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very year, floods are responsible for more deaths nationwide than any other weather
phenomenon. On average in the past 30 years, floods have caused more than 120 fatalities per year;
of these, most were due to flash floods. From 1996 through 2003, the average number of flash flood
events recorded nationwide was nearly 3000 per year. Although flash flood forecasting is improving due to
better radar and satellite observations, flash floods continue to be among nature’s worst killers.
The National Weather Service is responsible for detecting hazardous weather and warning the public in
a timely, accurate, and effective way. Forecasting flash floods is especially challenging because forecasters
must predict not only the occurrence of the event but also its magnitude. The amount of precipitation and
Figure 2. Flash flood warning statistics for the Los Angeles-Oxnard Weather Forecast Office compare favorably
with national statistics for flash flood events from 1996 and 2003. The probability of detection is the fraction of
the forecast events that occurred when forecast. The false alarm ratio is the number of events that were forecast
but did not occur. Also shown for comparison sake are the 2004 national and Western Region goals.
Source: Compiled by Paul Smith from NOAA data.
Enhancing Weather Radar Coverage Guiding Future Directions
Low-level radar coverage is limited by the Radars can observe the evolving weather systems
Earth’s curvature and blockage due to surrounding that cause flash floods as they move into areas of
terrain. This is exacerbated by the current restriction concern, and future NEXRAD enhancements will
of the NEXRAD system to minimum elevation improve the quality of those observations. The
angles of 0.5°. The use of lower, and perhaps even measurements of accumulating precipitation may not
negative, elevation angles would allow monitoring of provide the most effective warning capability, but new
precipitation and wind at lower altitudes, providing and evolving techniques are available to improve this
a more representative assessment of near-surface process. There also are gains to be made from rapidly
rainfall. In addition, high-quality, real-time weather evolving capabilities for better short-term and fine-
radar data are becoming more widespread. Making scale forecasting, using regional and local numerical
these data accessible to National Weather Service models that ingest real-time observations. In addition
forecasters would increase the area and density of to these near-term improvements, consideration of
coverage of weather radar data, especially in regions of hydrologic factors should be an integral part of future
complex terrain. To enhance weather radar coverage, radar siting.
the National Weather Service should:
• To increase the accuracy and lead time of flash
• Improve nationwide NEXRAD coverage of flood forecasts and warnings, the National
low-level precipitation and wind, especially for Weather Service should continue to implement
elevated radar sites in complex terrain, through new technologies and techniques including (a) the
the adoption of a modified scan strategy that will Flash Flood Monitoring and Prediction program
allow scanning at lower elevation angles. at all Weather Forecast Offices, (b) polarimetric
• Have access to all available regional real-time modifications to NEXRAD, (c) data assimilation
weather radar data including the Federal Aviation systems that integrate radar and other operational
Administration (FAA) and Department of Defense datasets into coupled hydrometeorological
NEXRAD radars; FAA Terminal Doppler Weather and hydrological models, and (d) data fusion
Radars and other surveillance radars equipped to systems.
provide weather-echo data; local television station • In addition to the original NEXRAD siting
Doppler radars; and operational radars from other considerations, future siting of radars in complex
organizations. terrain should include detailed assessments of
coverage in areas at risk for flash flooding.
• Consider augmenting the NEXRAD network
with additional short-range radars to improve
observation of low-level meteorological
phenomena (e.g. rain, snow, wind).
Committee to Assess NEXRAD Flash Flood Forecasting Capabilities at Sulphur Mountain, California: Paul
L. Smith (Chair), South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City; Ana Barros, Duke University,
Durham, North Carolina; V. Chandrasekar, Colorado State University, Fort Collins; Greg Forbes, The Weather
Channel, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia; Eve Gruntfest, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs; Witold Krajewski,
University of Iowa, Iowa City; Thomas Potter, University of Utah, Salt Lake City; Rita Roberts, National Center
for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado; Matthias Steiner, Princeton University, New Jersey; Roger Wa-
kimoto, University of California, Los Angeles; Julie Demuth (Study Director), Board on Atmospheric Sciences
and Climate; Elizabeth Galinis (Senior Program Assistant), Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate.
This report brief was prepared by the National Research Council’s Board on Atmospheric
Sciencs and Climate. For more information, contact the Board at 202-334-3512 or visit
http://www.national-academies.org/basc. Flash Flood Forecasting Over Complex Terrain
is available from the National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001; 800-624-6242; www.nap.edu.
Permission granted to reproduce this brief in its entirety with no additions or alterations.
Copyright 2004 The National Academy of Sciences