1

CONTENTS
PRINCIPLES electrical / electromagnetic
Atomic structure ................................................ ..............
.................................... ................................... Electri
city ............................................... 5 .........................
......................... .................................... 7 voltage, voltag
e or potential difference .......................................... ...........
....................................... .... Amperage ..........................
.................... 8 .................................................. ......
........................ Electrical Resistance .................................
.............. 10 .................................................. ...........
...................... Association of resistance ...............................
............... 12 .................................................. ..........
.............. OHM Act .............................................. 13 .......
........................................... ....................................
........ Magnetism ................................................ 15 .........
......................................... ......................................
...... Electromagnetism ................................................ 16 ....
.............................................. .................................
Induced electromotive force .............................................. 20 .
................................................. .................. Self-induce
d electromotive force .............................................. 21 ........
.......................................... ............ Inductive pulse generato
r 24 ............................................. .............................
..................... .............. 25 Impulse Hall ...........................
.................. .................................................. ..........
............ Piezoelectric Sensor ..............................................
. 27 .................................................. ........................
....... Piezoresistive sensor ............................................... 30
.................................................. ............................
. Electromagnetic relay ............................................... 31 .....
............................................. ............................. Rela
y Types .............................................. 33 ......................
............................ ........................................... 35
2
The multimeter Description ............................................... .....
............................................. ..................................
........... Types of polymers ............................................... ..
................................................ ...............................
. Analog multimeters ................................................ ..........
........................................ ............................ ..........
..................................... Conventional digital multimeter ..........
........................................ ............... .......................
........................ Advanced digital multimeter ...........................
....................... ...................... Precautions .....................
......................... measurement ..........................................
........ .................... Ohmmeter measurements polymers ...................
........................... .................................................. .
...................................... Voltmeter ...............................
.................. .................................................. ..........
...................... Ammeter .................................................
.................................................. ............................
Reading Exercises ............................................... .............
..................................... ............................... 48 49 50 5
1 41 42 43 44 45 47
ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES ............................................. resistors or
resistances .................................................. ................
........... ................................................ Fixed resistors ...
............................................... ................................
... ................................................ Variable resistors ........
.......................................... ........................... Special r
esistance ................................................ .....................
............................. ......................... Semiconductor diode ....
............................................ ...................................
............... ............................ Zener Diode .......................
........................................... ....................................
.............. ........................ Led LED ................................
............... .................................................. .............
................. Photodiode ................................................. .
................................................. ..............................
.............. Transistor ................................................. ....
.............................................. .................................
........... 57 61 63 65 71 74 76 78 80
3
The oscilloscope The oscilloscope ..............................................
.................................................. ............................
............ Oscilloscope Types ...............................................
.................................................. .............................
Controls ................................................ .....................
............................. ......................................... The disp
lay ................................................ ...........................
....................... ............................................. The probes
................................................ ..............................
.................... ............................................. Onda Concepts
.............................................. signal .........................
......................... ............................................ 104 97 98
99,100,101
Most common forms of wave ............................................. ........
.......................................... ...... Period .......................
......................... 105 ..................................................
...................................... Frequency ..............................
................... .................................................. .........
....................... Size ................................................. .
................................................. ..............................
.... Pulse ................................................. ...................
............................... ........................................ 108 110
115 123
Automotive Oscilloscopes ............................................... .......
........................................... .............. Signal injection ....
.......................................... 124 .................................
................. ................................... Lambda Signal ............
................................... 126 ........................................
.......... .......................................... 127 idle actuator control
signal two windings .......................................... .................
........................... 128
4
Atomic Structure
• The matter consists of infinitesimally small particles called molecules, these
 in turn are divided into atoms.
-
-
• Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons moving
elliptical orbits forming the crust. • A proton is positively charged (+) and ne
gative electric electron (-). • Metals have the property that the atoms that for
m tend to lose one or more electrons in its last layer, llamándoseles free elect
rons, which create these holes may be occupied by other free electrons.
-
5
Atomic Structure
• As the electrons rotate in the orbit farthest from the nucleus are less bound
to the atom, it happens sometimes that some of them escape, perhaps by the shock
of a free electron approaches them at high speed. Then outweighs the positive c
harge exists in the nucleus, the atom has become a positive ion. • Conversely, t
he envelope can capture additional electrons free electrons. Then outweighs the
negative charge of the electron shell, the atom has become a negative ion.
-
-
-
-
+ + + +
-
-
+ + + +
+ + + +
-
No e-> p + No
6
ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL BODY
BODY POSITIVE CHARGE
BODY negatively charged
No e-= p + No
No e-<p + No
ELECTRIC CURRENT
7
VOLTAGE, VOLTAGE OR POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• It is the electric force with which the electrons are pushed through a conduct
or. The tension appears in the electrical circuits in two ways: induced electrom
otive force (emf): The tension that generates a power source, as can be a batter
y, generator, etc ... Voltage drop: The voltage that is lost in the receivers.
0
P
V
• Comparing the term with a hydraulic circuit, the voltage would correspond to t
he pressure applied to a fluid so that it travels through a pipe.
8
TENSION,€DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL OR VOLTAGE
• The unit of measurement is the Volt. • The volt (V) is multiple the megavolt (
MV) and KV (KV) and as submultiples MV (mV) and the microvolt (microvolts).
1 MV = 1,000,000 V
1 V = 1.000 mV
1 kV = 1,000 V
1 ¶ = 0.000001 V
• The device can measure the stress is called voltmeter is connected in shunt or
in parallel with the circuit whose voltage you want to know. Put another way, t
he terminals of the voltmeter must join the two points between which a dap or te
nsion to be measured. 9
CURRENT STRENGTH
• INTENSITY is called, the number of electrons circulating in a consumer, when a
pplied to this tension, in the unity of time (seconds).
I
• The intensity of electric current in the hydraulic circuit corresponding to th
e amount of water passing through the turbine (producing a work) in unit time, i
e the flow.
• The amount of fluid flowing through the canal, will be equivalent to the amoun
t of current flow through a resistance or consumer when you apply a voltage acro
ss it.
10
CURRENT STRENGTH
• The unit of measurement is the Ampere. • The ampere (A) is submultiples the mi
lliamp (mA) and the microampere (uA).
1 A = 1000 mA
1 mA = 0.001 A
1 A = 1,000,000 uA
1 uA = 0.000001 V
• The device can measure the intensity of electric current is called an ammeter
connected in series circuit, ie so that the electric current to pass in its enti
rety by him. The circuit must be working. 11
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
• flame resistance is the opposition that has a body to the passage of electric
current, ie the difficulty encountered by the electrons to move.
• The unit of measurement is the ohm (Ω). • The instrument used to measure resis
tance is the Ohmmeter. • Connection: Parallel when you go to take measurements o
f resistance, must be isolated and disconnected from the mains circuit.
• As a multiple of Ohm is used kilohms (KΩ) and the megohm (MΩ) and is used subm
ultiple milliohms (mΩ) and micromhos (μΩ).
1 MΩ = 1,000,000 ohms = 1.000 ohms 1 kOhm
1 Ω 1 = 1.000 mΩ Ω = 0.000001 μΩ 12
ASSOCIATION OF RESISTANCE (I)
• ASSOCIATION SERIES
R1
R2
R3
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
• A series circuit is formed by various components mounted in cascade, ie the ou
tput of a component connected to the input of another, so for all components. •
The intensity of current through a component, is the same value as that of other
s, since there is no referral to another part of the circuit. • The total resist
ance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the partial resistance of its co
mponents.
13
ASSOCIATION OF RESISTANCE (II)
• ASSOCIATION IN PARALLEL R1 R2 R3
1/Rt = 1/r2 + 1/R1 + 1/R3
Rt =
X R1 R2 R1 + R2
• A parallel circuit is when you connect two or more components, with two common
points, ie in a terminal and go the other will go the other end of each compone
nt. • The voltage of this type of assembly has the same value in all branches. T
he current supplied by the generator, shall be allocated in each of the branches
of the assembly. • The total resistance that the assembly will always offer les
s than the resistance is smaller than in the circuit.
14
OHM'S LAW
"The intensity of electric current in a circuit obtained is directly proportiona
l to the voltage and inversely proportional to the electrical resistance of the
same" I mean:
I = V / R
V = IxR
and
• From this expression it follows.
R = V / I
• As an immediate application of this law can be calculated the electrical resis
tance of a circuit, knowing the applied voltage and the current is obtained.
V
12V
2A
A
R = V / I = 12 V / 2 A = 6 Ohm
15
MAGNETISM
• magnetism is called to the property you have some bodies to attract the iron a
nd its derivatives. • A magnet is a piece of steel that due to special treatment
, has acquired properties: attracting iron, be guided by the land and attract or
repel other magnets, is assigned two poles, one north and one SOUTH are located
near the ends of the magnet. • It assumes the existence of a so-called lines of
force lines of induction, which establish a circuit, starting from the south po
le of the magnet, it will travel through the interior and out to the outside by
the north pole, from which they returned again to the South Pole .
16
17
MAGNETISM
• The area where these lines of induction show its effects, is called magnetic f
ield. Obviously, these effects are manifested most strongly in the vicinity of t
he magnet, so it is said that the "field" is more intense in that area.ۥ The mo
st visible effects manifest magnets are the attraction and repulsion. Indeed, if
two magnets approach the poles of the same sign, trying to repel. If you approa
ch their different poles attract.
Repulsion
ATTRACTIONS
18
MAGNETISM
• Not all bodies behave the same way to introduce them in a magnetic field. Some
, such as iron, producing a distortion of the magnetic field lines of force conc
entrating passing through it. These bodies are called permeable.
• Most of the bodies that exist in nature, such as wood, plastic, copper, alumin
um, etc., Are indifferent to the magnetism and even entering a magnetic field, i
t does not produce any alteration. These bodies are called paramagnetic.
• Other bodies such as bismuth, have the property to reject the lines of force,
ie they are more easily passing through the air through the body, producing a di
stortion of the field. These bodies are called diamagnetic.
19
ELECTROMAGNETIC
• When a straight wire through which an electric current is placed near a compas
s, it deviates from its position, "seeking" the perpendicular to the driver. Inc
reasing the current intensity, the compass takes increasingly more perpendicular
position. • This effect is due to electric current creates a magnetic field aro
und it that are analogous to magnets and whose intensity is proportional to the
amount of current flowing through the electrical circuit.
20
Induced electromotive force
• Faraday showed that when a driver crosses the lines of force produced by a mag
netic field is generated in him an induced electromotive force (feminist), which
is directly proportional to the flux cut, and inversely proportional to the tim
e taken to do so.
That is:
(Difference Flow) (Time Difference)
• The same effects are observed if instead of bringing in or out of the magnet t
o the coil, it is this that moves toward or away from the magnet. • Changing the
polarity of the magnet, the direction of current in the coil is opposite to tha
t obtained previously.
21
Induced electromotive force
• Consider a circuit consisting of two solenoids, the first, which we call prima
ry coil, powered by a battery and the second, which we call secondary coil and a
circuit is closed by an ammeter, as shown in Fig.
• The closing of the switch, the current flowing through the primary coil and th
e expansion flow in short the secondary winding and induces in it an emf causing
an electrical current. Once the flow is fully expanded, ie the maximum value, n
o change in the secondary flow, therefore the induced current in this is zero.
22
Induced electromotive force
• When the switch opens the magnetic field disappears, resulting in the emergenc
e of a new fem, and causing an electrical current in the opposite direction to t
he previous. Once the flow has completely disappeared, there is no variation in
the secondary flow, therefore the current is zero.
Whenever there is a change in flux that cuts the turns of a coil, it induces an
emf in this induced, giving rise to an electric current if the circuit is closed
. 23
Self-induced electromotive FORCE
• The inductance is produced in any coil that has a sharp cutoff in the flow of
current. This effect is sometimes the product of interference and disturbances i
n electronic circuits.
24
Inductive Pulser
• It consists of a ring gear with an absence of two teeth, called phonic wheel,
coupled to the periphery of the wheel or pulley, and a magnetic sensor placed in
front of it, formed by a coil wrapped around a permanent magnet.
25
Inductive Pulser
26
Hall Pulser
• The operation of this generator is based on the physical phenomenon known as t
he Hall effect.
• A semiconductor is a current path between points A and B, if you apply a magne
tic field NS, perpendicular to the semiconductor, generates a small voltage (Hal
l voltage) between points E and F due to the deviation of the lines current by t
he magnetic field, when these two conditions occur simultaneously.
27
Integrated Hall
• The Hall integrated circuit acts as a switch, transferring mass to the neutral
terminal (or) as often as directed by the semiconductor Hall. • For the termina
l (or) the control module sends a reference voltage, which the conduction state
of the power stage integrated Hall,€fall almost to zero or not.
(+) Voltage stabilizer power stage
Semiconductor Hall
Amplifier
Signal Converter
(O) (-)
Temperature Compensation
28
Hall Sensor application
Phase Sensor Camshaft Housing
Corona generating
29
Piezoelectric sensors
• It is a material (Pyrex, quartz ,...) that is sensitive to pressure variations
. • No pressure sensor loads, have a uniform distribution (1). By acting pressur
e, spatially moving loads (2), producing an electrical voltage. • The greater th
e pressure, the more intensely they separate the charges. The tension increases.
In the electronic circuit intensifies the tension built and transmitted as a si
gnal to the control unit. • The magnitude of stress is thus a direct measure of
the pressure prevailing in the system to be controlled.
30
Piezoresistive SENSOR
• The sensitive element consists of a Wheatstone bridge made of semiconductor re
sistors screenprinted on a very thin aluminum diaphragm. On one side of the diap
hragm acts a reference pressure, while on the other hand, does the pressure to b
e measured.
Diaphragm
Bridge resistance
Support
Output Voltage
Supply voltage
• The control unit maintains a 5 volt power to the sensor. A variation of pressu
re causes the diaphragm to bow ceramic sensor by varying the value of the resist
ance of the bridge and also by varying the value of output voltage.
31
32
Electromagnetic Relay
A large number of existing power plants are sent in an automobile component call
ed electromagnetic relays or contactors. The relay allows you to send, through a
low current circuit (drive circuit) circuit that works with higher current (pow
er circuit). The electromagnetic coil is inserted into the field circuit with a
very weak consumption in the order of milliamps: current passing through it crea
tes a magnetic field such that a shift from the armor from the rest position to
the position. The truss command acts on the opening and closing of the contacts,
allowing current flow to consumers concerned.
Driving coil
30
Consumer
A return spring returns the armature to the rest position when the excitation cu
rrent disappears. 33
Need Relays
If an installation that consumes a lot of govern only with the help of a simple
switch, because their internal contacts are usually not dimensioned to withstand
a high current intensity, this would deteriorate rapidly with warming serious c
onsequence would be subject to and leading to significant voltage drops in the i
nstallation.
Lights Switch
Battery
Lights Switch
Battery
Relay
To avoid this, the relays are used, so that the current flows through the shorte
st route from the battery through the relay to the headlights. Since the switch
on the board until the relay driver is sufficient command of only 0.75 mm2, sinc
e consumption is about 150 mA. 34
Relay Types
Simple relay of work: In these types of relays, the relay will put together the
power supply to consumers, shareholders via a switch or other control device.
Type B:
30 or March 1987 or May 1986 or January 1986 or January 1985 or 2
87 or May 1985 or 2
30 to 3
Type:
30 to 3: Input power. 87 or 5: Power output. 85 or 2: Negative excitement. 86 or
1: Positive excitement.
87 or 5
30 to 3
85 or 2
86 or 1
35
Working double relay
In this type of relay current output is produced by two terminals to be excited
once the relay.
Type B:
87b or May 1930 or March 1987 or May 1986 or January 1986 or January 1985 or 2
87 or May 1985 or 2
30 to 3
87b or 5
Type:
30 to 3: Input power. 87 or 5: Power output. 87b or 5: Power output. 85 or 2: Ne
gative excitement. 86 or 1: Positive excitement.
87 or 5
87b or 5
30 to 3
85 or 2
86 or 1
36
Switching Relay
Acts alternately on two control circuits or power. One is controlled when the co
ntact elements are in working position, while the other one is when the contact
elements are in the position.
Type B:
87th or April 1930 or March 1987 or May 1986 or January 1986 or January 1985 or
2
87 or May 1985 or February 87th or March or April 1930
Type:
30 to 3: Input power. 87th or 4: Power output at rest. 87 or 5: Power output ena
bled. 85 or 2: Negative excitement. 86 or 1: Positive excitement.
87 or 5
Or April 87th
30 to 3
85 or 2
86 or 1
37
Special Relays
There are a number of special relays for very specific uses, or available to spe
cific terminals.€In this small study we present the relays with resistance or di
ode extinction and blocking diode.
Resistance relay
Relay with diode extinction
Diode Relay with extinction and blocking
The purpose of the resistance and the diode is to protect the relay control elem
ent of potential self-induced currents generated in the excitation coil itself,
which could lead to the deterioration of this. 38
Miscellaneous Applications of Relays
Relay stadia: Double injection relay
- Coil
Departures
50 87 1 TD
Start
Contact
87b 30
15 31
Mass 15 8 12 14 7 4 5 6 13 11 3 2 10 9 1
Direct positive
39
40
DESCRIPTION
• Polymer is called, the device capable of performing multiple (poly) measuremen
ts (meters), also known by the name of multimeter or test. • Within the instrume
nt can distinguish three different measures with which we will perform the most
common readings: VOLTMETER AMMETER Ohm Resistance (Ω) Voltage (V) DC and AC Curr
ent (A) in DC and AC
41
Types of polymers
Classification of polymers in terms of its technology. • ANALOG
Polymer
• DIGITAL • Conventional • Automotive Specific
42
Polymer ANALOG
• The analog multimeters, today, are no longer used because of its lower resolut
ion and more complex reading. • They are sensitive to reverse polarity, and thei
r reading is affected by vibration. • On the other hand, are more reliable when
measurements that vary rapidly in time.
43
CONVENTIONAL DIGITAL Polymer
• The indication is done through measurement of digits displayed on a liquid cry
stal display. • The measurement is more accurate, but turn slower. • Withstand h
igher intensities are more accurate when the measurement is carried out under di
fficult working conditions, and vibrations. • Provides protection elements and c
ircuits that make it locks if you have selected a wrong scale. • If the polarity
is reversed probes, displayed the sign (-) negative result.
44
CONVENTIONAL DIGITAL Polymer
Display On / Off Switch VCD: Tension
DC
ADC: Intensity
DC
VAC: Tension
AC
AAC: Intensity
AC
OHM Range Selector: COM Resistance Control: input socket
for all measures
Ω
mA input socket
for measurements up to 0.2 A. Fuses
10A: input socket
for measures to 10A.Sin fuse protection
V-Ω: input socket
measures voltage / resistance
45
ADVANCED DIGITAL Polymer
• They are geared almost exclusively to the automotive world. • Besides all the
measurements that can be performed with a conventional multimeter with advanced
much wider field, for example, FREQUENCY (Hz) Temperature (° C) RPM (rpm) Duty c
ycle (% DWELL)
46
MEASUREMENT PRECAUTIONS
• When we measure resistance, resistance to ensure that the measure is not under
tension and disconnected from any facility. • Start from the highest level and
go down to get an accurate measurement. • We should not touch the probes with yo
ur fingers, because the internal resistance of the body can vary the measurement
. • When we measure voltage, first we'll make sure this type, AC or DC. Start th
e measurement from the highest level and go down to get an accurate measurement.
• When measuring current, we must take into account that the fuse protection is
only valid up to 0.2 Amps for higher intensities the other terminal is generall
y used without any protection. 47
Polymer Ohm Measurement
Application: Measure the resistance and continuity of a circuit or component and
the isolation of the same with respect to ground.
Ω
CONTROL OF RESISTANCE
48
Polymer WITH VOLTMETER MEASUREMENTS
Application: The measurement is done in parallel. Measure the voltage coming to
an item, as well as the voltage drop that has an electrical circuit.
V
VOLTAGE CONTROL OF FALL
49
Polymer MEASURES WITH AMMETER
Application: The measurement is done in series. Measure the intensity of current
drawn by a circuit.
A
CONSUMER CONTROL
50
READING EXERCISE (I) Ohmmeter
• Set the selector to obtain the most accurate reading. 4K7Ω
51
READING EXERCISE (II) VOLTMETER
• Set the selector to obtain the most accurate reading.
52
READING EXERCISE (III) AMMETER
• Set the selector to obtain the most accurate reading. 4K7Ω
53
READING EXERCISE (IV) CONTROL OF DIODES
• Set the selector to perform the test correctly.
54
READING EXERCISE (IV) CONTROL OF DIODES
• Set the selector to perform the test correctly.
55
+
56
Resistors Resistors
Resistor is called the component made especially for offering a specific electri
cal resistance. On the contrary, the resistance is the ohmic value resistor. How
ever, in the colloquial language and practice the word resistance is used to des
ignate the resistor. For this reason, we used the nomenclature of resistance. In
a resistor are three important characteristics that define their working condit
ions and use: Resistance. Tolerance. Rated. The classification of the heat
ing is carried out according to different criteria. We agree with the use of our
field of work, classify them according to their ability to modify its ohmic val
ue in fixed and variable. 57
Resistance Characteristics
Resistance:
Is the ohmic value of a resistor (resistance) commercial and not generally exact
ly the right choice. So we must distinguish the concepts of nominal value, which
is provided by the manufacturer and the actual value of the resistor.
Tolerance:
It's the difference between the value of real and nominal resistance. This can b
e defined as the range between the maximum and minimum resistance. Within these,
any resistance value is considered suitable for use. Not all the resistors have
to work under the same conditions or on the same circuits. So there are two typ
es of tolerances: • Standard tolerances: ± 20%, ± 10% ± 5%. • Precision Toleranc
es: ± 2% ± 1%, ± 0.5% ± 0.1%.
Rated Power:
It indicates the ability to dissipate heat is directly related to its size, the
larger, more powerful. The most common power commercial resistors: 1 / 4 W, 1 /
3 W, 1 / 2 W, 1 W, 2 W and 4 W. Wound resistors are an exception, since their ma
ximum powers are much higher: 100 W, 250 W, 400 W and 500 W.
58
Color Code
Observing a commercial resistance, in most cases it is observed that the ohmic v
alue of resistance, such as manufacturing tolerance are indicated by a color cod
e, which is read from left to right.
3rd 4th Gaza Strip
1st 2nd Gaza Strip
• The first step in determining the resistance value is read your tolerance, whi
ch is indicated by the last group. • Later, we see the color of the first strip
on the left that indicates the value of the first significant figure, the second
segment, second and third significant figure, the number of zeros that are afte
r the first two digits. 59
Color Code Chart
NOTE FRINGE
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver No Color
A 1 ª Cifra
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -
Figure B 2nd
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -
C Multiplier
x1 x 10 x 100 x 1000 x 10 000 x 100 000 x 1,000,000 x 0.1 x 0.01 -
D Tolerance
± 1% ± 2% ± 5% ± 10% -
60
Fixed Resistors
They are manufactured with a fixed ohmic value, determined and standard, which i
s indicated, as already seen, in the body of resistance. According to their manu
facture, can be bonded resistance differences, carbon film resistors, metal film
resistors and wirewound resistors. All of them have some peculiarities that mak
e its operation to be used in some circuits
Painting ceramic support layer
Winding Resistance
Terminal
Carbon Resin
Coal resin Resistance
Resistance of chipboard
61
Example of Application in the Automobile
There are variables resistance applications in the car, not only are present int
ernally in the various control units, but also form part of certain electrical c
ircuit.
Circuit fan speed selector carrier.
Joint strength and motor
Battery Power
MO T
The selection of the various links of resistance, makes the motor supply voltage
varies, getting to vary the speed of it.
Selector
62
Variable Resistors
These types of resistors are called potentiometers, be possible to modify the oh
mic value through a mobile device called a cursor. These values range from zero
to a maximum, depending on the characteristics of the resistive material used an
d the constructive characteristics.
Fixed Value
Schematic representation
Variable value
Variable value
It is often used as a rheostat, producing variable voltage drops or voltage divi
der, with the output voltage proportional to the resistance cursor that represen
ts your position. 63
Example of Application in the Automobile
Throttle position sensor. Fin flow.€Throttle position sensor
Signal
+
All these sensors are potentiometers try reporting to their respective control u
nits through a variable voltage depending on its position.
64
Special Resistance
Resistive change their characteristics with the variation of certain physical qu
antities such as temperature, light, stress, etc.
Light-sensitive resistors:
Commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor), light-dependent resistance. Th
ey are constructed of materials that become drivers, the light energy influence
on them (cadmium sulfide). Thus, the higher the light energy, the lower the ohmi
c value of resistance.
LDR resistors have a value of several megohms (10 MΩ). When exposed to light, it
s resistance drops to a few ohms (75-300 Ω). 65
Temperature-sensitive resistors
There are two types of temperature-sensitive resistors: the negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature coefficient (PTC). NTC resistors are
characterized by varying their ohmic value inversely with temperature. Thus, hi
gher temperatures have less resistance. PTC resistors are characterized by varyi
ng their ohmic value in direct proportion to temperature. Thus, at a lower tempe
rature with more resistance.
NTC PTC
Several types of thermistor
66
Example of Application in the Automobile
The main application of temperature-sensitive resistance is like water temperatu
re sensors, fuel, air, etc. They are used in any type of circuit as air conditio
ning, injection, suspension, etc. PTC is also used as resistance heating lambda
probe, butterfly box, intake manifold, etc.
Temperature Sensor motor. Air temperature sensor throttle position sensor
PTC heating
67
Voltage sensitive resistors
The abbreviation of the resistance is sensitive to tension VDR (voltage dependen
t resistor). Grams are usually constructed of silicon carbide, shaped in small c
ylinders or discs. These elements are nonlinear resistors whose ohmic value decr
eases with increasing applied voltage terminal. Elements are commonly used as vo
ltage stabilizers and particularly to protect mobile contacts such as switches,
relays, etc..
Several types of varistors or VDRs
68
Magnetoresistive resistors
This is a magneto-resistive resistor whose characteristic is ohmic value that va
ries depending on the magnetic field lines (magnetic flux) that passes through.
o o
Ω
Ω
In the car this type of resistance does not act alone but is integrated into a s
ensor, which in turn includes an electronic sensor. An example of this is used a
s a magnetoresistive sensor system sensor wheel ABS braking system. Implanting a
pulse generating wheel, equipped with a hint of exploration. 69
Magnetoresistive resistors
In the immediate vicinity of magnetic areas, magnetic field lines run vertically
on the trail of exploration. According to its polarity, are directed toward one
or the other side of the track. Under scanning the track passes very close to t
he sensor, magnetic field lines also cross the sensor and affect its strength.
An electronic circuit, integrated in the sensor, converts the resistance changes
at two different levels of current. That means that the current drops to increa
se the resistance of the sensing element under the guidance are magnetic field l
ines that cross. The current intensity increases as resistance is reduced by a r
eversal of the direction of the field lines and vice versa. 70
Semiconductor Diode
The diode is an electronic component made of semiconductor materials (germanium
or silicon), whose peculiarity is that only lets the electric current in one dir
ection. Its symbol is the one, and comprises a positive terminal and a negative
anode called called cathode. Outwardly have a band to indicate the direction of
passage.
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
Yes No
If
In a hydraulic metaphor, the diode behaves like a valve.
71
If we connect the positive terminal of a battery to the negative anode and catho
de of a diode, the diode is said to have been biased. Increasing the bias, incre
ases the current passing through the diode, but if this polarization becomes exc
essive, it breaks the crystal structure of the diode being disabled.
To set the current step is necessary to establish a minimum voltage of about 0.6
to 0.75 V, called the threshold voltage or barrier.
If we connect the positive terminal of the battery and the negative cathode to t
he anode of the diode, it is said that the diode is reverse biased. Increasing t
he reverse bias that can drill and destroy.
If a diode is subjected to reverse voltage, it leaves a small circular current,
which is called leakage current is negligible
72
Application of Diodes
Logically within the various control units is unipresente, but the diode is also
used when you want the current to flow in only one direction in part of the ins
tallation or especially as a bridge rectifier in the alternator rectifier circui
t load.
Electronic Regulator
Rotor
Stator
Bridge Rectifier
Alternator
73
Zener diode
Like a normal diode, current will pass when it is directly polarized. But when i
t is reverse biased, the diode conducts, letting all the reverse current to reac
h a certain tension, called the Zener voltage and the voltage kept constant.
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
6.8 V
If only from Zener voltage VZ Only from VZ If
Faced with a biased, the zener diode functions as a normal diode.
74
By connecting the zener diode reverse biased, the diode behaves like a normal di
ode, as long as the applied voltage is less than the zener voltage.
V: 4 V
Vz: 6.8 V
If we maintain the reverse bias zener and increase the voltage to exceed the val
ue of the Zener voltage, we observed that the diode allows current flow, trying
to get across it there is a voltage difference equal to the Zener voltage.
V: 8 V
Vz: 6.8 V
Zener diodes are used in various electronic circuits such as limiters and voltag
e stabilizers. 75
Led LED
These are diodes that emit light when current flow, there are of different size
and color, we must be careful to respect the polarity because if you place will
not look backwards as a diode that is, to distinguish the polarity of the pin is
longer than the other to tell which is positive. The LED (Light Emisted Diode)
for smooth operation must be connected between 1.7 to 2.5 V, and he has to trave
l a current of about 10 mA. If you are subjected to more tension ends up melting
and if set to a lower voltage that emits light is poor. To connect to a source
of 12 V is placed in series resistance of about 1 kOhm.
12 V Anode Cathode
+
No Yes + lights
1 kOhm
Cathode identification Notch
76
There are models of two-color LEDs, LED differentiating bi-pin and two bi-color
LED of three pins. In the two-pin bi-color LEDs, depending on the polarity that
exists in his whiskers will turn red or green.
Green
Red
In the three-pin LED color depends on the diode for the flow of electrical curre
nt, if current flows through both at the same time appears orange as a mixture o
f both. We actually have three colors.
K
Green
Red
K
77
Photodiode
The photodiode is a semiconductor designed so that the light that strikes it all
ows an electric current in the external circuit. The photodiode is an optoelectr
onic detector or photodetector, which allows switching and dimming the electric
current in an external circuit in response to a variable light intensity. The ph
otodiode develops a function opposed to an LED and photodiode that converts opti
cal energy into electrical energy.
Anode Cathode
If the light intensity depends
Faced with a bias, the photodiode acts as if it were a normal semiconductor diod
e.
78
Faced with a reverse bias, the photodiode allows passage of current proportional
to the intensity of light it receives. If the light intensity is small, the cur
rent step is less, if instead the light intensity is large, the current step is
larger.
The photodiode is used in the automobile and light sensor control unit for the a
ir conditioning. The sensor reports the level of incidence of sunlight in the ve
hicle, enhancing the climate under the impact of these on the vehicle. 79
Transistor
You can say that in general the transistors are electronic devices with two junc
tions and three terminals, whose main function is the amplification, ie the powe
r to control a high current through the variation of a much weaker power. Accord
ing to the succession of the crystals that form the transistors, we can find two
different types of transistors: NPN and PNP type. Both a type and the other con
sists of three terminals called base, collector and emitter.
PNP Transistor type
Collector Emitter Collector Emitter
P
N
P
Base
Base
80
NPN Transistor
Collector Emitter Collector Emitter
N
P
N
Base
Base
Using the transistor:
The transistor can work in the following conditions: Driving States Court Turns
To understand the different behavior of the transistor we will support a hydraul
ic analogy. 81 Saturation
Working principle
In the hydraulic analogy of water flow through the duct EC (emitter-collector) d
epends on the positioning of the trap, which in turn is driven by the flow EB (e
mitter-base), then the flow between the duct EC (IC) is proportional to the cond
uit between EB (IB).
E
IC
C
IB
E
+
+
C
B
For current flowing through the base pressure in the Issuer must have more poten
tial (more pressure) than in the Base. The higher the potential (pressure) in E
greater the base current and the greater the current through CE. 82
B
Working principle
If the potential (pressure) of the base is bigger than the Issuer in the hatch w
ould be closed preventing the passage of CHD. We note that has a small increase
in current through the base produces a large increase in current through CE.
E
+
C
+
B
83
Transistor operation
The Issuer is where the arrow and he runs all the current IE = IC + IB.
PNP Type:
Transmitter
IE IC
Collector Emitter
P
N
Collect P r Base
IB
Base
NPN:
Transmitter
IE IC
Collector Emitter
N
P
Base 84 r N Collect
IB
Base
Transistor operation
When the transistor operates in saturation, its operation is much like a relay.
When pressing the button, it creates a base current, limited by the resistance,
which causes the drive transistor and turn on the lamp.
85
86
PNP Type
87
88
NPN Type
89
When the transistor operates in active leadership says it is working in amplifie
r, ie it determines the current between the emitter and collector, regulating th
e flow of base:
IC = β * IB
PNP Type:
IC: Current collector
IB: Current ase. B: gain of the transistor.
90
NPN Type
91
Darlington Transistor
The transistor "Darlington" in its appearance, not much different from a normal
transistor since it has three electrodes: emitter, collector and ase. Inside ha
s two transistors mounted in cascade, ie the output of the first transistor is t
he input of the second transistor, with their respective ias resistors.
The switch sets the current through the ase of T21, creating a collector curren
t that polarizes T22 ase and causing the main current flow etween collector an
d emitter of darlington.
The advantage of this transistor is due to its high gain, since the ase current
 needed to drive the emitter-collector circuit, is much smaller than in the case
of assem ly of a single transistor. In this way, applies to virtually all the e
mitter current to the load through the collector. 92
Example Application of Transistors
Electronic Regulator
The exciting current is controlled y the transistor (T3) that closes or opens t
he circuit or canceling letting this current. The regulated voltage control is a
chieved through the transistor (T1), the zener diode (Dz) and a voltage divider
formed y resistors (R1) and (Rz). While the generator stopped, closing the swit
ch (I), the terminal voltage of the alternator will e the attery, and the volt
age at point "B" with respect to point "A" will e lower than the zener (Dz) , t
here eing no driver in it, and therefore not included in the transistor (T1), t
his situation gives rise to a current set of sign (+) at the ase of the transis
tor (T2), allowing the passage of current through thereof. The current flowing t
hrough the transistor (T2) is the ase current of the transistor (T3), so this a
lso leads.
93
Example Application of Transistors
Touch circuit reaker
15
and c

and
c and c 30 86 85 87 87th
31
94
95
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
• A Polymer either analog or digital, reports only the mean values or effective,
as you work your way precludes further point to point the signal is applied.
• The oscilloscope can display the forms and variations over time of signals app
lied to its inputs.
96
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
• The oscilloscope is a measuring instrument on a screen that presents a graphic
image of an electrical signal. This image shows how the signal changes as time
goes on • The image is drawn on a screen that plays a coordinate axis (voltage /
time). • This allows to determine the time and voltage values of a signal, so a
s frequency, pulse rates, duty cycles (DWELL, RCO or cicle dusty, etc.).
97
TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPE
OSCILLOSCOPE ANALOG: Works y direct application of the voltage is measured at a
n electron eam that runs the screen
Oscilloscope La
DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE: Take samples of the signal at discrete intervals of time,
stored in its memory as points of the waveform. Using this information the oscil
loscope waveform reconstructed on the screen.
98 Digital Oscilloscope
CONTROLS
• A series of controls on the front panel to adjust the image size, monitor the
movement and measure its value
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL CONTROL CONTROL
Time Base. They act on the sweep speed of the spot on the screen.
Adjust the level of tension, ie the input sensitivity.
Attenuate or amplify the signal and change the image size so that it can adapt t
o the screen and is plainly visi le.
99
DISPLAY
• The screen or display area is a liquid crystal (LCD) that forms a matrix of hu
ndreds of dots (pixels) which, when properly polarized change their transparency
, the contrast etween opaque and transparent are the track Waveform Display Gri
d
Zero Online Reference
Tension Division
Time per Division
100
THE PROBES
• A pro e is a pro e of high quality, designed to transmit a signal without nois
e or interference capture.
• Generally shielded ca les with metal mesh and are internally compensated with
a low capacity, and otherwise distort the measures of high frequency signals. •
There attenuator pro es that reduce the input voltage y a factor of 10, 100 or
1000 times, so that the oscilloscope can record much higher voltages which can
e measured directly.
101
INPUT CONNECTIONS
• oscilloscopes typically provide two inputs (channels) safety pin 4 mm shielded
(input B input A red and gray) and a security entrance for 4 mm anana plug com
mon (COM). Input A: You can always use the entry to red for all unique entries m
easurements are possi le with the measuring instrument.
Wiring Panel pro es
Ooh! Admittedly, I have again forgotten
I've said time and again that
Input B: To take measurements at two different signals can e used with gray inp
ut B input A red.
treat me with care!
COM: You can use the lack terminal to COM as a single mass measurements of low
frequency and continuity measurements, capacity and diodes.
102
THE PROBES
To avoid electric shock or fire, use only one connection COM (common), or ensure
that all connections to COM are the same potential (refer to the same mass)
103
CONCEPTS OF SIGNAL
WAVE Tension
Signal that is repeated over time
WAVE CYCLE
Portion of wave that repeats
WAVEFORM
Graphical representation of a signal that shows the time on the horizontal axis
and voltage on the vertical axis
104
Time
MOST COMMON FORMS OF WAVES
SINE WAVE: The voltage from the mains for domestic use, the one created y an al
ternator efore eing corrected or a Lam da pro e.
Sine Wave
Damped sine wave
105
MOST COMMON FORMS OF WAVES
SQUARE WAVE: It is the signal that can generate a Hall sensor, phase sensor, spe
edometer, etc. V wave generated y a Hall sensor power
t
106
MOST COMMON FORMS OF WAVES
COMPLEX WAVE: Those that can e a com ination of several, like those given in th
e primary and secondary ignition. V wave generated y the secondary ignition
t
107
Concepts: PERIOD
• The signal period is the time it takes for a wave to make a complete cycle.
• PERIOD
10 ms x 4 divisions = 40 msec
108
EXERCISE 1
• Indicate the period of the following waveforms
3 divisions
5 divisions
2 ms x 3 divisions = 6 ms
5 ms x 5 divisions = 25 ms
109
Concepts: FREQUENCY
• Frequency is the num er of wave cycles that occur in a given time, usually in
1 second. ie: Frequency = 1/Periodo
• First calculate the "Period"
PERIOD 10 msec x 4 divisions = 40 msec
• Su stituting in the formula Period Frequency:
f = 1 / p
f = 1/0.040 sec
110
Frequency = 50 Hz
FREQUENCY UNITS
• The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz). • One Hertz equals one cycle per second (
1ciclo/seg). • The Hertz has in turn decimal multiples, eing the most widely us
ed multiples the kilohertz (kHz) and Megahertz (MHz). 1 KHz = 1000 Hz 1 MHz = 1,
000,000 Hz 1 kHz 1 Hz = 0.001 Hz = 0.000001 MHz
111
Exercise 2
• Calculate the frequency of the following waveforms
3 divisions
5 divisions
Period = 2 ms x 3 = 6 ms div 1/0.006seg = Frequency = 166.6 Hz
Period = 5 ms x 5 div = 25 ms = 1/0.025seg Frequency = 40 Hz
112
FREQUENCY UNITS
Have you noticed how ......?
• The period in seconds, is the frequency in Hertz • From Period in milliseconds
, is the frequency in kilohertz • From Period in microseconds, is the frequency
in megahertz
113
Exercise 3
• Draw the waveform of the screen on the left, on the right, taking into account
the time ase
114
Concepts: RANGE (I)
• The signal amplitude is the height or distance that has the waveform with resp
ect to the zero reference line. • Width:
2 volts x 6 divisions = 12 Volts
115
Concepts: RANGE (II)
• The amplitude of a sine wave is usually given as the rms value, which equals a
pproximately 70.7% of the maximum peak value.
1. Peak to Peak Voltage 10 volts x 6 = 60 V div
Fe ruary 1 March 4
2. Maximum Peak Voltage 10 volts x 3 div = 30 V 3. Minimum Peak Voltage 10 volts
x 3 div = 30 V 4. Effective Voltage 30 volts x 0.707 = 21.2 V
116
EXERCISE 4
• Indicate in the waveform following its various parameters.
RANGE
2 x 6 volt div. = 12 volts
FREQUENCY
Period = 10 ms f = 1 / p, f = 1 / 0, 010 sec
f = 100 Hz
117
EXERCISE 5
• Indicate in the waveform following its various parameters.
Peak to Peak Voltage 2 volts x 6 div. = 12 volts peak voltage 2 volts x 3 div. P
eak Voltage = 6 volts at least 2 volts x 3 div. Effective Voltage = 6 volts 6 vo
lts x 0707 = 4.2 volts Frequency
f = 1 / p = 1 / 0, 004seg = 250 Hz
118
OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTIONS OF EXERCISE 6
The circuit shown in the figure, has a rate of 1mseg operation, ie, the switch c
hanges its position in that interval. Draw the signal to detect the oscilloscope
, indicating the connection drawing. Determines the scale of tension and time to
o serve the signal accurately.
119
OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTIONS OF EXERCISE 7
The circuit shown in the figure, has a rate of 1mseg operation, ie, the switch c
hanges its position in that interval. Draw the signal to detect the oscilloscope
, indicating the connection drawing. Determines the scale of tension and time to
accurately o serve the signal
120
OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTIONS OF EXERCISE 8
The circuit shown in the figure, has a rate of 1mseg operation, ie, the switch c
hanges its position in that interval. Draw the signal to detect the oscilloscope
, indicating the connection drawing. Determines the scale of tension and time to
accurately o serve the signal
121
OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTIONS OF EXERCISE 9
Draw the signal to detect the oscilloscope, indicating the connection drawing. D
etermines the scale of tension and time to accurately o serve the signal circuit
shown in Figure, has a rate of operation of 1mseg, ie, the switch changes its p
osition in that interval.
122
Concepts: PULSE
• Occurs when detects the momentary activation of an item, for example, the flas
h of a lamp • Many actuators in the vehicle receives a pulse train at a fixed fr
equency, to modulate their functioning.
V
12V
f = 1 / p
60% 40%
10 ms 20 ms
f = 1 / 0, 01 sec
t / ms
0V
Period = 100%
f = 100 Hz
• Modulation is o tained y varying the duty cycle (DWELL) of a fixed frequency
signal, ie modifying the activation and deactivation time within the period.
123
Automotive Oscilloscope
In the oscilloscopes used in automotive, usually appear on the screen numericall
y different magnitudes selected through a menu.
124
EXERCISE 10
• The next waveform shows that Duty Cycle, Dwell, and RCA have.
25% D 75% D
40% D 60% D
125
SIGNAL INJECTION
Injection relay
ECU
Amplifier
30 Battery
Ignition key
The electrical injectors are controlled y the ECU y negative excitement, there
fore, e in the terminal where you connect the oscilloscope
126
SIGNAL LAMBDA (λ)
To ana
yze this signa
we se
ected a sma

base vo
tage and a
arge time base. L
ambda probe generates a vo
tage of 100-900 mV, and its period is approximate
y 1
sec at an engine speed of about 2000 rpm
127
SIGNAL CONTROL OPERATOR OF TWO COILS IDLE
To ana
yze this signa
, use a two-channe
osci

oscope. Observe the onset times
(Dwe

) from each of the coi
s, they must be opposed.
128