Significant Scientific Theories

This is a list of some of the most significant and best known scientific theories. All of
these are strongly supported by scientific evidence. One undisputed fact by all scientists
around the world is that scientific knowledge is in a constant state of change. As more
sophisticated methods of investigation are developed, the knowledge base of science will
continue to expand. There are multiple examples of this of which people should be aware:

1. Modern Atomic Theory

2. Kinetic Molecular Theory

3. Germ Theory of Disease

4. Big Bang Theory

5. Theory of Evolution

6. Theory of Gravity

7. Cell Theory

8. Theories of Relativity

9. Plate Tectonic Theory

10. Quantum Mechanical Theory

11. String Theory

12. Unified Field Theory

Modern Atomic Theory: Since the earliest consideration that matter existed as solid
particles more than 2500 years ago, the description of the atom has been modified
extensively. It was only in 1917 that the entire scientific community finally abandoned the
argument of the existence of a continuous form of matter and agreed that matter existed
only in particulate form. Over the past century, as fundamental observations exploring for
a deeper understanding of matter and energy were occurring, a more in depth
understanding of the nature of the atom was emerging and has been recognized as today’s
Modern Atomic Theory. As more information is uncovered through additional scientific
research, the theory will continue to be modified to explain all of the existing evidence.
In simplest terms, the atom is composed of a central nucleus composed of two particles,
the neutron and proton, surrounded by a cloud of extremely small particles called
electrons. The identity of the atom depends upon the number and type of particles
contained in its nucleus. Neutrons and protons are composed of smaller particles called
quarks. The atom is best described through high-order mathematical relationships in a
field of science called Quantum Mechanics.

Some fundamental concepts of atomic structure can be illustrated using simple visual
methods (drawings, 3D models, etc.); however, it is important to emphasize that the
method utilized is only a visualization technique of something no one has really seen. The
challenge of describing an atom in simplistic terms on the macroscopic level is made more
difficult because the physical laws that determine the actual “appearance” of an atom
exist only in the ultramicroscopic level described in quantum mechanics. The physical laws
as taught at the macroscopic level are no longer valid and have no meaning at the quantum
level. Therefore, any macroscopic description is inherently flawed because the scientific
laws and principles used to explain the atom are actually untrue at the atomic level.

Kinetic-Molecular Theory: The Kinetic-Molecular Theory (KMT) states that matter is

composed of tiny particles in constant motion. Through KMT, the processes of osmosis,
diffusion and the concept of temperature can be explained. KMT is the basis of our
knowledge of the movement of matter on a macroscopic level. The theory allows scientists
to explain the behavior of matter in the different physical states that matter can exist.
The theory also provides a thorough means of understanding the process of energy
transfer between particles of matter.

Big Bang Theory: Big bang theory assumes that the universe began from a singular state of
infinite density and expanding from an explosive moment of creation. Fred Hoyle coined
the term Big Bang. The Big Bang Theory is the dominant scientific theory about the origin
of the universe. According to the Big Bang, the universe was created sometime between
10 billion and 20 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all
directions.

Gravitational Theory: According to legend, Isaac Newton developed a Theory of Gravity

which describes an attractive force which will always exist between two bodies of matter
after he saw an apple falling (whether the apple hit him on the head is open to discussion).
Modern gravitational theory has taken on new avenues of thought as theoretical work by
Einstein and others have opened up entirely new line of thought. Considering the four
fundamental type of forces in nature (strong nuclear; weak nuclear; electromagnetic; and,
gravitational), gravity has several characteristics that distinguish it from the other three
forces: (1). It is universal, (2). It is always attractive, (3). It is a long-range interaction
(long range meaning gravity can affect objects millions of miles distant from each other).
Theory of Evolution: Evolution theory says that all living things are related to one another
through common ancestry from earlier forms that differed from the present forms.
Exactly how evolution occurs is still a matter of debate, but that it occurs is a scientific
fact. Biologists agree that all living things arose through a long history of changes shaped
by physical and chemical processes that are still taking place. According to the theory,
variability among individuals in a population of sexually reproducing organisms is produced
by mutation and genetic recombination. The resulting genetic variability is subject to
natural selection in the environment. See a detailed explanation below.

Cell Theory: The cell theory of life states: (1). All living material is made up of cells (2). All
cells are derived from previously existing cells; most cells arise by cell division, but in
sexual organisms they may be formed by the fusion of sperm and egg (3). A cell is the
most elementary unit of life (4). Every cell is bounded by a plasma membrane, an extremely
thin skin separating it from the environment and from other cells (5). All cells have strong
biochemical similarities and (6). Most cells are small, about 0.001 cm (0.0004 in) in length;
for example, the smallest cells of the microorganism mycoplasma are 0.3 micrometers in
size, whereas some giant algae cells may be several centimeters long.

Germ Theory of Disease: French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur is considered the founder of
microbiology. Pasteur argued that germs caused infectious diseases. The germ theory has
affected our views on infectious disease, surgery, hospital management, agriculture, and
industry.

Relativity Theories: Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity, published in 1905,

revealed that energy and matter are different manifestations of the same phenomenon
and can be transformed into each other in terms of the relationship E = mc(2) . Einstein’s
theory of general relativity, published in 1917, provided a powerful new way to view gravity
as a warping of the four-dimensional space-time continuum by the presence of matter. If
space-time is imagined as a rubber sheet, then massive objects such as stars and galaxies
create deformations in space-time, just as a bowling ball sitting on a mattress creates a
dent into which nearby smaller objects fall. Thus the shape of space-time determines the
behavior of matter/energy. At the same time, the presence of matter/energy determines
the shape of space-time.

Plate Tectonics Theory: Plate tectonics is an all-embracing theory that the Earth is
divided into a number of rigid plates floating on a viscous under-layer in the mantle.
Alfred L. Wegener was the first to propose in 1912 that the continents were at one time
connected and had drifted apart. In 1960 when H. H. Hess suggested that new ocean floor
was created at the mid-oceanic ridges and that the ocean evolved by seafloor spreading.

Quantum Theory: This theory says that energy exist in tiny discrete units called quanta.
Just as earlier theory showed how light, generally seen as a wave motion, could also in some
ways be seen as composed of discrete particles (photons), quantum theory shows how
atomic particles such as electrons may also be seen as having wavelike properties. Quantum
theory is the basis of particle physics, modern theoretical chemistry, and the solid-state
physics that describes the behavior of the silicon chips used in computers. Quantum
theory and the theory of relativity together form the theoretical basis of modern physics.
Later work by scientists elaborated the theory into what is called quantum mechanics (or
wave mechanics).

String Theory: This theory is that all matter is composed of strings. The strings
themselves are the smallest possible particles, with a length of 10-33 cm, and no width or
height. Strings can be open or closed. Closed strings have the shape of a circle or oval, and
open strings have ends. A string occupies one single point in space-time at any one time.

Unified Field Theory: Einstein proposed that there must be a “simplier” explanation in
nature for the interactions between matter than the concept of the four fundamental
interactions (or forces) because he believed that all of the laws of nature were very basic
and should only exist in simplest terms. To Einstein, having four fundament forces was not
simplest. Having a single concept that manifests itself in four different ways was much
more elegant and therefore simpler. Einstein worked for the last 20 years of his life
without discovering the elegant answer he was sure that existed. Since his death in 1955,
continued scientific investigation has unified three of the four forces and some evidence
has been made public that the fourth force (gravity) has also been unified. If this is true
then Einstein’s dream would have come true. Only time and additional study will confirm or
refute this claim.

From: Position Statement on Science Education: Arkansas Science Teachers Association

2006 (http://users.aristotle.net/~asta/science.htm)