1). See text for discussion. (continued)
275
276
imaginary and real parts, and magnitude of displacement amplitude coefficients are
shown. When a coefficient is not complex the magnitude curve represents the absolute
value of the coefficient, and when a coefficient is complex the magnitude curve
represents the complex modulus of the coefficient. Figure B.2 shows figures generated
using scenario 2 (shale to sand with gas) parameters, and Figure B.3 shows figures
generated using scenario 3 (shale to coal) parameters.
Differences in P-wave reflection coefficient behavior as a function of incidence
angle, and in P- and S-wave reflection coefficients, for the three different geologic
scenarios can be observed through a comparison of the solutions presented in Figures
B.1, B.2 and B.3. The main objective of this appendix is to demonstrate program
functionality within the context of a potential application, and therefore only some
general differences between the solutions that were plotted in these figures are discussed.
For scenario 1, the P-wave velocity is unchanged and a small decrease in density
occurs across the shale and sand (without gas) interface. This results in a polarity
reversal and a low P-wave reflection (displacement amplitude) coefficient magnitude
(from an incident P-wave) at normal incidence (Figure B.1a). For scenario 2 (when gas
occupies sand pores) a higher P-wave reflection coefficient magnitude (from an incident
P-wave) is observed at normal incidence (Figure B.2a), because bulk modulus values are
sensitive to, and can vary substantially with changes in pore fluid. P-wave velocity (Vp),
is dependent upon the bulk modulus (k), the shear modulus (µ), and density ( ρ ):
Vp = (k + 4/3µ / ρ )1/2 (B.5)
The introduction of gas (less stiff than water) into a water-saturated sand will cause a
considerable reduction in the bulk modulus, and therefore a reduction in P-wave velocity
277
(Domenico, 1976). Due to a greater contrast in P-wave velocity (and a slightly greater
contrast in density) at the shale and sand interface when gas as opposed to water occupies
sand pores, a larger normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient magnitude results.
S-wave velocity (Vs) depends upon the shear modulus and density:
Vs = (µ / ρ )1/2 (B.6)
The rigidity of gases and liquids (ideal) is the same (zero), and the introduction of
gas into a water-saturated sand therefore does not change the S-wave velocity appreciably
relative to the change in P-wave velocity. The difference between SH-wave normal
incidence reflection coefficients (from incident SH-waves) for scenarios 1 and 2 (Figures
B.1b and B.2b) is therefore relatively small when compared to the observed difference in
P-wave reflection coefficients between scenarios 1 and 2 (Figures B.1a and B.2a).
Koefoed (1955) recognized that when Poisson’s ratio differs substantially across a
geologic interface, large changes in P-wave reflection coefficients at the interface as a
function of incidence angle can occur, and that these variations can provide insight
regarding lithology. Poisson’s ratio (ı) for a given medium can be defined as:
ı = ((Vp2 / 2Vs2) - 1) / ((Vp2 / Vs2) - 1) (B.7)
Ostrander (1984) first applied the concept of using reflected P-wave amplitude variations
with incidence angle for gas-sand detection purposes, demonstrating that differences in
amplitude partitioning as a function of offset between gas-sand reflections and other
types of reflections may be observed.
In scenario 1, density and Poisson’s ratio decrease only slightly across the shale
and sand (without gas) interface, and there is little variation in the P-wave amplitude
curve with increasing incidence angle (Figure B.1a). This amplitude behavior as a
278
function of incidence angle is different than that observed for scenario 2. In scenario 2 a
considerable decrease in both compressional velocity and Poisson’s ratio occur across the
shale and sand (with gas) interface, which causes a noticeable increase in P-wave
reflection coefficient magnitude with increasing incidence angle (Figure B.2a). These
observations are consistent with a general conclusion that has been made regarding AVO
by Allen and Peddy (1993): when compressional impedance and Poisson’s ratio change
substantially in the same direction across an interface, an increase in P-wave reflection
coefficient magnitude with offset will result.
Important differences in reflected P-wave amplitude behavior with offset are also
evident between scenario 2 and scenario 3 results. In scenario 3, a substantial decrease in
compressional impedance occurs across the shale and coal interface, while Poisson’s ratio
changes in the opposite direction and increases across the interface. This results in the
observed rapid decrease in reflection coefficient magnitude with increasing incidence
angle from normal (Figure B.3a). This type of difference in P-wave amplitude behavior
with offset can often be used to distinguish high amplitude anomalies caused by
lithologic changes from those caused by gas accumulation (Dey-Sarkar and Svatek,
1993). Consideration of the SH-wave reflection coefficients (resulting from incident SH-
waves) at normal incidence can also be useful for distinguishing lithologic- and gas-
related anomalies. The S-wave velocity of sand is not affected by the addition of gas, and
the SH-wave reflection coefficient at normal incidence is therefore small relative to the
normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient in scenario 2 (Figures B.2a and B.2b).
The lithologic change from shale to coal across the interface in scenario 3 however
279
results in a high shear impedance contrast across the interface, and therefore a higher SH-
reflection coefficient at normal incidence than in scenario 2 (Figures B.2b and B.3b).
B.4 Source Code Listing
The PSHSV computer program (MATLAB code) is listed next in this appendix:
% pshsv.m - written and last modified by Erich D. Guy on 3/25/02 %%%%%%%%%%

% Program computes the real, imaginary, and magnitude of reflection and refraction/
% transmission (amplitude) coefficients along with phase, square root energy
% coefficients, and energy coefficients for elastic plane-wave scattering from a welded
% planar interface (between isotropic solids), for P-, SH-, and SV-waves.
% User input = P-wave and S-wave velocity and (bulk) density values.
% Copyright (c) Erich D. Guy, 2002, all rights reserved. Permission to use program
% for academic or research purposes is authorized, provided the author is cited.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
clear all; close all;
% User Input
Vp1 = input ('Enter Vp1 (Incident Medium P-Wave Velocity): ');
Vp2 = input ('Enter Vp2 (Refracted Medium P-Wave Velocity): ');
Vs1 = input ('Enter Vs1 (Incident Medium S-Wave Velocity): ');
Vs2 = input ('Enter Vs2 (Refracted Medium S-Wave Velocity): ');
Rho1 = input ('Enter Rho1 (Incident Medium Density): ');
Rho2 = input ('Enter Rho2 (Refracted Medium Density): ');
thetadeg = 0.1:.1:89.99; % Incident angles in degrees

deg = pi/180; rad = 180/pi;
thetarad = thetadeg*deg;
xx = size(thetarad);
p = sin(thetarad)/Vp1; % Horizontal slowness (for incident P-wave)
pp = sin(thetarad)/Vs1; % Horizontal slowness (for incident S-wave)
Zp1 = Vp1*Rho1; Zs1 = Vs1*Rho1; Zp2 = Vp2*Rho2; Zs2 = Vs2*Rho2; % Impedances
% Reflection and refraction angle cosines

costhetaP1P1 = Vp1*(sqrt((1/(Vp1^2))-(p.^2)));
costhetaP1SV1 = Vs1*(sqrt((1/(Vs1^2))-(p.^2)));
costhetaP1P2 = Vp2*(sqrt((1/(Vp2^2))-(p.^2)));
costhetaP1SV2 = Vs2*(sqrt((1/(Vs2^2))-(p.^2)));
costhetaSH1SH1 = Vs1*(sqrt((1/(Vs1^2))-(pp.^2)));
costhetaSH1SH2 = Vs2*(sqrt((1/(Vs2^2))-(pp.^2)));
280
costhetaSV1SV1 = Vs1*(sqrt((1/(Vs1^2))-(pp.^2)));
costhetaSV1SV2 = Vs2*(sqrt((1/(Vs2^2))-(pp.^2)));
costhetaSV1P1 = Vp1*(sqrt((1/(Vp1^2))-(pp.^2)));
costhetaSV1P2 = Vp2*(sqrt((1/(Vp2^2))-(pp.^2)));
% Critical angles
P1P2thetac = (asin(Vp1/Vp2));
P1SV2thetac = (asin(Vp1/Vs2));
SH1SH2thetac = (asin(Vs1/Vs2));
SV1P1thetac = (asin(Vs1/Vp1));
SV1SV2thetac = (asin(Vs1/Vs2));
SV1P2thetac = (asin(Vs1/Vp2));
% SH intromission angle
thetaI = (asin(sqrt ((((1))-((Zs1/Zs2)^2))/(((Vs2/Vs1)^2)-((Zs1/Zs2)^2))))*rad);
% Amplitude coefficient variables and cosine-dependent terms

a = Rho2*(1-2*Vs2^2*p.^2)-Rho1*(1-2*Vs1^2*p.^2);
aa = Rho2*(1-2*Vs2^2*pp.^2)-Rho1*(1-2*Vs1^2*pp.^2);
b = Rho2*(1-2*Vs2^2*p.^2)+2*Rho1*Vs1^2*p.^2;
bb = Rho2*(1-2*Vs2^2*pp.^2)+2*Rho1*Vs1^2*pp.^2;
c = Rho1*(1-2*Vs1^2*p.^2)+2*Rho2*Vs2^2*p.^2;
cc = Rho1*(1-2*Vs1^2*pp.^2)+2*Rho2*Vs2^2*pp.^2;
d = 2*(Rho2*Vs2^2-Rho1*Vs1^2);
dd = 2*(Rho2*Vs2^2-Rho1*Vs1^2);
E = b.*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1)+c.*(costhetaP1P2/Vp2);
EE = bb.*(costhetaSV1P1/Vp1)+cc.*(costhetaSV1P2/Vp2);
F = b.*(costhetaP1SV1/Vs1)+c.*(costhetaP1SV2/Vs2);
FF = bb.*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1)+cc.*(costhetaSV1SV2/Vs2);
G = a-d*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1).*(costhetaP1SV2/Vs2);
GG = aa-dd*(costhetaSV1P1/Vp1).*(costhetaSV1SV2/Vs2);
H = a-d*(costhetaP1P2/Vp2).*(costhetaP1SV1/Vs1);
HH = aa-dd*(costhetaSV1P2/Vp2).*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1);
D = E.*F+G.*H.*p.^2;
DD = EE.*FF+GG.*HH.*pp.^2;
% Amplitude coefficients
P1P1 = ((b.*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1)-c.*(costhetaP1P2/Vp2)).*F
(a+d*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1).*(costhetaP1SV2/Vs2)).*H.*p.^2)./D;
P1SV1 = (2*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1).*(a.*b+c*d.*(costhetaP1P2/Vp2).*
(costhetaP1SV2/Vs2)).*p*Vp1/Vs1)./D;
P1P2 = (2*Rho1*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1).*F*(Vp1/Vp2))./D;
281
P1SV2 = (2*Rho1*(costhetaP1P1/Vp1).*H.*p*(Vp1/Vs2))./D;
SH1SH1 = (Rho1*Vs1*costhetaSH1SH1-Rho2*Vs2*costhetaSH1SH2)./
(Rho1*Vs1*costhetaSH1SH1+Rho2*Vs2*costhetaSH1SH2);
SH1SH2 = (2*Rho1*Vs1*costhetaSH1SH1)./
(Rho1*Vs1*costhetaSH1SH1+Rho2*Vs2*costhetaSH1SH2);
SV1SV1 = -((bb.*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1)-cc.*(costhetaSV1SV2/Vs2)).*EE-
(aa+dd.*(costhetaSV1P2/Vp2).*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1)).*GG.*pp.^2)./DD;
SV1P1 = -(2*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1).*(aa.*bb+cc*dd.*((costhetaSV1P2)/Vp2).*
((costhetaSV1SV2)/Vs2)).*pp*(Vs1/Vp1))./DD;
SV1SV2 = 2*Rho1*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1).*EE*(Vs1/Vs2)./DD;
SV1P2 = -2*(Rho1*(costhetaSV1SV1/Vs1).*GG.*pp*(Vs1/Vp2))./DD;
% Square root energy coefficients

ENP1P1 = abs(P1P1);
ENP1SV1 = abs(P1SV1).*(sqrt((Vs1.*costhetaP1SV1)./(Vp1.*costhetaP1P1)));
ENP1P2 = abs(P1P2).*(sqrt((Rho2*Vp2.*costhetaP1P2)./(Rho1*Vp1.*costhetaP1P1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<P1P2thetac; ENP1P2(:,jj) = ENP1P2(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=P1P2thetac; ENP1P2(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
ENP1SV2 = abs(P1SV2).*(sqrt((Rho2*Vs2.*costhetaP1SV2)./
(Rho1*Vp1.*costhetaP1P1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<P1SV2thetac; ENP1SV2(:,jj) = ENP1SV2(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=P1SV2thetac; ENP1SV2(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
ENSH1SH1 = abs(SH1SH1);
ENSH1SH2 = abs(SH1SH2).*(sqrt((Rho2*Vs2*costhetaSH1SH2)./
(Rho1*Vs1*costhetaSH1SH1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<SH1SH2thetac; ENSH1SH2(:,jj) = ENSH1SH2(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=SH1SH2thetac; ENSH1SH2(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
ENSV1SV1 = abs(SV1SV1);
ENSV1P1 = abs(SV1P1).*(sqrt((Vp1.*costhetaSV1P1)./(Vs1.*costhetaSV1SV1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<SV1P1thetac; ENSV1P1(:,jj) = ENSV1P1(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=SV1P1thetac; ENSV1P1(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
282
ENSV1SV2 = abs(SV1SV2).*(sqrt((Rho2*Vs2.*costhetaSV1SV2)./
(Rho1*Vs1.*costhetaSV1SV1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<SV1SV2thetac; ENSV1SV2(:,jj) = ENSV1SV2(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=SV1SV2thetac; ENSV1SV2(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
ENSV1P2 = abs(SV1P2).*(sqrt((Rho2*Vp2.*costhetaSV1P2 )./

(Rho1*Vs1.*costhetaSV1SV1)));
for jj = 1:xx(1,2); if thetarad(:,jj)<SV1P2thetac; ENSV1P2(:,jj) = ENSV1P2(:,jj);
elseif thetarad(:,jj)>=SV1P2thetac; ENSV1P2(:,jj) = 0; end; end;
% Energy coefficients
EP1P1 = (ENP1P1).^2; EP1SV1 = (ENP1SV1).^2; EP1P2 = (ENP1P2).^2;
EP1SV2 = (ENP1SV2).^2; ESH1SH1 = (ENSH1SH1).^2; ESH1SH2 = (ENSH1SH2).^2;
ESV1SV1 = (ENSV1SV1).^2; ESV1P1 = (ENSV1P1).^2; ESV1SV2 = (ENSV1SV2).^2;
ESV1P2 = (ENSV1P2).^2;
% Plot solutions
set(0,'Units','normal');
nb = [0,0,.5];
ss = get(0,'ScreenSize');
pos = [ss(3)/2-0.8/2,ss(4)/2-0.6/2,.8,.6];
% Incident SV-wave
figure('Units','normal','Position',pos,'Name','Incident SV-Wave In Medium
subplot(2,3,1);
plot(thetadeg,imag(SV1SV1),'b-',thetadeg,imag(SV1P1),'k--',thetadeg,imag(SV1SV2),'r-
.',thetadeg,imag(SV1P2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Amplitude Coefficients (Imaginary)'); ylabel('A / A_0');
legend('Reflected SV','Reflected P','Refracted SV','Refracted P');
ylimits = get(gca,'Ylim'); ymin = ylimits(1)-.05; ymax = ylimits(2)+.05;
axis([0 90 ymin ymax]); set(gca,'XTick',0:15:90); grid on;
subplot(2,3,2);
plot(thetadeg,real(SV1SV1),'b-',thetadeg,real(SV1P1),'k--',thetadeg,real(SV1SV2),'r-
.',thetadeg,real(SV1P2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Amplitude Coefficients (Real)'); ylabel('A / A_0');
subplot(2,3,3);
283
plot(thetadeg,abs(SV1SV1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(SV1P1),'k--',thetadeg,abs(SV1SV2),'r-
.',thetadeg,abs(SV1P2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Amplitude Coefficients (Magnitude)'); ylabel('A / A_0');
subplot(2,3,4);
plot(thetadeg,abs(ENSV1SV1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(ENSV1P1),'k--
',thetadeg,abs(ENSV1SV2),'r-.',thetadeg,abs(ENSV1P2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Square Root Energy Coefficients'); xlabel('Incidence Angle (degrees)'); ylabel('(E /
E_0) ^1^/^2');
axis([0 90 -0.05 1.05]); set(gca,'XTick',0:15:90); set(gca,'YTick',0:.25:1); grid on;
subplot(2,3,5);
plot(thetadeg,abs(ESV1SV1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(ESV1P1),'k--',thetadeg,abs(ESV1SV2),'r-
.',thetadeg,abs(ESV1P2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Energy Coefficients'); xlabel('Incidence Angle (degrees)'); ylabel('E / E_0');
subplot(2,3,6);
plot(thetadeg,angle(SV1SV1)*rad,'b-',thetadeg,angle(SV1P1)*rad,'k--
',thetadeg,angle(SV1SV2)*rad,'r-.',thetadeg,angle(SV1P2)*rad,'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
title('Phase Changes'); xlabel('Incidence Angle (degrees)'); ylabel('Phase Angle
(degrees)');
axis([0 90 -200 200]); set(gca,'XTick',0:15:90); set(gca,'YTick',-180:90:180); grid on;
text(-290,812,'Incident SV-Wave In Medium 1','fontweight','bold','color',nb);
L = num2str(Vp1); text(-290,740,'Vp_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,740,(L),'color',nb);
M = num2str(Vp2); text(-290,700,'Vp_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,700,(M),'color',nb);
N = num2str(Vs1); text(-290,660,'Vs_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,660,(N),'color',nb);
O = num2str(Vs2); text(-290,620,'Vs_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,620,(O),'color',nb);
P = num2str(Rho1); text(-290,580,'\rho_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,580,(P),'color',nb);
Q = num2str(Rho2); text(-290,540,'\rho_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,540,(Q),'color',nb);
R = num2str(Zp1); text(-290,460,'Zp_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,460,(R),'color',nb);
S = num2str(Zp2); text(-290,420,'Zp_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,420,(S),'color',nb);
T = num2str(Zs1); text(-290,380,'Zs_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,380,(T),'color',nb);
U = num2str(Zs2); text(-290,340,'Zs_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,340,(U),'color',nb);
V = num2str(real(SV1P1thetac)*rad); text(-290,260,'\theta_c Reflected P =','color',nb);
text(-277,230,(V),'color',nb);
W = num2str(real(SV1SV2thetac)*rad);
text(-290,200,'\theta_c Refracted SV =','color',nb); text(-277,170,(W),'color',nb);
X = num2str(real(SV1P2thetac)*rad); text(-290,140,'\theta_c Refracted P =','color',nb);
text(-277,110,(X),'color',nb);
WW = num2str(Vp1/Vs1);
text(-290,50,'Vp_1/Vs1 =','color',nb); text(-285,10,(WW),'color',nb);
XX = num2str(Vp2/Vs2); text(-290,-30,'Vp_2/Vs1 =','color',nb);
284
text(-285,-70,(XX),'color',nb);
Y = num2str(Sigma1); text(-290,-110,'\sigma_1 =','color',nb);
text(-273.5,-110,(Y),'color',nb);
Z = num2str(Sigma2); text(-290,-150,'\sigma_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,-
150,(Z),'color',nb);
% Incident SH-wave
figure('Units','normal','Position',pos,'Name','Incident SH-Wave In Medium
subplot(2,3,1);
plot(thetadeg,imag(SH1SH1),'b-',thetadeg,imag(SH1SH2),'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
legend('Reflected SH','Refracted SH'); set(legend,'position',[.001 .003 .113 .067]);
subplot(2,3,2);
plot(thetadeg,real(SH1SH1),'b-',thetadeg,real(SH1SH2),'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
subplot(2,3,3);
plot(thetadeg,abs(SH1SH1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(SH1SH2),'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
subplot(2,3,4);
plot(thetadeg,abs(ENSH1SH1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(ENSH1SH2),'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
E_0) ^1^/^2');
subplot(2,3,5);
plot(thetadeg,abs(ESH1SH1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(ESH1SH2),'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
subplot(2,3,6);
plot(thetadeg,angle(SH1SH1)*rad,'b-',thetadeg,angle(SH1SH2)*rad,'r-.','LineWidth',1.5);
(degrees)');
285
text(-290,812,'Incident SH-Wave In Medium 1','fontweight','bold','color',nb);
V = num2str(real(SH1SH2thetac)*rad);
text(-290,260,'\theta_c Refracted SH =','color',nb); text(-277,230,(V),'color',nb);
W = num2str(thetaI); text(-290,190,'\theta_I =','color',nb); text(-277,190,(W),'color',nb);
XX = num2str(Vs2/Vs1); text(-290,-130,'Vs_2/Vs_1 =','color',nb);
YY = num2str(Zs1/Zs2); text(-290,-170,'Zs_1/Zs_2 =','color',nb);
text(-263,-170,(YY),'color',nb);
ZZ = num2str(Rho1/Rho2); text(-290,-210,'\rho_1/\rho_2 =','color',nb);
text(-263,-210,(ZZ),'color',nb);
% Incident P-wave
figure('Units','normal','Position',pos,'Name','Incident P-Wave In Medium
1','NumberTitle','off')
subplot(2,3,1);
plot(thetadeg,imag(P1P1),'b-',thetadeg,imag(P1SV1),'k--',thetadeg,imag(P1P2),'r-
.',thetadeg,imag(P1SV2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
legend('Reflected P','Reflected SV','Refracted P','Refracted SV');
subplot(2,3,2);
plot(thetadeg,real(P1P1),'b-',thetadeg,real(P1SV1),'k--',thetadeg,real(P1P2),'r-
.',thetadeg,real(P1SV2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
subplot(2,3,3);
plot(thetadeg,abs(P1P1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(P1SV1),'k--',thetadeg,abs(P1P2),'r-
.',thetadeg,abs(P1SV2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
286
subplot(2,3,4);
plot(thetadeg,abs(ENP1P1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(ENP1SV1),'k--',thetadeg,abs(ENP1P2),'r-
.',thetadeg,abs(ENP1SV2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
E_0) ^1^/^2');
subplot(2,3,5);
plot(thetadeg,abs(EP1P1),'b-',thetadeg,abs(EP1SV1),'k--',thetadeg,abs(EP1P2),'r-
.',thetadeg,abs(EP1SV2),'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
subplot(2,3,6);
plot(thetadeg,angle(P1P1)*rad,'b-',thetadeg,angle(P1SV1)*rad,'k--
',thetadeg,angle(P1P2)*rad,'r-.',thetadeg,angle(P1SV2)*rad,'m:','LineWidth',1.5);
(degrees)');
text(-290,812,'Incident P-Wave In Medium 1','fontweight','bold','color',nb);
L = num2str(Vp1); text(-290,740,'Vp_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,740,(L),'color',nb);
M = num2str(Vp2); text(-290,700,'Vp_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,700,(M),'color',nb);
R = num2str(Zp1); text(-290,460,'Zp_1 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,460,(R),'color',nb);
S = num2str(Zp2); text(-290,420,'Zp_2 =','color',nb); text(-273.5,420,(S),'color',nb);
V = num2str(real(P1P2thetac)*rad); text(-290,260,'\theta_c Refracted P =','color',nb);
text(-277,230,(V),'color',nb);
W = num2str(real(P1SV2thetac)*rad); text(-290,200,'\theta_c Refracted SV =','color',nb);
text(-277,170,(W),'color',nb);
WW = num2str(Vp1/Vs1); text(-290,50,'Vp_1/Vs1 =','color',nb);
text(-285,10,(WW),'color',nb);
XX = num2str(Vp2/Vs2); text(-290,-30,'Vp_2/Vs1 =','color',nb);
Y = num2str(Sigma1); text(-290,-110,'\sigma_1 =','color',nb);
text(-273.5,-110,(Y),'color',nb);
Z = num2str(Sigma2); text(-290,-150,'\sigma_2 =','color',nb);
text(-273.5,-150,(Z),'color',nb);
% End program
287
APPENDIX C
INTERPRETED SH-WAVE DEPTH SECTIONS

FOR THE ENTIRE FIELD TEST AREA
C.1 Introduction
Stacked sections constructed using YY component (sometimes called crossline-
crossline, or SH-SH) reflection data acquired along the eastbound and westbound lanes of
I-70 (Appendix A, Figure C.1) are presented in this appendix. Discussion regarding the
acquisition and pre-processing of the data is presented in Chapter 3. Data processing and
imaging operations were performed using ProMAX software (Landmark Graphics
Corporation). The analysis flow applied to the data followed the processing, imaging,
and interpretation strategies previously developed for common-mode component
reflection information (Chapters 4 and 6). It was determined that subsurface areas where
subsidence processes have been active could be most accurately delineated through the
processing and interpretation of YY component data (Chapter 4).
C.2 Results and Interpretations
Processed time (uninterpreted) and depth (interpreted) YY component sections for
seismic lines acquired along I-70 between road stations 46694 and 48900 are shown in
Figures C.2 - C.5. (Note, road stations are in feet along the highway from the western
288
Guernsey county line. Highway engineers designate stationing as hundreds of feet plus
the remaining feet, for example, 489+00. In the text and the figures of this appendix
these numbers are combined, for example, 48900). YY component data from seismic
lines acquired along the eastbound travel and passing lanes (referred to as lines EBTravel
and EBPass respectively), and the westbound passing and travel lanes (referred to as lines
WBPass and WBTravel respectively), are shown in Figure C.2, Figure C.3, Figure C.4,
and Figure C.5 respectively.
Disrupted areas and offsets (normal faults) along the bedrock horizon that are
indicated on depth sections, are interpreted to have resulted from mine-related subsidence
activity. The locations and apparent dip directions of the bedrock horizon faults indicated
in Figures C.2, C.3, C.4, and C.5 are summarized in Table C.1, and are plotted relative to
the I-70 eastbound and westbound lanes in Figure C.6. The locations of bedrock horizon
disruptions interpreted from the processed seismic depth sections correlate well with the
locations of mine workings, observed roadway depressions and subsidence features, and
westbound lane land bridges that were approximately mapped relative to the I-70 road
lanes (Figure C.6). Seismic data interpretations are supported by the drill log information
(Chapters 4 and 6, and Appendix D) presented in this dissertation.
289
290
(a) Map of I-70 lanes (road stations 46700-47800) relative to YY component stacked section locations.
Figure C.1. Map view of I-70 eastbound and westbound lanes (EBTravel, EBPass, WBPass, and WBTravel) showing locations
of YY component stacked sections that are presented in this appendix relative to mapped mine workings, observed roadway
depressions and subsidence features, and westbound lane land bridges for road stations: (a) 46700-47800, and (b) 47800-48900.
Road stations are in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey County (Ohio) line. (continued)
Figure C.1. (continued)
291
(b) Map of I-70 lanes (road stations 47800-48900) relative to YY component stacked section locations.
292
(a) EBTravel YY component (stations 46700-47300).
Figure C.2. Eastbound travel lane (EBTravel) stacked time (uninterpreted) and depth (with bedrock horizon interpreted)
sections (YY component data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-48500, and (d) 48500-48900. CDP
locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (in feet from the western Guernsey County line). (continued)
293
(b) EBTravel YY component (stations 47300-47900). (continued)
294
(c) EBTravel YY component (stations 47900-48500). (continued)
(d) EBTravel YY component (stations 48500-48900).
295
296
(a) EBPass YY component (stations 46700-47300).
Figure C.3. Eastbound passing lane (EBPass) stacked time (uninterpreted) and depth (with bedrock horizon interpreted) sections
(YY component data) for CDP_X: (a) 46700-47300, (b) 47300-47900, (c) 47900-48500, and (d) 48500-48900. CDP locations
(CDP_X) correspond to road stations (in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey County line). (continued)
297
(b) EBPass YY component (stations 47300-47900). (continued)
298
(c) EBPass YY component (stations 47900-48500). (continued)
(d) EBPass YY component (stations 48500-48900).
299
300
X
(a) WBPass YY component (stations 46700-47300).
Figure C.4. Westbound passing lane (WBPass) stacked time (uninterpreted) and depth (with bedrock horizon interpreted)
locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey County line). (continued)
301
X
(b) WBPass YY component (stations 47300-47900). (continued)
302
X
(c) WBPass YY component (stations 47900-48500). (continued)
(d) WBPass YY component (stations 48500-48900).
303
304
X
(a) WBTravel YY component (stations 46700-47300).
Figure C.5. Westbound travel lane (WBTravel) stacked time (uninterpreted) and depth (with bedrock horizon interpreted)
locations (CDP_X) correspond to road stations (in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey County line). (continued)
305
X
(b) WBTravel YY component (stations 47300-47900). (continued)
306
X
(c) WBTravel YY component (stations 47900-48500). (continued)
(d) WBTravel YY component (stations 48500-48900).
307
Eastbound travel lane (EBTravel) Eastbound pass lane (EBPass) Westbound pass lane (WBPass) Westbound travel lane (WBTravel)
Bedrock horizon fault location, Bedrock horizon fault location, Bedrock horizon fault location, Bedrock horizon fault location,
apparent dip direction apparent dip direction apparent dip direction apparent dip direction
46854, east 46951, east 46874, east 46818, east
46864, east 46970, west 46947, west 46830, east
46906, west 47055, east 47478, east 46896, west
46914, west 47071, west 47508, east 47461, east
46936, east 47117, west 47527, west 47554, west
46953, west 47235, west 47550, east 47568, west
47318, west 47341, west 47690, west 47690, west
47481, west 47411, west 47759, east 47719, west
47501, east 47467, east 47804, west 47756, east
47527, west 47790, east 47965, west 47848, west
308
47707, east 47806, west 48045, east 47883, east
47750, west 48216, east 48073, east 48119, west
47989, west 48354, west 48332, west 48519, east
48391, east 48542, east 48349, west
48596, east 48556, west 48498, west
48615, west 48602, east 48504, west
48643, west
Table C.1. Locations and apparent dip directions of bedrock horizon faults (mine-related) indicated on seismic YY component
depth sections (Figures C.2, C.3, C.4, and C.5). Fault locations (given in feet from the western county line) correspond to road
stations, and are plotted (with apparent dip directions indicated) relative to the roadway in Figure C.6.
309
(a) Map of I-70 lanes (road stations 46700-47800) relative to YY component-derived mine-related faults.
Figure C.6. Map view of I-70 eastbound and westbound lanes showing locations and apparent dip directions of YY component-
derived mine-related faults (Table C.1), relative to mapped mine workings, observed roadway depressions and subsidence
features, and westbound lane land bridges for road stations: (a) 46700-47800, and (b) 47800-48900. Road stations are in feet
from the western Guernsey County (Ohio) line. (continued)
310
(b) Map of I-70 lanes (road stations 47800-48900) relative to YY component-derived mine-related faults.
APPENDIX D
CROSS-HOLE RADAR EFFECTIVENESS FOR INVESTIGATION

OF SEISMICALLY IMAGED DISCONTINUITIES
D.1 Overview
Constant offset profile and multiple offset gather radar measurements were made
in the I-70 study area (Appendix A), using boreholes located near several coal mine-
related subsidence features that were imaged using S-wave seismic reflection (Chapter 6,
Appendix C). These data were acquired and analyzed to test the ability of cross-hole
radar methods for providing useful information for mine-related subsidence studies, and
to further investigate subsurface areas of the study area where S-wave seismic reflection
indicated that the bedrock horizon (above the mine workings) and overburden had been
disrupted from subsidence processes.
Radar data-derived plots of average EM-wave velocity and amplitude along with
processed velocity tomograms are shown to be useful for allowing the lateral and vertical
distribution of media between boreholes to be inferred. Relative low velocity zones
within fully saturated media between boreholes were found to correlate with decreased
direct wave amplitude, indicating increases in secondary porosity related to fracturing
and voids caused by mine-related subsidence activity. In many cases, such velocity and
amplitude trends are shown to correlate with fracture zones and voids that were
311
encountered during well construction, and with subsurface discontinuities that were
interpreted between boreholes from seismic data. Such correlations rule out the
possibility that these radar data anomalies resulted solely from location differences in
media mineralogy, media primary porosity, and/or groundwater specific conductance.
Cross-hole radar data are also shown to be useful for reducing uncertainty
regarding the locations and extent of mine rooms and coal pillars, and seismically imaged
subsidence features. In two cases, radar results indicate that seismically imaged
discontinuities are located between boreholes and directly beneath the seismic line,
whereas in two other cases radar data suggest that seismically imaged discontinuities are
located within close proximity to, but not between boreholes or directly beneath the
seismic line. Although the techniques measure different physical properties, recorded
wavelengths and processed images indicate that the resolution achieved using cross-hole
radar was slightly higher than that achieved using seismic reflection in the study area.
The results of this study demonstrate within the context of the I-70 mine-
subsidence project, that cross-hole radar surveying can provide useful information for
mine-related subsidence studies and insights into the nature and extent of fracturing and
void space within near-surface media between boreholes.
D.2 Introduction: Borehole Radar Methods
In many cases the detectable depth range of surface-located ground penetrating
radar (GPR) is restricted by either high wave attenuation in conductive near-surface
materials, volume scattering, or the presence of strong reflecting interfaces. The
utilization of boreholes permits radar antennas to be located closer to the subsurface

312
geology and potential anomalies of interest at depth. Demonstrated applications of
borehole radar include fracture detection (Olsson et al., 1992; Sato and Miwa, 2000),
cavity and tunnel detection (Haeni et al., 2002; Olhoeft, 1993), lithologic and structural
interpretation (Nickel et al., 1983; Dubois, 1995), and soil water content determination
(Gilson et al., 1996). The majority of documented successful borehole radar applications
for discontinuity detection/imaging have concerned data that were acquired in either
crystalline rock environments or under controlled experimental conditions. Although
borehole radar measurements can provide the potential for allowing physical property
changes associated with subsurface subsidence activity to be detected, to my knowledge
there have been no reports published concerning/demonstrating the applicability of
borehole radar techniques towards mine-related subsidence problems.
D.2.1 Antennas and Measurement Configurations
Borehole radar systems typically utilize dipole antennas that radiate
electromagnetic (EM) fields with the electric field vector components predominantly
oriented parallel to the long axis of the transmitter antenna. The radiation pattern of a
dipole antenna in a dry borehole with a homogeneous surrounding medium is similar to
that of a dipole in a whole space (Sato and Thierbach, 1991), however, changes in the
surrounding geologic medium and fluid filling the borehole can significantly alter the
pattern (Holliger and Bergmann, 2002). Antennas are oriented axially along a borehole
for measurements (only the co-polarized component is measured with commercial radar
systems), and can be considered as directional (can provide azimuthal resolution relative
to the borehole), or omni-directional (cannot directly provide azimuthal resolution).
313
Radar measurements can be made in a single borehole (single-hole) or between
boreholes (cross-hole). Single-hole measurements are typically made while raising or
lowering the antennas with a constant separation (reflection mode). Reflection
measurements can detect energy scattered from electrical property discontinuities above,
below, and away from the borehole. Useful information can also be obtained through
non-traditional variable offset sounding (VOS) conducted in a single borehole, or on the
ground surface using E- and H-plane antenna configurations (Guy and Radzevicius,
2001). VOS data are recorded while varying the spacing between antennas, and provide
a means of investigating propagation characteristics of radar signal.
Cross-hole (transmission) measurements between boreholes can be made by
raising or lowering transmitter and receiver antennas at the same rate to acquire a
constant offset profile (COP). A COP can provide information on bulk electrical
properties between boreholes by measuring variations in amplitude, period, and/or travel
time, and can also indicate discontinuity presence above, below, away from, or between
the boreholes by recording diffracted, reflected, and/or refracted energy. Measurements
can also be made by keeping a transmitter antenna at a fixed position in one hole and
lowering or raising a receiver antenna in another hole to acquire a multiple offset gather
(MOG). Numerous MOG’s made with the transmitter antenna located at different depths
can be merged and processed to create physical property tomograms (2D models for the
media plane between boreholes). Processed tomograms can allow possible borehole
radar anomalies to be spatially defined and isolated more accurately than processed COP
records. The number of traces that need to be acquired in order to generate tomograms
314
however is on the order of a hundred times greater than the number of traces that are
necessary to generate COP data plots.
Regardless of the borehole radar antennas/measurement configuration, accurate
data analysis depends upon the acquisition of high-quality data, the proper identification
of events, and depending upon imaging objectives, the precise measurement of event
amplitudes, periods, and/or travel times. Difficulties in establishing system parameters,
improper time zero determination, system drift, and deviations in positioning of the
antennas are problems that can occur during data acquisition. Other factors that can
affect measurements include the antenna radiation pattern (see above), refractions
generated by high velocity contrasts (Guy et al., 2001), wave guiding in a borehole or
layered sediments (Ellefsen, 1999), and resonance effects (Holliger and Bergmann,
2002). Additionally, previous work has demonstrated that borehole radar measurements
can be affected when energy radiated from the transmitter antenna induces currents on
conductive cables, and that periodic artifacts in data can result when currents traveling on
conductive cables reflect at system impedance mismatches (Guy and Radzevicius, 2001).
D.3 Cross-Hole Radar Data Acquisition: I-70 Study Area
Based on the I-70 study objectives (the detection of subsurface mine-related
subsidence activity, and the location of areas along the roadway having a relatively high
risk for future surface failure), system and antenna characteristics of the employed
borehole radar system, and radar signal-attenuating characteristics of the study area
geologic media, methods of cross-hole COP and MOG data acquisition were selected for
borehole radar surveying in the I-70 study area.

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Cross-hole (COP and MOG) radar measurements were made along the eastbound
passing and travel lanes of Interstate 70 (I-70) in Guernsey County, Ohio, during July and
August of 2002. These measurements were made in boreholes that were located in the
vicinity of several mine-related subsidence features (bedrock horizon and overburden
discontinuities) that were previously imaged using seismic reflection (Chapter 6,
Appendix C). Four regions of the study area containing subsidence features were
surveyed using cross-hole radar: 1) eastbound travel lane road stations 46940-46968, 2)
eastbound passing lane road stations 48304-48379, 3) eastbound travel lane road stations
48304-48395, and 4) eastbound travel lane road stations 48530-48640 (Table D.1, Figure
D.1). (Note, road stations are in feet along the highway from the western Guernsey
county line. Highway engineers designate stationing as hundreds of feet plus the
remaining feet, for example, 469+40. In the text and the figures of this appendix these
numbers are combined, for example, 46940). The boreholes that were used for radar
measurements were drilled during either 1999 or 2002 (Table D.1).
Radar data were acquired using a commercial borehole radar system, with omni-
directional dipole antennas (measured center frequency of 100 MHz in air) located in
PVC-cased wells. The radar system employed relied on 30.0 m long conductive cables
(approximately 10 mm in diameter with a dielectric coated surface) for signal
transmission between surface-located electronics and the antennas.
Although single-hole measurements have the potential to provide useful
information regarding the subsurface, the radar antennas employed were omni-
directional, and it was felt that potential anomalies in recorded data could therefore be
spatially isolated in a more time-effective manner (with fewer surveys) by acquiring
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MOG Transmit Receive Borehole Maximum
COP data Tx borehole location Rx borehole location
measurements (Tx) (Rx) separation antennas
filename (easting, ft), drill date (easting, ft), drill date
made? borehole borehole (m) depth (m)
726run1 Yes GC305 EBT 46962, 5/9/02 GC307 EBT 46947, 5/13/02 4.88 22
726run3 Yes B407G EBT 46968, 4/18/02 B407H EBT 46954, 4/23/02 4.57 19
726run6 Yes GC214 EBT 48330, 10/27/99 CG213 EBT 48326, 10/22/99 1.4 19
726run8 No GC216 EBT 48360, 10/18/99 GC215 EBT 48340, 11/4/99 5.97 20
726run9 No GC217 EBT 48380, 11/12/99 GC216 EBT 48360, 10/18/99 6.15 20
726run10 Yes B412E EBT 48395, 4/19/02 GC217 EBT 48380, 11/12/99 3.99 21
726run13 Yes B413H EBT 48537, 4/22/02 GC301 EBT 48530, 5/6/02 2.16 24
726run14 Yes GC303 EBT 48550, 5/7/02 B413H EBT 48537, 4/22/02 3.81 23
727run1 No B413F EBT 48605, 4/23/02 GC304 EBT 48583, 5/8/02 6.71 20
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727run2 Yes GC302 EBT 48615, 5/7/02 B413F EBT 48605, 4/23/02 3.99 23
727run3 No B413E EBT 48640, 4/22/02 GC302 EBT 48615, 5/7/02 6.71 20
727run6 Yes GC202 EBP 48314, 10/19/99 GC201 EBP 48304, 10/8/99 3.25 16
727run11 No GC207 EBP 48379, 11/16/99 GC206 EBP 48357, 11/10/99 6.65 20
Table D.1. Cross-hole constant offset profile (COP) and multiple offset gather (MOG) radar measurements in the I-70 study
area (Figure D.1). Borehole locations correspond to road stations; EBT = eastbound travel lane, EBP = eastbound passing lane.
Road stations are given in feet from the western county line.
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Figure D.1. Map of the eastbound lanes of I-70 (road stations 46900 to 48650) showing the locations of cross-hole constant
offset profile (COP) and multiple offset gather (MOG) radar measurements between borings (Table D.1), relative to the mapped
locations of underground mine workings. Due to map scale, mine room and pillar locations are regarded as approximate. Road
stations are given in feet from the western county line.
cross-hole measurements. Other factors supporting the decision to acquire cross-hole
rather than single-hole data were: 1) physical properties of geologic media between wells
could be determined (as a function of both lateral distance and depth) more accurately
and in a more time-effective manner using cross-hole measurements, and 2) the single-
hole receiver response is strongly influenced by conductive cable-related affects with the
employed radar system; such affects complicate single-hole data analysis.
D.3.1 Constant Offset Profile Measurements
Borehole radar COP surveys were conducted in the I-70 study area during July of
2002. COP surveys from which data are presented are described in Table D.1, and the
locations of the boreholes that were used are shown relative to the roadway eastbound
lanes and mapped mine workings in Figure D.1. Due to the small scale of the mine
workings map, room and pillar locations relative to the roadway and borehole locations
are regarded as approximate. Separations between boreholes were measured at the time
of data acquisition (measured separations assume no deviation of the wells from vertical
with depth; borehole deviation surveys were not conducted). The maximum
measurement depth for each record was dependent upon the depths of the surveyed
boreholes, and on the maximum depth that could be surveyed by both antennas (this was
limited by a combination of the length of the radar system cables and the allowable
position of the surface-located electronics relative to the boreholes).
For each COP record, both antennas were started at the maximum possible depth,
and were then both stepped upwards at the same increment (0.125 m), with the final
measurement made with both antenna midpoints positioned at 1.0 m below the ground
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Figure D.2. Cross-hole radar measurements in the I-70 study area for an example case
(19.0 m maximum depth): (left) constant offset profile (COP), and (right) multiple offset
gathers (MOG’s). For MOG’s the maximum Tx and Rx vertical offset was 4.0 m.
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surface (Figure D.2). In order to accurately position time zero and allow for the
correction of any possible system-related drift that may have occurred during
measurements, both the first and last 3 to 4 traces of each record were acquired in air with
a known (1.0 m) separation between the antennas. Detailed information regarding the
borehole radar COP data recording parameters is presented in Table D.2.
D.3.2 Multiple Offset Gather Measurements
Borehole radar MOG surveys were conducted in the I-70 study area during
August of 2002. MOG surveys from which data are presented are described in Table
D.1, and the locations of the boreholes used are shown in Figure D.1. Survey design for
MOG data acquisition was based on prior COP data analyses, through which practical
effective penetration distances for the I-70 subsurface media were determined. As
expected, useful source to receiver offsets (i.e. antenna separations yielding traces with
direct arrival signal distinguishable above the background noise level) that could be
recorded in the study area subsurface varied depending upon lithology. With the
employed radar system and antennas, the maximum effective source to receiver offset in
consolidated materials (e.g. coal, sandstone, shale) was about 8.0 m, the maximum
effective offset in unconsolidated fine to coarse sands was about 7.0 m, and the maximum
effective offset in unconsolidated clay-rich units was about 5.0 m. The maximum
borehole separation deemed to be suitable for tomographic imaging, considering study
area lithologies, was about 5.0 m. The maximum vertical source and receiver offset was
therefore limited to 4.0 m during MOG surveying, and measurements were not made
between boreholes with a separation significantly greater than 5.0 m.
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Data acquisition system Sensors and Software
Center frequency of antennas 100 MHz (in air)
Antenna step increment 0.125 m (8 traces per m)*, 0.25 m (4 traces per m)**
Time window 600 ns*, 350 ns**
Sample points 750*, 437**
Stacks 32
Transmitter (Tx) and receiver
Tx was always located in the eastern-most borehole
(Rx) spatial relationship
Maximum vertical offset
0 m*, 4.0 m**
between (Tx) and (Rx)
Pulsar voltage 1000 V
Table D.2. Acquisition and recording parameters for cross-hole constant offset profile
(COP)* and multiple offset gather (MOG)** radar measurements in the I-70 study area.
Multiple data files were acquired between each set of boreholes surveyed during
MOG data acquisition. For each MOG data file, the transmitter antenna was located and
kept stationary at a given position in one well, while the receiver antenna position was
stepped downwards at an increment of 0.25 m (Figure D.2). The initial location of the
transmitter and receiver antennas for each set of wells that were surveyed was 1.0 m
below the ground surface, and the final location of both antennas corresponded to the
maximum possible measurement depth for the set of boreholes (see the previous section
concerning COP data acquisition). Measurements with the antennas separated by 1.0 m
in air, were frequently and consistently made during MOG data acquisition, in order to
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allow for time zero and possible system-related drift correction. Detailed information
regarding the borehole radar MOG data recording parameters is presented in Table D.2.
D.4 Cross-Hole Radar Data Processing and Imaging
Processing and imaging flows applied to cross-hole radar COP and MOG data
acquired in the I-70 study area are summarized in Table D.3 and Table D.4 respectively.
Demonstrations of applying the complete flows to COP and MOG field data are
presented in Figure D.3 and Figure D.4 respectively, with accompanying discussion
provided in the following sub-sections.
D.4.1 Constant Offset Profile Analysis
After initially applying a dewow correction to suppress the low frequency
component of data (Figure D.3a), true time zero (the time at which the transmitter
antenna initially radiates a pulse of energy) was established based on traces that were
acquired in air with a known dipole separation. Trace editing, data truncation, and
frequency filtering (to suppress high frequency noise) were then conducted (Table D.3).
The average absolute amplitude of each COP trace (unscaled) was calculated
across a 200 ns window. A broad window was selected for calculations rather than
tightly windowing direct arrivals for two reasons: 1) because radar signal was often
highly attenuated in certain geologic media for the surveyed offsets, and because
refractions interfered with direct arrivals in the near surface, it was difficult (impossible
in some cases) to always accurately window direct arrivals, and 2) the specification of a
broader window would also allow possible trace amplitude anomalies resulting from
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Dewow correction Suppression of low-frequency data component
Data reformat From pulseEKKO to SEG-Y to ProMAX format
Time zero correction True time zero established based on traces acquired in air
Trace editing Bad/noisy traces, and traces acquired in air killed
Data truncation Records truncated to 220 ns
Bandpass filter Ormsby filter: 0-30-90-120 MHz
Amplitude analysis Average absolute amplitude calculated across 200 ns window
Trace normalization Each trace scaled relative to maximum amplitude of the trace
Direct arrival breaks picked for calculation of average media
Direct arrival picking
velocities
Table D.3. Data processing and imaging flow for I-70 study area cross-hole constant
offset profile (COP) radar measurements (Figure D.3).

Dewow correction Suppression of low-frequency data component
Data merge Merged individual MOG’s into single file
Data reformat From pulseEKKO to SEG-Y to ProMAX format
Time zero correction True time zero established based on traces acquired in air
Trace editing Bad/noisy traces killed
Data truncation Records truncated to 220 ns
Bandpass filter Ormsby filter: 0-30-90-120 MHz
Trace normalization Each trace scaled relative to maximum amplitude of the trace
Direct arrival picking Direct arrival breaks picked for travel time inversion
Travel time inversion Inversion conducted using MIGRATOM code
Tomogram generation Plotting of calculated velocity distribution between boreholes
Table D.4. Data processing and imaging flow for I-70 study area cross-hole multiple
offset gather (MOG) radar measurements (Figure D.4).
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Figure D.3. Demonstration of constant offset profile data processing and imaging flow:
(a) field data after dewow correction, (b) after time-zero correction, trace editing,
truncation, bandpass filtering, amplitude analysis, and trace normalization, (c) after direct
arrival picks, and (d) processed data with amplitude and velocity plots.
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Figure D.4. Demonstration of multiple offset gather data processing and imaging flow:
(a) field data after dewow correction, merging, time-zero correction, trace editing,
truncation, bandpass filtering, and trace normalization, (b) zoomed in look at MOG’s
after direct arrival picks, (c) plot of calculated velocity distribution between boreholes
obtained through inversion, and (d) velocity distribution plot after image interpolation.
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post-direct arrival scattering to be more easily recognized. The approach taken allows an
assessment (although somewhat qualitative) of relative media attenuation characteristics
(related to conductivity and scattering loss) for a given set of measurements to be made,
and also provides a means for comparing recorded amplitudes of different traces acquired
in similar media types but at different borehole separations (effective penetration distance
and recorded amplitude are a function of radar system limitations and other factors in
addition to media attenuation characteristics). (Note: for the Sensors and Software
borehole radar system, a sample amplitude value can be multiplied by a factor of 1.526 to
obtain the unit of micro Volt). Traces were normalized after amplitude analysis for direct
arrival picking and data display purposes (Figure D.3b).
In order to allow the calculation of average radar propagation velocities for
geologic media between boreholes, direct arrivals (direct breaks) were manually picked
(Figure D.3c). Such velocity calculations were based on assumptions that the boreholes
did not deviate from vertical with depth, and that velocity was laterally constant
throughout media between boreholes. Picked direct arrival times were interpolated
across depths where high attenuation of radar signal or refraction interference prevented
accurate direct arrival picks from being made. Direct arrival signal was unable to be
enhanced through bandpass or f-k filtering in cases where near-surface refraction
interference occurred. Using quantities obtained from amplitude and direct break
analyses, plots of average absolute amplitude and average radar propagation velocity
(versus depth) were generated and displayed with processed COP records (Figure D.3d).
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D.4.2 Multiple Offset Gather Analysis
The processing of MOG data was similar to the processing of COP data in that
dewow correction, time zero correction, trace editing, data truncation, bandpass
frequency filtering, and direct arrival picking were all conducted (Table D.4). One
difference was that individual MOG’s acquired between boreholes were merged together
during the MOG data processing flow (Figure D.4a). Another difference was that
inversion was conducted using MOG direct arrival travel time picks (Figure D.4b) for
tomographic imaging purposes. Detailed information regarding inversion theory as it
applies for the purpose of subsurface physical property tomography can be found in
Stewart (1991). The basic idea behind velocity inversion/tomography is that when
multiple travel time measurements along different ray paths (i.e. at different viewing
angles) through a media plane of interest are obtained, the velocity distribution within the
media plane can then be inferred from these measurements, as the spatial relationships of
the sources and receivers are known. Travel time inversion was conducted in order to
generate EM-wave velocity tomograms using a ray tracing computer code called
MIGRATOM (Jackson and Tweeton, 1993).
EM-wave propagation velocity can be approximated for practical purposes in
most low loss, non-magnetic geologic media as the speed of light (c) divided by the
square root of the media relative dielectric permittivity (k). For geologic (unconsolidated
and consolidated) materials, k values typically range from approximately 3 to 25,
depending upon mineralogy and water content. Air, quartz, and water have k values of 1,
4, and 80 respectively, and water content will therefore have a significant affect on media
EM-wave velocity. Water content is related to porosity in fully saturated media, and
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changes in primary or secondary porosity of fully saturated media will result in EM-wave
velocity changes (porosity changes in dry media will result in velocity changes of smaller
magnitude). It is reasonable to expect that an increase in secondary porosity due to
fracturing and void formation may occur in subsurface media where subsurface
subsidence processes have been active. Therefore, it was felt that by
determining/imaging lateral and vertical EM-wave velocity distribution using
tomography, the potential to accurately locate possible areas of active mine-related
subsidence in the subsurface would exist (in addition to the potential for accurately
mapping lithologic variations).
The inversion process using MIGRATOM, first involved dividing the media
plane between boreholes into a specified grid of cells. Based on the calculated range
(from COP measurements) of dominant EM wavelengths in the I-70 subsurface materials
(0.9 m to 1.5 m; wavelength variation was mainly caused by media electrical property
variation), a cell size of 0.0625 m2 (0.25 m vertically and horizontally) was specified for
grids. Each cell within a plane was then assigned an initial velocity value (based on the
measured average velocity at the cell depth), and the synthetic travel times through each
cell along the portion of ray paths intersecting each cell were calculated. Through a
process of comparing the sum of synthetic travel times along straight ray paths with the
measured travel times, the velocities assigned to cells were iteratively changed/updated
by the program in order to reduce differences between the synthetic model and measured
travel times. Through trial inversions, it was determined that by limiting the maximum
number of solution iterations to 20, reasonable velocity distribution models would be
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obtained (i.e. models that indicated media velocity variations between boreholes, but did
not suffer from the development of extremely large/unrealistic variations).
Velocity distributions calculated by MIGRATOM were plotted (Figure D.4c), and
a pixel interpolation function was then applied to gently smooth images (Figure D.4d).
Although MOG measurements were made from 1.0 m depth to the maximum possible
depth for all boreholes surveyed, signal attenuation and refraction interference often
prevented tomography attempts in the top several meters of the subsurface (Figure D.4d).
Concern exists when conducting inversion/tomographic imaging due to the issue
of mathematical/solution non-uniqueness. In the case of borehole radar MOG surveying,
the travel time measurements obtained through a media plane do not provide complete
angular coverage, and therefore do not provide enough information to allow a
mathematically unique reconstruction of the velocity distribution within the plane (i.e. an
obtained solution is regarded as non-unique, because more than one velocity distribution
model could be fit to a given set of travel time measurements). In order to improve the
velocity distribution reconstruction process during travel time inversions, only high
confidence travel time picks were considered (see above), and constraints (based on
calculated ranges of average velocities for the I-70 media types) limiting the range of
permissible solutions were specified.
Confidence in EM-wave velocity tomograms that were generated was established
in several ways. Trial inversions were conducted using different types of starting models
(i.e. mean and horizontal), and images obtained using both types of starting models were
found to be quite similar to one another. As Jackson and Tweeton (1993) discuss, a
unique solution is independent of the type of starting model, and if solutions obtained
330
using different starting models are extremely different from one another, then additional
constraints on inversion solutions are necessary to reduce the problem of non-uniqueness.
Velocity tomograms were also compared to average velocity versus depth plots that were
generated from COP records, and to drill log information that were available for the
surveyed boreholes. In all cases, tomogram velocity distributions were found to correlate
well with trends in average velocity versus depth plots, and with lithologic boundaries
indicated from drill log information (this is apparent from visual inspection of the data
that are subsequently presented and discussed).
D.5 Cross-Hole Radar Results and Interpretations
This section presents processed COP data and MOG data-derived EM-wave
velocity tomogram results, along with interpretations in terms of subsurface subsidence
activity and future roadway collapse risk, for locations of the I-70 study area that were
investigated using cross-hole radar methods. Data results and interpretations are
presented in one of the four following sub-sections, depending upon the location of the
boreholes used to acquire radar data: 1) eastbound travel lane road stations 46940-46968,
2) eastbound passing lane road stations 48304-48379, 3) eastbound travel lane road
stations 48304-48395, and 4) eastbound travel lane road stations 48530-48640 (Table D.1
and Figure D.1). Processed S-wave seismic reflection sections showing subsidence
features (bedrock and overburden discontinuities) that were imaged near the locations of
boreholes used to acquire radar data, and well log information obtained during drilling of
the boreholes used for radar measurements are also presented.
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D.5.1 Eastbound Travel Lane Road Stations 46940 to 46968
Shown in Figure D.5 are average EM-wave amplitude and velocity plots,
processed radar COP data, drill logs, and MOG-data derived EM-wave velocity
tomograms for three sets of boreholes in the I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range
46940 to 46968 (Table D.1, Figure D.1). A mosaic of the velocity tomograms shown in
Figure D.5 is presented in Figure D.6, along with a geologic cross-section constructed
from 2002 drill logs, an interpreted S-wave seismic reflection depth section, and a map
showing the approximate locations of mine workings relative to the locations of the data
in the figure.
From Figures D.5a - D.5c, it is seen that in general there is very good correlation
between calculated average amplitude and velocity value variations versus depth, and
lithologic changes that are indicated by drill logs. In Figure D.5a for example, mineral
content and porosity differences (i.e. associated differences in electrical properties) of
mapped unconsolidated sand and shale units result in expected EM-wave amplitude and
velocity variations with depth. From 13.5 to 18.0 m depth, shale (having no heavy
fracturing detected during drilling) is seen to correlate with relatively high COP-derived
values of average amplitude (~3800 µV) and velocity (~0.063-0.068 m/ns). There is a
large decrease in both amplitude (to ~500 µV) and velocity (to <0.05 m/ns) over the
depth range of 20.0 to 21.5 m, which correlates with heavily fractured shale mapped
during drilling. Although mineralogic or primary porosity differences between the shale,
or groundwater specific conductance differences at different depths may have contributed
to the observed differences in measured EM-wave amplitudes and velocities, data suggest
that an increase in fracture density (i.e. secondary porosity) of the shale located at greater
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(a) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC307 and GC306.
Figure D.5. Average EM-wave velocity and average absolute amplitude plots, radar COP
data, drill logs, and EM-wave velocity tomograms for I-70 eastbound travel lane road
station range 46940 to 46968 (Table D.1, Figure D.1): (a) wells GC307 and GC306, (b)
wells GC305 and GC307, and (c) wells B407G and B407H. A mosaic of the velocity
tomograms and well log information are shown along with interpreted seismic reflection
data and a mine map in Figure D.6. See text for a discussion of plots. (continued)
333
Figure D.5. (continued)
(b) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC305 and GC307.
(c) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells B407G and B407H.
334
335
Figure D.6. I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range 46940 to 46968: (a) EM-wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.5), (b) S-wave reflection
data, (c) geologic cross-section from logs, and (d) approximate locations of mine workings. Velocities (a) and drill logs (c) indicate that the
SE edge of the coal pillar beneath the road actually extends farther SE than mapped in (d), and that the seismically imaged subsidence
feature (b) resulted from bedrock collapse into the mine room located immediately south of this pillar. See text for complete discussion.
depth has had an effect on media electrical properties that was detectable using radar. In
this situation, it is apparent that EM-wave velocity has decreased and radar signal
attenuation has increased due to the fracturing (relative dielectric permittivity and
conductivity have increased due to water content increase; radar scattering losses from
electrical property discontinuities have also likely increased).
From Figure D.5a, it is seen that there is good lateral and vertical correlation of
the EM-wave velocity distribution in the tomogram with drill log information, and that
vertical variations in average EM-wave velocity in the tomogram agree with those in the
COP data-derived average velocity versus depth plot. From 18.0 m to 20.0 m depth, the
drill logs indicate that coal is present at the eastern edge of the tomogram, and that grout
is present at the western edge. Relatively high EM-wave velocities are observed near the
eastern edge of the tomogram in this depth range, while relatively low EM-wave
velocities are observed at the western edge of the tomogram in this depth range. In
Figure D.5b, drill logs indicate that a continuous bituminous coal seam exists between the
boreholes from 18.0 to 20.0 m depth. The velocity tomogram indicates that the EM-wave
velocity of the continuous coal (~0.09 - 0.1 m/ns) is higher than that of the overlying
shale unit (~0.08 m/ns). Average amplitude values are also seen to be relatively high at
the depth of the continuous coal. Based on previous laboratory measurements by Cook
(1975), the field observance of a high velocity and low attenuation (relative to shale)
bituminous coal is reasonable.
Radar data presented in this section were acquired using boreholes that were
located to the immediate north of a seismic reflection line that was positioned just south
the eastbound travel lane. The seismic section in the vicinity of the EM-wave velocity
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tomogram mosaic (Figure D.6a) indicates that the bedrock horizon has subsided into the
mine workings along normal faults, within close proximity to the line between road
stations 46938 and 46957 (Figure D.6b). It is also apparent that a section of bedrock has
subsided to a certain degree, into a mine room to the immediate east of these faults.
Interpolated drill log information to the north of the seismic line (Figure D.6c)
indicate that the local top-of-bedrock is about 13.5 m deep (between the boreholes) from
road stations 46940 to 46968, while the seismic data indicate that bedrock is around 15.0
m deep across this range to the immediate south. Both drill logs and EM-wave velocity
distribution in the tomogram indicate that a continuous coal seam was encountered
beneath bedrock during drilling to the north of the seismic line, between road stations
46947 and 46962. There is a discrepancy between the drill logs and the mapped locations
of the mine room and pillar workings shown in Figure D.6d, as the mine map indicates
that the boreholes should have encountered a mine room and not a coal pillar. It appears
that the southeastern edge of the coal pillar (seen beneath the eastbound lane near
boreholes GC307 and GC305) actually extends slightly farther to the southeast than the
mine map indicates, and terminates just south of the eastbound travel lane.
Radar COP data (Figure D.5a) and velocity tomograms (Figure D.6a) indicate a
termination of the coal pillar west edge at approximately road station 46947, and a
decrease in EM-wave velocities (relative to velocities to the immediate east) at the
bedrock level between road stations 46940 and 46947. A heavily fractured shale unit that
was mapped west of station 46947 (see above) suggests that mine-related subsidence
processes have been active at the mine level in this area. It is possible that the observed
decrease in bedrock EM-wave velocity (above the mine level) to the west of station
337
46947 has resulted from a certain degree of subsidence-related fracturing (which was not
indicated by drill logs). Such fracturing may be related to the formation of the bedrock
subsidence feature that was seismically imaged to the south of the boreholes. Possible
overburden disruption in the road station range surveyed by borehole radar is not
apparent over the depth range of COP data and EM-wave velocity tomograms.
Considering borehole-derived drill log and EM-wave velocity information, it is
apparent that the subsidence feature imaged using seismic reflection (Figure D.6b),
resulted from a collapse of the bedrock horizon into the mine room located immediately
south of the coal pillar edge encountered by the boreholes. As was discussed previously,
an area of disruption responsible for a 2D seismic section anomaly does not necessarily
need to be located directly beneath the seismic line due to the Fresnel zone concept.
Based on the close proximity of the seismically imaged bedrock subsidence-related
disruption to the southern edge of the eastbound travel lane, the eastbound travel lane
road station range of 46938 to 46957 is regarded as having a relatively high potential for
future surface failure.
D.5.2 Eastbound Passing Lane Road Stations 48304 to 48379
tomograms for six sets of boreholes in the I-70 eastbound passing lane road station range
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data, drill logs, and EM-wave velocity tomograms for I-70 eastbound passing lane road
wells GC203 and GC202, (c) wells GC204 and GC203, (d) wells GC205 and GC204, (e)
wells GC206 and GC205, and (f) wells GC207 and GC206 (no MOG data acquired). A
mosaic of the velocity tomograms and well log information are shown along with
interpreted seismic reflection data and a mine map in Figure D.8. See text for a
discussion of plots. (continued)
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(c) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC204 and GC203. (continued)
340
(d) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC205 and GC204.
(e) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC206 and GC205. (continued)
341
(f) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC207 and GC206.
342
343
Figure D.8. I-70 eastbound passing lane road station range 48300 to 48360: (a) EM-wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.7), (b) S-wave
reflection data, (c) geologic cross-section, and (d) approximate locations of mine workings. Velocities (a) indicate the mine-related bedrock
subsidence interpreted from seismic data (b) has occurred between the boreholes and directly beneath the seismic line. Velocities (a) also
extend the west edge of disruption interpreted from seismic data an additional several meters west. See text for complete discussion.
in the figure.
Radar data presented in this section were acquired using boreholes located to the
immediate south of a seismic reflection line that was positioned to the north of the
eastbound passing lane. The bedrock horizon was interpreted from seismic reflection
data to have been down-dropped along normal faults, and to have experienced significant
disruption from mine-related subsidence, near the seismic line between road stations
48329 and 48354 (Figure D.8b). A geologic cross-section interpreted from 1999 drill log
data indicated that a bedrock low exists in the approximate road station range of 48314 to
48340, and that voids below the bedrock surface also exist in this region (Figure D.8c).
Although the lateral extent (25-26 ft) of both interpreted features was similar, the western
edge of disrupted bedrock interpreted from seismic data was located to the east of that
interpreted from drill logs.
Consideration of the EM-wave velocity tomogram mosaic across this region
(Figure D.8a) suggests that seismic data were unable to exactly delineate the western
edge of bedrock horizon disturbance between the boreholes. Between wells GC202 and
GC203, a region of low EM-wave velocity (relative to laterally adjacent velocities) exists
(from 14.0 to 16.0 m deep) at the local surveyed bedrock level. The low velocity zone
between these wells exists between road stations 48314 and 48319. This bedrock low
velocity area is interpreted to be the result of increased water content (the high relative
dielectric permittivity of water reduces EM-wave velocity) due to subsidence related
fracturing and voids (a void was encountered during 1999 drilling at 15.5 m depth at
station 48314). Wells in this region were not drilled to the depths necessary to confirm
344
coal presence or absence. However, data observations suggest that the mine map (which
indicates coal beneath wells GC202 and GC203) in Figure D.8d has placed the eastern
edge of the coal pillar in this region too far to the east.
The EM-wave velocity tomogram mosaic (Figure D.8a) indicates a disrupted and
down-dropped bedrock horizon between wells GC203 and GC205 (road stations 48323 to
48340). Relatively low EM-wave velocities at the surrounding bedrock level in this
region suggest an increased secondary porosity (increased water content) due to
fracturing and bedrock subsidence. The inter-layering of grout and shale beneath the
bedrock surface (as mapped by well GC205) has contributed to relatively low velocities
within the region at the bedrock and mine levels, and along with fracturing has resulted in
COP data wavelet cycle distortion (due to direct arrival and diffraction interference) in
the depth range of 16.0 m to 18.0 m (Figure D.7d).
Between wells GC205 and GC206 (road stations 48340 to 48357) EM-wave
velocities at the bedrock level are somewhat higher than those to the immediate west
(Figure D.8a). Although substantial mineralogic or primary porosity differences are
possible, this observation suggests a relative decrease in bedrock subsidence-related
fracture density, which is consistent with the seismic data that indicate an intact (but
down-dropped) section of bedrock between stations road 48348 and 48354. The location
of wells prevented the eastern edge of bedrock horizon disruption (as indicated by
seismic data) from being accurately interpreted from drill log information alone (Figure
D.8c). A well log located 1.8 m east of well GC206 (well GC206 is located at road
station 48357) indicates that a void was encountered during drilling between 15.8 m to
17.5 m deep. Relatively high average EM-wave velocities at the bedrock level between
345
road stations 48357 to 48379 (Figure D.7f), suggest however that the surface of bedrock
between these wells is intact and has not been disrupted from subsidence. This
observation agrees with seismic data, which show an intact bedrock surface between
these stations.
Although it is difficult to infer possible subsidence-related disruption of near-
surface overburden materials from the processed radar and seismic data in the eastbound
passing lane road station range of 48314 to 48354, these data clearly indicate bedrock
horizon disruption (between the wells and beneath the seismic line) in this region.
Because of the close proximity of disrupted bedrock to the roadway, the eastbound
passing lane is regarded as having a relatively high potential for future mine-related
surface failure in this region.
tomograms for seven sets of boreholes in the I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range
from 1999 and 2002 drill logs, an interpreted S-wave seismic reflection depth section,
and a map showing the approximate locations of mine workings relative to the locations
of the data in the figure.
Radar data presented in this section were acquired using boreholes located to the
immediate north of a seismic reflection line that was positioned to the south of the
346
data, drill logs, and EM-wave velocity tomograms for I-70 eastbound travel lane road
wells GC213 and GC212, (c) wells GC214 and GC213, (d) wells GC215 and GC214, (e)
wells GC216 and GC215 (no MOG data acquired), (f) wells GC217 and GC216 (no
MOG data acquired), and (g) wells B412E and GC217. A mosaic of the velocity
tomograms and well log information are shown along with interpreted seismic reflection
data and a mine map in Figure D.10. See text for a discussion of plots. (continued)
347
(c) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC214 and GC213. (continued)
348
(d) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC215 and GC214.
(e) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC216 and GC215. (continued)
349
(f) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC217 and GC216.
(g) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells B412E and GC217.
350
351
Figure D.10. I-70 eastbound travel lane road stations 48304 to 48400: (a) EM-wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.9), (b) S-wave reflection
data, (c) geologic cross-section from logs, and (d) approximate locations of mine workings. Velocities (a) support seismic data
interpretation (b) of an intact bedrock surface (stations 48304 to 48340), and bedrock and overburden subsidence-related disruption (stations
48380 to 48408), indicating this disruption occurred between the boreholes and directly beneath the seismic line. See text for discussion.
eastbound travel lane. The bedrock horizon surface was interpreted from seismic
reflection data to be intact between road stations 48304 and 48340 (Figure D.10b), and
this agrees with a geologic cross-section constructed from drill log data (Figure D.10c).
An EM-wave velocity tomogram mosaic across this road station range (Figure D.10a)
also suggests that the bedrock surface is intact in this region, with relatively high EM-
wave velocities observed for most of the bedrock depth range. Voids encountered
beneath the bedrock surface (17.0 to 19.0 m depth) during the drilling of wells GC212,
GC213, and GC214 are apparent from the velocity tomograms, and are observed as
velocity lows (attributed to increased water content). Average amplitude lows
(suggesting increased attenuation and scattering loss) are also seen in the void locations
from the COP-derived plots (Figures D.9a-D.9d). As was concluded from the seismic
data interpretation, it does not appear from the radar COP-data and EM-wave velocity
tomograms that these voids have yet propagated up through the bedrock horizon, and
therefore an immediate risk for surface failure does not exist for this eastbound travel
lane road station range.
A bedrock discontinuity that resulted in vertical horizon offset was interpreted
from seismic data at road station 48391 (Figure D.10b). Analysis of seismic CDP gathers
indicated that the mine-related bedrock surface disruption exists near the seismic line
from the road station range of 48380 to 48408. Near-surface events in seismic data also
exhibit apparent dip and offset across this road station range, suggesting that overburden
materials in this area have also been disturbed by mine-related subsidence activity. A
well (number B412E) drilled during 2002 (subsequent to seismic data interpretation) at
road station 48395 confirmed that bedrock had in fact subsided to the east of road station
352
48380, along a normal fault located between road stations 48380 and 48395 (Figure
D.10c). A heavily fractured shale and siltstone unit was also encountered beneath the
bedrock surface during the 2002 drilling of well B412E, and this unit extended to mine
level depths with no coal encountered. This suggests that where the mine map (Figure
D.10d) indicates a coal pillar beneath well B412E, there should actually be a mine room
indicated (i.e. the mine map has placed the eastern edge of the coal pillar too far to the
east). Voids were previously encountered (from 13.3 to 14.7 m deep) during the 1999
drilling of well GC217 (located at road station 48380).
The EM-wave velocity tomogram (Figure D.10a) between wells GC217 and
B412E (road stations 48380 to 48395) supports the seismic and drill log data
interpretations of a disturbed bedrock horizon. Bedrock EM-wave velocities are seen to
be low relative to those measured in the eastbound travel lane road station range of 48304
to 48340. Overburden velocities are also seen to be low in this region relative to those of
unconsolidated units located to the west, suggesting an increase in fracture density (and
water content). A comparison of average absolute amplitude plots (Figures D.9e and
D.9g) supports this EM-wave velocity-based interpretation. Higher values of average
radar signal amplitude would be expected for measurements made between wells GC217
and B412E (Figure D.9g), which were 3.99 m apart, than for measurements made
between wells GC215 and GC216 (Figure D.9e), which were 5.97 m apart. The
observation that average amplitude values are similar at the depths of overburden for both
sets of measurements, suggests that an increase in radar signal attenuation due to an
increase in overburden fracture density (and water content) between wells GC217 and
B412E has occurred.
353
Due to borehole separation distance, MOG surveying (and thus tomographic
imaging) was not conducted between wells GC215 and GC216, or between wells GC216
and GC217 (road stations 48340 to 48380). Acquired radar COP data and calculated
average velocity and amplitude values between these boreholes are shown in Figures
D.9e and D.9f. High radar signal attenuation within unconsolidated materials prevents an
interpretation concerning overburden integrity based upon these data from being made.
Decreasing average velocity and amplitude values at the depth of the void mapped by
borehole GC217 (Figure D.9f) suggests that the void beneath the bedrock surface may
extend to the west of this borehole. Average velocities at the bedrock level do not
suggest however, that the region of bedrock surface disruption between road stations
48380 and 48408 (see above) extends west of road station 48380, and this interpretation
is consistent with a previous interpretation based only on seismic and drill log data.
Mine-related subsidence disruption of the bedrock horizon and near-surface
overburden materials is interpreted in the eastbound travel lane road station range of
48380 to 48408 (between the boreholes and beneath the seismic line), based upon
processed radar and seismic data. Based upon the close proximity of the disrupted
bedrock and overburden to the roadway, the eastbound travel lane is regarded as having a
relatively high potential for future mine-related surface failure in this region.
tomograms for five sets of boreholes in the I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range
354
(a) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells B413H and GC301.
Figure D.11. Average EM-wave velocity and average absolute amplitude plots, radar
COP data, drill logs, and EM-wave velocity tomograms for I-70 eastbound travel lane
road station range 48530 to 48640 (Table D.1, Figure D.1): (a) wells B413H and GC301,
(b) wells GC303 and B413H, (c) wells B413F and GC304 (no MOG data acquired), (d)
wells GC302 and B413F, and (e) wells B413E and GC302 (no MOG data acquired). A
mosaic of the velocity tomograms and well log information are shown along with
interpreted seismic reflection data and a mine map in Figure D.12. See text for a
discussion of plots. (continued)
355
FigureD.11. (continued)
(b) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC303 and B413H.
(c) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells B413F and GC304. (continued)
356
FigureD.11. (continued)
(d) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells GC302 and B413F.
(e) Borehole radar data and drill-log plots for wells B413E and GC302.
357
358
Figure D.12. I-70 eastbound travel lane road station range 48530 to 48620: (a) EM-wave velocity mosaic (Figure D.11), (b) S-wave
reflection data, (c) geologic cross-sections from logs, and (d) approximate locations of mine workings. Velocities (a) suggest that the coal
pillar beneath the road (stations 48605 to 48615) actually extends farther south than mapped in (d), and that the seismically imaged
subsidence feature (b) resulted from bedrock collapse into the mine room located just south of this pillar. See text for complete discussion.
Figure D.11 is presented in Figure D.12, along with geologic cross-sections constructed
in the figure.
Radar data presented in this section were acquired using boreholes that were
located to the immediate north of a seismic reflection line that was positioned just south
of the eastbound travel lane. The seismic section in the vicinity of the EM-wave velocity
tomogram mosaic (Figure D.12a) indicates that the bedrock horizon surface is intact
between road stations 48530 and 48550 (Figure D.12b). Both the EM-wave velocity
tomograms and drill logs (Figure D.12c) to the north of the seismic line support the
seismic data interpretation, indicating relatively high EM-wave velocities for most of the
bedrock volume in this area. Grout and void space in the depth range of 19.0 m to 22.0 m
(beneath the bedrock surface) correlate with relative lows in both average EM-wave
velocity and amplitude (Figures D.11a and D.11b). These trends are due to a
combination of grout presence and an increase in water content due to fracturing and void
space. The distribution of velocity lows associated with the grout and increased
secondary porosity is mapped well between the wells by the velocity tomograms. A zone
of low velocity is apparent from a tomogram within the bedrock volume over the depth
range of 18.0 to 20.0 m, between stations 48534 and 48537 (Figure D.11a). This
suggests that a zone of fracturing associated with subsidence activity has propagated up
into the bedrock, although it does not appear that the integrity of the entire horizon has
been affected yet, and a relative high risk for future surface failure does not yet exist here.
359
The seismic data indicate that the bedrock horizon has subsided into a mine room
along normal faults between road stations 48596 and 48615 near the seismic line (Figure
D.12b). Drill log (wells B413F and GC302) information (Figure D.12c) and EM-wave
velocity distribution in the tomogram (Figure D.12a) indicate that a continuous coal seam
was encountered beneath bedrock during drilling to the north of the seismic line, between
road stations 48605 and 48615. There is a discrepancy between the drill logs and the
mapped locations of the mine room and pillar workings shown in Figure D.12d, as the
mine map indicates that these boreholes should have encountered a mine room and not a
coal pillar. It appears that the southwestern edge of the coal pillar (seen beneath the
eastbound lane near these wells) actually extends slightly farther to the south than the
mine map indicates, and terminates just south of the eastbound travel lane. Radar COP
data (Figures D.11c and D.11e) indicate relatively high values of average EM-wave
velocity and amplitude over the bedrock depth range between road stations 48583 and
48605, and between road stations 48615 and 48640. These observations suggest that the
bedrock horizon is intact between the boreholes within these regions. Due to borehole
separations, MOG surveying (and thus tomographic imaging) was not conducted between
wells GC304 and B413F, or between wells GC302 and B413E (Figures D.11c and
D.11e).
Considering borehole-derived log and EM-wave velocity information, it is
apparent that the subsidence feature imaged using seismic reflection (Figure D.12b),
resulted from a collapse of the bedrock horizon into the mine room located immediately
south of the coal pillar edge (see above) encountered by boreholes B413F and GC302
(Figure D.12c). As was previously discussed, an area of disruption responsible for a 2D
360
seismic section anomaly does not necessarily need to be located directly beneath the
seismic line due to the Fresnel zone concept. Heavily fractured shale units were
encountered during the drilling of these boreholes, and such fracturing above the mine
level may be related to the formation of the subsidence feature that was seismically
imaged to the south of the boreholes. Possible disruption of overburden materials in the
road station range surveyed by boreholes is not apparent from the radar COP data and
EM-wave velocity tomograms.
Based on the close proximity of the seismically imaged bedrock horizon
disruption to the southern edge of the eastbound travel lane, the eastbound travel lane
road station range of 48596 to 48615 is regarded as having a relatively high potential for
future surface failure.
361
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Analysis and Modeling of High-Resolution Multi Component Seismic Reflection Data

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ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF HIGH-RESOLUTION

MULTICOMPONENT SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the

Graduate School of the Ohio State University

Erich D. Guy, B.S., M.S.

The Ohio State University

Dr. Jeffrey Daniels, Adviser

Dr. Matthew Saltzman

Dr. Franklin Schwartz

Dr. William Wolfe

All rights reserved.

UMI Microform 3110978

Copyright 2004 ProQuest Information and Learning Company.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

Federal Highway Administration and the Ohio Department of Transportation provided

I acknowledge Dr. Jeffrey Daniels, Dr. Richard Nolen-Hoeksema, John Clark

research group at OSU composed of many fine people, including: Mohammad

which improved the work in chapter 7 and appendix B.

I appreciate computer-related assistance that I received from Doug Findlay, Frank

Environmental Protection Agency, for conference travel funding provided on numerous

I am thankful for valuable advice provided by Dave Guy on countless occasions.

1996…………………………………………… B.S. Geological Sciences, Biological

Major Field: Geological Sciences

Specialization: Engineering and Environmental Geophysics

1.4 Organization of Document 10

2. Seismic Wave Scattering Theory 15

3. Experimental Seismic Reflection Data Acquisition 30

4. Factors Affecting Common-Mode Reflection Surveying Effectiveness 51

4.3.2 Stacked Signal Quality 66

4.4.1.1 Reflection Coefficients: Unsaturated and Saturated

4.4.2 Noise and Optimal Reflection Windows 82

5. Converted-Mode Reflection Imaging Potential 102

5.3.2.2 Mode-Conversions at the Saturated Overburden

5.3.3 Ray Tracing of Mode-Converted Reflections 125

5.3.4 Elastic-Wave Modeling 133

6. SH-Wave Reflection Data Analysis Considerations 149

6.6 Results and Interpretations 185

8.1.1 Applicability of P- and S-Wave Common-Mode Reflection

8.1.2 Potential for Improving Near-Surface Characterization

8.2 Factors Affecting SH-Wave Reflection Method Applicability for

8.2.1 Shallow SH-Reflection Imaging in Complex and High

8.3 Potential Application of SH-Wave Intromission Angle Equations 236

8.5.1 Borehole Radar Data Acquisition Considerations 239

A. Seismic Reflection Field Test Area 242

B.1 Introduction 261

D. Cross-Hole Radar Effectiveness for Investigation of Seismically

D.1 Overview 311

4.1 Information from drill logs near line EBTravel 58

4.3 Representative subsurface parameters and normal incidence P-wave and

4.4 Velocity model used to generate the synthetic seismogram in Figure

4.5 Quarter-wavelengths calculated for P- and S-waves in the I-70 study

6.2 Data processing flow for shear-wave reflection data 175

7.2 Incident and refracted media (media 1 and 2 respectively) physical

B.1 Lithologic parameters used to obtain the solutions plotted as a function

D.2 Acquisition and recording parameters for cross-hole constant offset

3.6 Multicomponent recording polarities for 3-C geophones with elements

3.7 Shot gather (P-wave source, Z component) recorded using horizontal,

4.3 Line EBTravel shot gathers: (a) XX component, and (b) YY

4.5 Plots showing normalized square root energy coefficients as a function

4.7 Line EBTravel XX and YY component time sections after similar

4.9 Line EBTravel multicomponent (source component Z, receiver