BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

FOR CAPTIVE RAPTORS

IN GEORGIA
A TECHNICAL GUIDE FOR THE USE OF RAPTORS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS
Joe N. Caudell
Wildlife Biologist
Warnell School of Forest Resources
University of Georgia

Ken A. Riddleberger, Jr.

Senior Wildlife Biologist
Special Permit Unit
Wildlife Resources Division
Georgia Department of Natural Resources

A PUBLICATION OF THE
GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
WILDLIFE RESOURCES DIVISION
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the faculty of the University of Georgia Warnell School of Forest Resources including Drs.
Brian Chapman and Sara Schweitizer. We also thank Dr. Cheryl Greenacre of the University of Georgia College of
Veterinary Medicine, for taking the time to assist with this project and manuscript. We also thank Mike Conover of the
Jack H. Berryman Institute for Wildlife Damage Management for allowing us the time to complete the manuscript and for
providing funding for travel to the 1999 Annual Conference of the Wildlife Society where portions of this manual were
presented. Additional funding and support was provided by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and the
University of Georgia, School of Forest Resources. We thank John Karger of Last Chance Forever, San Antonio, Texas
for providing a technical review of the manuscript.

Note: The Georgia Department of Natural Resources neither endorses products listed herein nor accepts any liability
arising from the use of products listed.

Current Address: Joe N. Caudell

Jack H. Berryman Institute
Utah State University
5210 Old Main Hill, Natural Resc, Rm. 206
Logan, Utah 84322-5210
jcaudell@cc.usu.edu

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
NON-RELEASABLE RAPTOR MANAGEMENT

Using this Manual ............................................................................................................................. 7

Contents ............................................................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER 1
THE SURVEY

Methods............................................................................................................................................. 8
The Sample .......................................................................................................................... 8
The Survey .......................................................................................................................... 8
Results .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Sample Results ................................................................................................................... 9
Survey Results .................................................................................................................... 10
Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 2
FACILITY REQUIREMENTS

Housing .............................................................................................................................................. 15
General Enclosure Design ................................................................................................................. 15
Location ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Indoor Enclosures ............................................................................................................................. 16
Outdoor Enclosures .......................................................................................................................... 17
Indoor / Outdoor Enclosures ............................................................................................................. 17
Wall Construction ............................................................................................................................. 17
Roof Construction ............................................................................................................................. 19
Entry Design and Construction ......................................................................................................... 21
Floor Substrate .................................................................................................................................. 20
Separation of Species ........................................................................................................................ 22
Visual Separation .............................................................................................................................. 22
Separation from Other Animals ........................................................................................................ 22
Space Requirements .......................................................................................................................... 23
Food Platform ................................................................................................................................... 24
Perches .............................................................................................................................................. 24
Baths ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Common Disinfectants ...................................................................................................................... 27
Chlorine Bleach .................................................................................................................. 27
Virkon-S®........................................................................................................................... 27
Phenol (1-stroke®) ............................................................................................................. 27
Hot Water ............................................................................................................................ 27
Quaternary Ammonia Solutions (Quats) ............................................................................ 27
Chlorhexidine ..................................................................................................................... 27
Facility Management ......................................................................................................................... 28

3
CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT
Jesses ................................................................................................................................................. 29
Jess and Aylmeri Sizes ......................................................................................................... 29
Traditional Jess .................................................................................................................... 29
Modified Jess ...................................................................................................................... 30
Snap Jesses .......................................................................................................................... 31
Aylmeri Bracelets ................................................................................................................ 31
False Aylmeri Bracelets ..................................................................................................................... 32
Maintenance ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Leashes and Swivels .......................................................................................................................... 32
Falconer’s Knot ................................................................................................................................. 33
Scales ................................................................................................................................................. 34
Gloves ................................................................................................................................................ 34
Miscellaneous Supplies ..................................................................................................................... 34
Hoods ................................................................................................................................................. 34
Travel Enclosures ............................................................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER 4
FEEDING

General Feeding Habits ...................................................................................................................... 35

Laboratory Mice ................................................................................................................................ 35
Laboratory Rats ................................................................................................................................. 35
Day-old Chicks .................................................................................................................................. 35
Commercial Bird-of-prey Diet ........................................................................................................... 36
Other Commonly Used Diets ............................................................................................................. 36
Quantity ............................................................................................................................................. 37
Quality ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Vitamin and Mineral Supplements .................................................................................................... 39
Casting ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Food Preparation and Storage ........................................................................................................... 39
Water .................................................................................................................................................. 39
Laboratory Mice Husbandry .............................................................................................................. 40
Housing .............................................................................................................................. 40
Cage Tops ............................................................................................................................ 40
Water Bottles and Holders ................................................................................................... 40
Feeding Apparatus ............................................................................................................... 40
Food .................................................................................................................................... 40
Bedding Material ................................................................................................................ 40
Breeding Stock .................................................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER 5
RAPTOR HEALTH

Veterinarians ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Maintenance Exams ........................................................................................................................... 41
Handling Techniques ......................................................................................................................... 41
Weighing Raptors .............................................................................................................................. 42
Fecal Exams ....................................................................................................................................... 42
Zoonosis ........................................................................................................................................... 42

4
 Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies ..................................................................................................... 42
Vitamin A ............................................................................................................................ 42
Vitamin B Group ................................................................................................................. 42
Vitamin C ............................................................................................................................ 42
Vitamin D ............................................................................................................................ 43
Calcium and Phosphorus ..................................................................................................... 43
Trace Elements .................................................................................................................... 43
Parasites ............................................................................................................................................. 43
External Parasites ................................................................................................................ 43
Internal Parasites ................................................................................................................. 43
Conditions Related to the Environment ............................................................................................. 43
Chemical Poisoning ............................................................................................................ 43
Frostbite .............................................................................................................................. 43
Heat Stroke .......................................................................................................................... 43
Physical Injury ................................................................................................................................... 43
Diseases and Other Illnesses .............................................................................................................. 44
Aspergillosis ........................................................................................................................ 44
Avian Tuberculosis .............................................................................................................. 44
Bacterial Enteritis ................................................................................................................ 44
Bumblefoot .......................................................................................................................... 44
Candida ............................................................................................................................... 44
Capillaria ............................................................................................................................. 44
Coccidiosis .......................................................................................................................... 44
Gapeworm ............................................................................................................................ 45
Hypoglycemia ...................................................................................................................... 45
Inflammation of the Crop..................................................................................................... 45
Newcastle’s Disease ............................................................................................................ 45
Pneumonia ........................................................................................................................... 45
Respiratory Infection ........................................................................................................... 45
Roundworm and Tapeworm Infestation ............................................................................... 45
Salmonellosis ...................................................................................................................... 45
Sour Crop ............................................................................................................................ 45
Starvation ............................................................................................................................. 46
Stomatitis ............................................................................................................................. 46
Toxoplasmosis ..................................................................................................................... 46
Trichinella ............................................................................................................................ 46
Trichomoniasis (Frounce) ................................................................................................... 46
Stress ................................................................................................................................................. 46
General Signs of Distress ................................................................................................................... 46
Beak and Talon Trimming .................................................................................................................. 47

CHAPTER 6
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

Selecting a Program Bird ................................................................................................................... 48

Raptor Behavior.................................................................................................................................. 48
Handling ............................................................................................................................................ 48
Educational Program Training ........................................................................................................... 48
Educational Programs ........................................................................................................................ 49
Teaching Strategies ............................................................................................................................ 49
Sample Raptor Curriculum ................................................................................................................ 50

5
LITERATURE CITED ............................................................................................................................................. 56

APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Specifications for Humane Handling, Care, Confinement, and Transportation of Wild
Animals in Georgia ............................................................................................................................ 59

Appendix 2
State of Georgia Regulations for Wildlife Exhibition ....................................................................... 63

Appendix 3
USFWS Standard Conditions, Special Purpose - Possession / Education (Live Specimen) ............ 65

Appendix 4
Survey Instrument Sent to Participants in Georgia ............................................................................ 67

Appendix 5
Survey Instrument Sent to Participants Throughout the United States ............................................. 72

6
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this manual is to provide guidelines
for the care and use of non-releasable raptors (NRR) in
environmental education (EE) programs. The guidelines
are based upon scientific data and current management
practices. It is written to provide caretakers, biologists,
and prospective permit applicants with a concise guide to
captive raptor management.
EE centers in Georgia and throughout the United
States were surveyed to examine current management
practices. Housing, feeding, levels of veterinary care and
other important aspects of captive raptor management were
documented. The information was then compiled with
literature from peer-reviewed scientific journals, literature
from raptor centers with existing management plans, on-
site visits, and interviews with professional caretakers to
develop a set of general guidelines for the care and use of
NRR in Georgia.
All NRR possessed are to be used for educational
programs. These birds should not be cared for simply
because they cannot be returned to the wild, although every
bird may not be handled. If a bird does not prove to be
useable for educational programs and facilities are not
available for on-site programs, the bird can be relocated to
another facility, another handler, or euthanized. It is
generally neither feasible nor desirable for an educational
facility to keep every NRR that is offered.
USING THIS MANUAL
This manual is not intended to be the final word on
NRR management. It can be used by the caretaker to
improve or affirm current management practices. This
manual also can be used by law enforcement personnel or
wildlife biologists who may perform inspections of raptor
facilities. Although we reviewed many sources in develop-
ing this manual, it does not cover all management tech-
niques. A technique considered useful by some sources
may not work in every situation. If new management
techniques are used or developed, the methodology and
results should be carefully documented. Documentation is
important for several reasons. For instance, if a bird
continually injures itself on a particular cage material, this
should be recorded. The caretaker may develop or discover
a new material that has not been described previously. If
the center was inspected or reapplied for a permit, such
documentation may be crucial to the re-issuance of
permits or passing inspection. Officials are more likely
to allow a new material to be used if the caretaker can
show the process used in choosing the material. Careful
documentation also may be used in preparing journal
articles so that others can share in the same technique.
CONTENTS
• Chapter One describes the results of a survey used
to document common management practices in Georgia
and throughout the United States. Data from the survey
are referred to several times throughout the manual. The
remainder of the manual is a review of common manage-
ment practices and is often compared to the results of the
survey.
• Chapter Two covers facility design, construction
materials, and other information on housing raptors.
• Chapter Three contains information about addi-
tional supplies or equipment needed for a raptor educa-
tion program. References are made to common manage-
ment practices that were documented in the survey.
• Chapter Four discusses feeding requirements for
raptors. It provides information and suggestions about
common food items used and rodent husbandry. No
guidelines for absolute feeding amounts are provided
since these vary by season, physiology, species, indi-
vidual bird behavior, and location of facility.
• Chapter Five describes common medical problems
associated with housing NRR (listed in alphabetical
order). Initiation of treatment should always be carried
out by a trained professional. Common problems are
described to assist the caretaker in communicating with
the veterinarian about clinical signs. Other sections are
included for maintenance of the bird’s health.
• Chapter Six discusses handling raptors and
developing educational programs. A brief section is
included on training birds of prey for handling in an
educational program. There is a section on basic bird
biology and natural history, as well as a section on raptor
natural history. This chapter also includes a sample
education program and activities.
7
CHAPTER 1: THE SURVEY1
Most native birds, including raptors, are protected by
federal or/and state laws. It is illegal to injure, catch, or
confine raptors except under appropriate licenses or
permits (falconry, scientific collecting, education, etc.). At
times, raptors are injured due to both natural and unnatural
events. Some people feel a responsibility to help raptors
injured through contact with humans by attempting to
rehabilitate and release them back into the wild. However,
many of these birds cannot be released with a reasonable
expectation of survival. For these birds there are few
options. They are commonly either euthanized or used in
education programs. Non-releasable raptors (NRR) are
often used in environmental education (EE) centers to
enhance their educational programs. Federal and state
permits are required for this purpose and proper care must
be provided for these birds.
Although accurate, inexpensive books written on the
husbandry of many vertebrates and invertebrates are
available, concise information written on the captive
management of birds of prey is deficient. One recent
publication (Arent and Martell 1996) documents manage-
ment practices used by the Minnesota Raptor Center.
Other sources of information include falconry books,
veterinary manuals, rehabilitation guides, operating guides
for established raptor centers, and scientific articles.
The objective of this study was to document manage-
ment practices of centers that use NRR for educational
programs in Georgia and throughout the United States by
surveying individuals and organizations who use raptors in
educational programs. This information can be used as a
tool for wildlife agencies when developing regulations, as a
model when a center is designing a management plan, or as
validation of existing management plans by established
centers. The survey was followed-up by on-site inspec-
tions and interviews with caretakers. Results from Georgia
were compared with centers from outside Georgia and with
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
captive raptor regulations.
Aspects of NRR management that caretakers cannot
find in the literature are usually discovered by trial and
error. This has led to an evolution of techniques that are
sound in practice, but not published. Unpublished
techniques developed by caretakers were compiled and
assessed during interviews and on-site visits. These
management recommendations may be useful to EE centers
with NRR and may also be valuable for natural resource
managers or law enforcement personnel who must deter-
1
Note: At time of publishing, Chapter One had been accepted for publication in the Journal of Raptor Research
(Caudell and Riddleberger in press)
8
mine if a management practice is sound in the event of an
inspection.
METHODS
The Sample
Questionnaires were mailed to a sample of individu-
als and organizations possessing raptors used in EE
programs in 1996. The Georgia sample was compiled
from persons possessing special-use permits for raptors.
The United States sample was compiled using two
methods. A search was conducted using LYCOS®,
YAHOO®, Infoseek®, and EXCITE® search engines
from 1 January 1998 to 1 February 1998. Keywords
included raptor(s), bird of prey, environmental educa-
tion, rehabilitation, and combinations of these. Links
were examined at each site to locate additional related
internet sites. A list of raptor centers throughout the
United States that indicated that they rehabilitated
raptors, used raptors in EE programs, or maintained
raptors in captivity was compiled from internet web
pages. Those indicating that they had e-mail were then
sent a query to determine if raptors were used for
educational programs and if they would participate in the
survey. The survey was mailed to respondents providing
a positive response.
The second method was to survey list-serv users.
Membership registers and messages were examined to
determine how many members likely held NRR for
education programs. E-mail inquiries were placed on two
list-servers for rehabilitators and one for falconers. The
inquiry consisted of a message explaining the nature of
the survey, time needed to complete the questionnaire,
and purpose for the research. Respondents indicating
that NRR were possessed and used for EE programs were
mailed a survey. Both methods were dependent upon the
respondents owning a computer and having access to the
world wide web (WWW) or listservers.
The Survey
The survey questions were based on Official Code of
Georgia Annotated (OCGA) §27-5-6 which contains the
specifications for management of captive wild animals
(Appendix 1). In general, the survey consisted of
questions about the species and number of raptors
possessed, facilities, space requirements, feeding,
watering, sanitation, employees, separation of species,
veterinary care, handling, and transportation (Appendix
4). Questions were designed to obtain quantitative data for
each of these areas. The United States survey was slightly
modified to increase response rate (Appendix 5).
The Georgia surveys were mailed from the Georgia
Department of Natural Resources (GADNR) office in
Social Circle, in late August 1997. A second survey was
mailed to non-respondents during the first week of January
1998 and reminders sent three weeks later. Request for
United States participants were e-mailed from the last week
of December 1997 until 20 February 1998. Surveys were
mailed to United States participants with return envelopes
enclosed.
Respondents and non-respondents in Georgia were
randomly chosen from a stratified sample for on-site visits
in March and April 1998. Questions regarding training
procedures, past inspections, and educational programs
were asked.
Measures of central tendency were calculated for cage
sizes. Percent occurrence were calculated for materials
used in raptor facilities. Relative percent occurrence were
calculated for both physical injuries and common food
items.
RESULTS
Sample Results
Twenty-three individuals and organizations that
possessed Georgia permits for raptors used in EE programs
were sent the questionnaire. Seventeen surveys were
returned (74% response rate). Of the five centers that did
not return the survey, two reported that they did not have
the time to answer, one did not believe that they used birds
in programs in the way specified in the instructions, and
two did not respond. Nine centers (six respondents and

Table 1-1: Numbers and relative frequency of non-releasable raptors used in environmental education
programs in the United States and Georgia.

US Survey Georgia Survey

Total Relative Total Relative

Scientific name Common name Number Frequency Number Frequency

Buteo spp. broad-winged hawks 84 19.6 27 28.13

Otus spp. screech owls 45 10.5 15 15.6
Falco sparverius American kestrel 43 10.1 1 1.0
Bubo virginianus great-horned owl 41 9.6 15 15.7
Strix varia barred owl 29 6.8 19 19.8
Falco spp. falcons 29 6.8 0 0.0
Haliaeetus leucocephalus bald eagle 28 6.5 1 1.0
Tyto alba barn owl 25 5.8 10 10.4
Aquila chrysaetos golden eagle 17 4.0 0 0.0
Cathartes aura turkey vulture 14 3.3 5 5.2
Asio spp. eared-owls 13 3.0 0 0.0
Aegolius funereus boreal owl 11 2.6 0 0.0
Accipiter spp. woodland hawks 10 2.3 0 0.0
Parabuteo unicinctus Harris’ hawk 10 2.3 1 1.0
Coragyps atratus black vulture 10 2.3 0 0.0
Circus cyaneus northern harrier 5 1.17 0 0.0
Pandion haliaetus osprey 5 1.7 2 2.1
Ictinia mississippiensis Mississippi kite 3 0.7 0 0.0
Polyborus plancus caracara 2 0.5 0 0.0
Athene cunicularia burrowing owl 2 0.5 0 0.0
Glaucidium spp. pygmy owls 1 0.2 0 0.0
Nyctea scandiaca snowy owl 1 0.2 0 0.0

9
three non-respondents) were chosen for on-site inspec-
tions.
From the internet search, 43 sites were located that
likely had NRR for educational programs. Of these, 11
facilities indicated that they had birds and would partici-
pate in the survey. From the list-serv, 42 facilities were
identified that likely had NRR for educational programs
and 29 responded. Forty surveys were mailed. Nine
surveys were returned from the internet search and 27 were
returned from the list-serv search. Response rate from the
combined groups was 90%.
The two samples were not mutually exclusive. Four
centers used in the United States sample also possessed
raptors in Georgia. These four were selected because they
voluntarily returned the survey and had internet access.
Survey Results
Number and species of raptors possessed were
analyzed by genus. Sixteen Georgia facilities reported
housing 98 raptors during 1996. Thirty-six facilities in the
United States reported housing 428 raptors. Buteo was the
most frequent genus used for educational programs and
were found at more centers than any other genus in both
the United States and Georgia (Table 1-1).
Enclosure sizes among facilities varied (Table 1-2) as
did the types of materials used in cage construction. There
was no obvious differences between the median enclosure
size of species found in Georgia and the United States.
Most facilities throughout the United States (92%)
provided a water dish large enough for the raptors to bathe
in if necessary. All facilities in Georgia provided a large
water dish.
The two most commonly used perch materials were
artificial turf and tree branches (Table 1-3). Other perch
materials included rope, stumps, large stones, and wood
blocks. Perch material selection was not mutually exclu-
sive. A tree branch or wooded block was sometimes
wrapped with rope. More than one perch often was used in
the enclosure, as was the case in 93% of the facilities.
Round river rock was the most widely used substrate
material in the United States (Table 1-4). In Georgia, the
two most commonly used substrates were pine needles and
crushed gravel. Other commonly used substrates were
crushed gravel, sand, concrete, and newspaper.
The two most common building materials used for the
sides and tops of enclosures were solid wood or wooden

Table 1-2: Enclosure sizes for non-releasable raptors used in environmental education programs in the US.

large small large small

Measurement hawks eagles falcons falcons vultures owls owls

Length (m)
mean 5.0 5.3 3.3 3.3 6.9 4.8 2.2
STDS1 3.4 1.8 1.7 1.6 3.9 3.5 0.9
median 4.2 5.4 2.4 3.1 4.9 3.7 2.4
n 30 12 13 21 5 31 27
range 2.1-18.3 2.4-7.6 1.2-7.3 0.9-6.1 3.7-12.2 1.8-18.3 0.9-4.6
Width (m)
mean 3.2 4.2 2.6 2.6 2.8 3.1 1.7
STDS 1.6 2.0 0.8 1.7 0.6 2.0 1.1
median 2.4 3.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.4
n 30 12 13 21 5 31 27
range 1.4-9.1 2.4-9.1 1.2-3.7 0.8-9.1 2.4-3.7 1.2-12.2 0.6-6.1
Height (m)
mean 2.9 2.9 3.2 2.4 2.8 2.6 1.9
STDS 0.8 0.5 1.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5
median 2.4 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.0
n 31 12 13 21 5 32 26
range 1.8-4.8 2.1-3.7 1.8-8.0 0.9-4.6 2.4-3.7 1.8-4.6 0.6-2.5
Area (m2)
mean 19.9 24.0 9.2 9.9 21.0 19.1 4.0
STDS 22.3 16.5 6.9 11.6 16.2 30.7 3.6
median 11.8 16.7 7.4 5.8 11.8 9.6 3.2
n 31 12 13 21 5 34 27
range 2.9-111.6 5.7-55.5 2.2-27.0 0.7-55.5 8.9-45.1 2.8-148.8 0.5-18.9

STDS - sample standard deviation

1

10
Table 1-3: Relative percent of perch materials used at Table 1-4: Relative percent of substrate materials used at
raptor facilities throughout the United States raptor facilities throughout the United States
and in Georgia. and in Georgia.

Material US Survey GA Survey Material US Survey GA Survey

Branches 27.3 38.9 Round river rock 24.2 11.5

Artificial turf 24.6 22.2 Crushed gravel 12.9 19.2
Stumps or logs 17.3 16.7 Dirt 12.9 15.4
Rope 11.8 11.1 Grass 12.9 3.9
Large stone 6.4 2.8 Sand 9.7 7.7
Wood block 6.4 5.6 Pine needles 6.5 19.2
Coca mat 2.7 0.0 Concrete 4.8 7.7
Other 3.6 2.8 Newspaper 3.2 7.7
Other 12.9 7.7

Table 1-5: Relative percent of materials used in wall Table 1-6: Relative percent of materials used in ceiling
construction at raptor facilities throughout the construction at raptor facilities throughout the
United States and in Georgia. United States and in Georgia.

Material US Survey GA Survey Material US Survey GA Survey

Solid wood 29.6 8.7 Solid wood 15.1 8.7

Wood slats 25.9 17.4 Wood slats 15.1 4.4
Plastic mesh 11.1 17.4 Tin 12.8 30.4
Conduit bars 7.4 4.4 Plastic mesh 11.6 17.4
Hardware cloth 7.4 13.0 Netting 10.5 8.7
Chain-link fence 4.9 13.0 Chain-link fence 8.1 8.7
Netting 4.9 4.4 Hardware cloth 8.1 8.7
Chicken wire 2.5 8.7 Shingles 7.0 8.7
Other 6.2 13.0 Conduit bars 2.3 0.0
Other 8.1 4.4

slats (Table 1-5 and 1-6). Plastic mesh was the next most
widely used material followed by netting, galvanized
hardware cloth, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bars. A
large percentage of mesh, tin, shingles, and chain-link
fence was used. A combination of construction materials
was used in some enclosures. For instance, roof or sides
may be made partially with tin and partially with netting.
The number of employees or volunteers at facilities
varied. The average number of employees in facilities in
Georgia was 4.5 (SD=5.1) and ranged from 1 to 20. The
average number of employees in facilities throughout the
United States was 14.8 (SD=22.2) and ranged from 1 to
83. The amount of formal training provided to employees
or volunteers ranged from a few hours to months. The
mean number of years of the primary caretaker’s experience
reported in Georgia was 12.2 (SD=8.6) and ranged from 4
to 30 years. The mean number of years of the primary
caretaker’s experience reported throughout the United
States was 13.5 (SD=8.3) and ranged from 4 to 40 years.
The level of experience ranged from having no formal
experience to having training as veterinary technicians. In
Georgia, three caretakers reported having rehabilitation
experience and three reported having a wildlife-related
degree. Approximately 33% of the caretakers across the
United States had rehabilitation experience and only one
reported having a degree in wildlife or a related field.

11
 Table 1-7: Relative percent occurrence of problems reported in both the US and GA surveys.

Problem US GA Problem US GA
n =428 n=132
1
n=428 n=132

Physical injury 2.26 0.76 External parasite 0.47 0.00

Bumblefoot 1.40 0.76 GI problems 0.47 0.00
Old age 1.40 0.00 Vitamin deficiencies 0.23 0.00
Feather problems 1.27 0.00 Stress 0.23 0.00
Internal parasites 0.93 0.76 Respiratory infection 0.23 0.00
Re-injury 0.70 0.00 Egg bound 0.23 0.00
Avian pox 0.70 0.00 Cloacal prolapse 0.23 0.00
Oral lesion, beaksores 0.47 1.52 Predation 0.23 1.52
Obesity 0.70 0.00 Salmonellosis 0.00 0.76
Bacterial infection 0.47 0.00 Other 0.70 0.76

1
n=total number of reported problems

Information on cleaning frequency and methods, pest
control, carrying cages, and program length was requested
only on the Georgia survey. The frequency of cleaning
water bowls and food dishes ranged from once per day to
once per week. The frequency of cleaning cages and
substrate ranged from once per day to once per month.
Commonly used disinfectants and cleaning solutions
included chlorine bleach (57%), other disinfectants
(including Simple Green®, Lifeguard®, and unnamed
disinfectants), soap and water (14% each), Lysol®, and
dishwasher detergent (7% each). Few centers (25%) have
an established pest control program for either external
parasites, internal parasites, or predators. Most facilities
(88% ) have at least one transport cage per bird. All
facilities provided a rest break between performances that
was at least as long as the performance period.
All facilities in Georgia and throughout the United
States had regular veterinarians. Of the veterinarians used
in Georgia and throughout the United States, 75% and
86%, respectively, reported having prior raptor experience.
Visits to raptor facilities by veterinarians in Georgia ranged
from none to weekly. Throughout the United States, visits
to raptor facilities ranged from none to daily. Of the 98
NRR reported being housed in Georgia, only 10 (10.2%)
problems were reported in 1996. Of the 428 raptors
housed in the United States, 62 (14.5%) problems were
reported (Table 1-7).
Raptors were fed a variety of foods (Table 1-8). Few
birds were fed strictly one food. The most commonly fed
foods among all birds were mice or rats. The most notable
exceptions were bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
and Accipiter spp., which were fed mostly fish and chicks,
respectively. Nutrient supplements were used by 60% of
the facilities. Vita-hawk® and Vionate® were the two
most commonly used supplements.
There did not appear to be any major discrepancies or
misrepresentation between our inspections and responses
to the survey. The most noticeable differences were due to
acquisition of new birds and new construction.
DISCUSSION
Although it was stated in the instructions that re-
sponses from Georgia were voluntary, mailing the survey
from the GADNR Special Permit Unit may have affected
the responses in several ways. Fear of not receiving permit
renewal may have influenced persons to return surveys.
Also, one participant refused to participate due to animosi-
ties with the GADNR (personal communication). The
primary sample bias from throughout the United States was
that most respondents were probably from the better
centers (i.e. those with enough funds for internet access
and computers and those that were willing to provide
details about their center’s operations).
Participants may have been more willing to assist a
university research project rather than a governmental
agency. Most people interviewed expressed positive
support toward the research. However, some distrusted
GADNR’s role in the project believing that GADNR was
attempting to “crack down” on how they were allowed to
keep their birds. Others on the list servs expressed
animosity toward the USFWS for revising the special use
permit requirements. Some people explicitly stated that if
USFWS had been involved, they would not have partici-
pated in the survey.
Species abundance at education centers reflects
popular beliefs about certain species. Accipiter spp.

12
 Table 1-8: Percent food items fed to captive raptors used in environmental education programs.

Food Items

Species n Mice Rats Poults BOP2 diet Road kill Quail Insects Other

Accipiter spp. 3 mean±SE 9.7 ± 2.5 9.7 ± 2.5 4.7 ± 1.2 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 66.7 ± 8.6 0.0 ± 0.0 9.3 ± 2.4
Aegolius spp. 3 mean±SE 83.3 ± 4.3 0.0 ± 0.0 13.3 ± 3.4 0.0 ± 0.0 3.3 ± 0.9 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Aquila chrysaetos 10 mean±SE 3.9 ± 1.4 51.9 ± 5.0 8.7 ± 3.6 0.0 ± 0.0 7.9 ± 2.5 10.5 ± 2.3 0.0 ± 0.0 15.1 ± 3.5
Asio spp. 2 mean±SE 100.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Bueto spp., Parabuteo sp. 34 mean±SE1 31.9 ± 4.6 29.3 ± 4.4 12.5 ± 2.9 7.8 ± 3.5 1.0 ± 0.4 7.0 ± 2.2 0. 9 ± 0.8 9.4 ± 3.2
Bubo virginianus 23 mean±SE 45.6 ± 5.0 23.4 ± 3.7 11.5 ± 3.6 3.9 ± 2.8 0.9 ± 0.4 5.0 ± 2.7 0.0 ± 0.0 8.7 ± 3.5
103 7.5 ± 2.0 42.5 ± 7.5 36.1 ± 7.8 7.1 ± 3.1 3.0 ± 1.3 4.0 ± 1.6 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Cathartes sp., Coragyps sp. 10 mean±SE 26.8 ± 3.2 47.0 ± 5.6 7.1 ± 1.2 0.0 ± 0.0 1.0 ± 0.5 2.0 ± 0.9 0.0 ± 0.0 16.1 ± 2.5
43 0.0 ± 0.0 57.5 ± 8.4 5.0 ± 1.9 0.3 ± 0.1 25.0 ± 9.6 12.5 ± 4.8 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Falco sparverius 24 mean±SE 69.8 ± 4.5 1.7 ± 0.8 12.2 ± 2.8 0.4 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.2 9.4 ± 3.0 1.0 ± 0.6 3.6 ± 1.1
Falco spp. 7 mean±SE 20.7 ± 2.9 1.4 ± 0.6 10.0 ± 2.7 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 38.6 ± 5.6 0.0 ± 0.0 29.3 ± 7.2
Helianthus leucocephalus 12 mean±SE 1.3 ± 0.5 24.9 ± 2.8 11.3 ± 3.9 0.0 ± 0.0 2.7 ± 1.3 10.8 ± 3.4 0.0 ± 0.0 49.9 ± 3.3
43 10.0 ± 2.4 16.3 ± 3.8 25.0 ± 8.4 10.0 ± 3.8 0.0 ± 0.0 10.0 ± 3.8 0.0 ± 0.0 24.0 ± 6.8
Ictinia mississippiensis 2 mean±SE 50.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 2.5 ± 0.5 47.5 ± 0.5 0.0 ± 0.0
Otus spp. 24 mean±SE 75.2 ± 4.8 1.3 ± 0.7 18.9 ± 4.6 0.4 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.9 1.0 ± 0.6 1.4 ± 0.6
103 42.0 ± 7.7 6.0 ± 2.6 37.5 ± 8.2 5.0 ± 3.0 2.0 ± 1.2 5.0 ± 3.0 0.0 ± 0.0 2.0 ± 1.2
Strix varia 15 mean±SE 45.5 ± 5.7 24.0 ± 5.0 21.8 ± 5.1 0.0 ± 0.0 1.7 ± 0.7 6.0 ± 2.9 0.0 ± 0.0 1.0 ± 0.4
133 16.9 ± 4.6 28.5 ± 7.4 28.8 ± 7.5 19.7 ± 6.8 2.7 ± 1.2 3.1 ± 1.4 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Tyto alba 14 mean±SE 38.9 ± 4.3 21.4 ± 3.8 28.6 ± 4.6 0.0 ± 0.0 1.1 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 1.0 0.0 ± 0.0 6.4 ± 2.2
73 22.1 ± 6.9 32.1 ± 7.4 33.6 ± 8.2 7.1 ± 3.6 0.7 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 1.5 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
1
SE=standard error
2
BOP=commercial bird of prey diet
3
data from Georgia survey

generally are considered “nervous” birds that are difficult
to keep in captivity and undesirable as educational birds
(Arent and Martell 1996). Therefore, they are not a
commonly used species. Most Buteo spp., such as red-
tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), are regarded by falconers
as a “beginner’s bird” and are recommended highly as
educational birds (Parry-Jones 1994, Arent and Martell
1996). The American kestrel is another bird that adapts
well to captivity and to use in educational programs.
Golden eagles, bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and prairie
falcons are recommended for experienced handlers only.
Ospreys are considered to be one of the most difficult
raptors to maintain in captivity. Most owls can be kept
successfully in captivity and are useful for educational
programs (Arent and Martell 1996). As with all generaliza-
tions, there are always exceptions. Each bird should be
evaluated based upon its individual merits and nature.
In many cases, differences between species used in
Georgia and throughout the rest of the United States can be
attributed to regional species abundance. Spotted owls,
golden eagles, snowy owls, and pygmy owls do not
normally occur in Georgia (Johnsgard 1988, 1990).
Because many birds used in educational programs are
injured migrants or resident species, a disparity of species
used between regions of the United States is expected.
However, even though American kestrels are resident
species in Georgia and are considered an excellent program
bird (Arent and Martell 1996), they are rarely used in
Georgia. Types of raptor species used in educational
programs are discussed further in Chapter Six.
Median enclosure size is probably a more important
measure than mean enclosure sizes for deciding upon
minimum recommended enclosure sizes. Several centers
reported having enclosures much larger than the mean
enclosure area (Table 1-2). This may be due in part to
large numbers of birds being housed together. However,
the number of birds per enclosure was not determined in
the survey.
Another source of variation could be attributed to the
fact that centers with birds used for display only were
asked to participate if these birds were part of educational
programs, such as walk-by lectures. From on-site inspec-
tions made in Georgia, larger enclosures were often used as
static displays rather than for housing birds that were
“manned” (held on a glove during programs) for educa-
tional programs.

13
 Providing additional width and length may be more
important in NRR housing than providing additional
height. Many NRR have damaged wings or reduced vision
and do not need tall cages. Perches set too high in a tall
cage may cause injury to a raptor with an amputated wing if
it falls (Gibson 1996). The mean enclosure height for red-
tailed hawks was 2.8 m with a range of 1.8 m to 4.8 m.
Non-releasable raptors used for EE programs must be
accessible while providing the bird with a non-stressful
environment. The highest perch should be no higher than
the caretaker can comfortably reach to capture the bird
(Arent and Martell 1996). Gibson (1996) recommends that
perches be set no higher than 1.2 m for amputee birds.
Current (at time of printing) Texas Parks and Wildlife
Department regulations regarding captive raptors (69.305.-
d-1) require a minimum height of 3.7 m for NRR. The
space above the caretaker’s reach is either wasted or
utilized by the bird to escape the caretaker. Gibson (1996)
states that a high ceiling may cause stress to a bird if the
perch is set far below it, as would be required with
amputee birds. Static displays can be taller than cages
used to house NRR used by handlers in programs. How-
ever, the safety of the bird should be taken into consider-
ation in cage design and perch placement.
Construction materials varied among centers surveyed.
Wood, the most common material, was used in more than
50% of the facilities. Cages of wood had either solid sides
or slats. Plastic mesh, welded-wire, and conduit also are
appropriate materials for housing raptors (Parry-Jones
1994, Arent and Martell 1996, Gibson 1996). Both
conduit and vertical slats should be spaced close enough to
prevent the bird from placing its closed foot though the
bars. Facility and enclosure construction is discussed
further in Chapter Two.
The type and amount of training of the primary
caretaker varied considerably. However, this did not
14
appear to impact the level of care provided to the birds.
Most facility management practices followed suggestions
from the literature. Other management practices were
based upon trial-and-error or experience from other
facilities. The amount of training provided to assistants
also varied. Several raptor facilities (personal communica-
tions) have levels of training for assistants; whereby, as the
level of training increases, the type of bird the assistant is
allowed to handle changes. This system works well with
volunteers. Chapter Six provides further discussion on
training both birds and volunteers.
Few medical problems were reported. Since many
raptor facilities have few or infrequent visits from veteri-
narians, problems that are difficult to diagnose or have
clinical signs that slowly manifest over several months or
years may go unnoticed by handlers. However, there were
no significant differences between facilities that had
veterinarians visit the facilities on a regular basis and those
that did not. Some diagnoses are fairly obvious, such as
bumblefoot or physical injuries, and can be made by
experienced handlers. Others problems, such as bacterial
infections or vitamin deficiencies, require a veterinarian.
Common medical problems are discussed in Chapter Five.
Most raptor facilities had a regular veterinarian with prior
raptor experience. A veterinarian experienced with raptors
can provide suggestions about housing, maintenance, and
other aspects of raptor management. An inexperienced
veterinarian may not be able to provide this type of
information.
Food items fed to the raptors varied greatly. Few
centers fed strictly one type of food to birds. There also
were few dietary related health issues reported. However,
clinical signs from nutritional deficiencies may take years
to manifest. Diets fed to captive raptors generally followed
recommendations in the literature (Chapter Four).
CHAPTER 2: FACILITY REQUIREMENTS
Non-releasable raptors (NRR) have different require-
ments than their wild counterparts. Wild raptors require
large spaces for territories, breeding, and hunting. Non-
releasable raptors used in educational programs require
space, food, water, and shelter, but those requirements are
now met by the caretaker. Construction materials and
methods, space requirements, perches, and related housing
information are presented in this chapter. The goal of
housing NRR used in educational programs is to provide
for secure shelter and the bird’s well-being.
HOUSING
Educational birds have different housing requirements
than raptors that are being kept for rehabilitation or
falconry. However, the basic construction materials and
methods are similar and ideas can be gleaned from the
literature related to these related activities. The most
significant difference between falconry or rehabilitation
enclosures and enclosures for NRR used in educational
programs is the arrangement of space. Injuries such as
wing amputation and blindness limit the use of tall
enclosures. However, for the bird to feel secure, enclosures
should be tall enough to allow perching in an upright
position at a height equal to the height of the caretaker.
If cost is an issue, height should be traded for floor
space. An enclosure 2 m x 2 m x 4m (length x width x
height) is less desirable than an enclosure 3 m x 3 m x 2 m.
The enclosure should be tall enough for the caretaker to
stand in an upright position.
Providing for the needs of NRR may require experi-
mentation with materials, perches, jesses, and furniture.
Flightless raptors may require perches that allow them to
climb to a comfortable height. Because raptors tend to
choose the highest perch in an enclosure, Gibson (1996)
recommended that if a bird can jump down from a perch 1
m high without injury, the enclosure should be no taller
than 2 m. If the ceiling is much higher, the bird may
become stressed in its attempt to locate a higher perch.
Another problem with amputee birds is a reduced
ability to retain body heat (Gibson 1996). An additional
heat source may be required to maintain body temperature
in colder climates. Arent and Martell (1996) did not
recommend the use of bilateral wing amputees for educa-
tional programs. Many problems exist with housing and
using them effectively in educational programs.
GENERAL ENCLOSURE DESIGN
Enclosures should take into account the behavior, size,
and natural history of the animal to be housed. A raptor
enclosure should be designed to be maintained easily while
providing safety, security, and sanitary conditions for its
inhabitants (Clubb and Flammer 1994). It also must meet
the psychological needs of the birds. Birds should be
provided with a secluded space, which is violated as little
as possible. This can be a corner in a larger cage or a nest
box in a smaller cage. Having visual barriers from other
birds also is important in a secure environment.
LOCATION
In general, raptor enclosures should be in an area with
minimal disturbance and low traffic. Harriers and Accipi-
ter spp. are easily agitated and do not adapt well to areas
with constant disturbance (Crawford 1983). Enclosures
should also be easily accessible by handlers, both on foot
and in vehicles. Preparing for off-site programs is much
easier if the cages can be loaded directly into vehicles. If
river rock or sand is used as a substrate, a nearby area
should be provided for dump trucks to make deliveries.
Vegetative cover is an important consideration.
Overhead vegetation can provide relief from the summer
heat. Evergreens provide year-round shade and can block
winter winds with proper placement. However, sunlight is
desirable in the winter to keep the birds warm. Deciduous
trees provide shade in the summer while allowing sunlight
to warm the enclosures in the winter. Do not place
enclosures directly under large trees. Falling branches can
damage the tops of enclosures. Proximity of enclosures to
amphitheaters or arenas is important for on-site programs.
Facility managers may choose to build seating near the
enclosures (Fig. 2-1). Another option is to build temporary
holding enclosures near existing performance areas. This
will depend upon the facility design and resources.
Raptor enclosures
Performance area
with bow perch
Seating for
students
Figure 2-1: Layout for performance area near
raptor enclosure
15
INDOOR ENCLOSURES
Indoor housing (Fig. 2-2) has several advantages over
outdoor facilities. These include pest control, the ability
to manipulate lighting, temperature, and humidity, and
protection from the weather (Clubb and Flammer 1994).
Routine care is not affected by seasonal changes, rainfall,
and weather conditions. Disturbance by predators and
other wildlife and the exposure to infectious agents
through contact with free-ranging birds is minimized.
However, indoor facilities are generally more crowded
than outdoor facilities. The per-unit cost of building and
maintaining indoor units is generally higher than outdoor
facilities. Indoor areas require more frequent cleaning to
prevent the accumulation of feces, food waste, bacteria,
fungi, and dust. An effective air exchange system is also
necessary. Full spectrum lighting must be used to facilitate
Vitamin D synthesis, which is important for the general
health of the bird (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Walls and
floors should be designed to allow pressure washing.
Floor drains should be of sufficient size to prevent
blockage by debris. The use of ventilation fans and air
filters is necessary to ensure adequate air quality (Clubb
and Flammer 1994). The air exchange system should also
be quiet. Second-hand or inexpensive systems may
produce excess noise which can stress the raptors. Owls
are especially disturbed by noise (Gibson 1996). The air
exchange and filtration system must be efficient. Air
should be completely exchanged or filtered every two
minutes. A humidifier may be required in the winter.
Some ventilation may be created by screen-covered vents at
ceiling level and floor level (Gibson 1996) that can be Figure 2-2: Indoor enclosure
blocked with covers in the winter.

Figure 2-3: Minimal outdoor cage

16
 OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES
Outdoor facilities provide raptors with more natural
conditions than indoor facilities. Raptors in outdoor
facilities are exposed to sunlight which is essential for
producing vitamin D (Arent and Martell 1996), but care
must be taken to prevent the raptors from overheating in
the summer and becoming too cold in the winter. Provid-
ing a water dish to bathe in or lightly spraying the bird
with water can cool the bird down. In the winter, a heated
perch (Parry-Jones 1994) can be provided to prevent
frostbite on the toes, as can shielding one side of the
enclosure from the wind. Steps must also be taken to
minimize contact with native wildlife including predators,
other birds, and invertebrates. Placing perches away from
the enclosure sides or burying wire around the perimeter of
the enclosure can help minimize contact with predators.
Figure 2-3 demonstrates the minimum requirements of an
outdoor enclosure. This particular enclosure is used only
to display birds during the day in fair weather. The bird is
brought in each night into an indoor mews area.
INDOOR / OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES
A combination indoor/outdoor facility can be designed
to provide optimum conditions (Fig. 2-4). Heated indoor
facilities that are attached to outdoor cages provide distinct
advantages for raptors. In the winter, the bird can move to
the interior to get warm at night. The outdoor section of
the cage provides opportunity to move outside to the
sunlight during the day. Food and water can be left inside
to prevent freezing.
Education Building
Figure 2-4: Indoor / outdoor facility
WALL CONSTRUCTION
There are many designs and variations for housing but
quality materials are important when constructing any
facility. What may work well for one bird, may not work
for others. There is no perfect material for building raptor
enclosures.
A common material used in covering openings of
enclosures for both falconry and educational raptors is
vertical barring (Parry-Jones 1994, Gibson 1996, Caudell
and Riddleberger in press). Vertical bars provide a visual
barrier for the bird. Bars or slats should be spaced ~2.5 cm
- 5.0 cm apart (Rapp and Crawford 1982) or be spaced no
wider than the width of the bird’s closed foot. The slats
themselves must be wider than the bird’s open foot.
Commonly used vertical bars are wooden slats, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) pipe, and metal conduit. The dimensions
of wooden slats vary. The bars should be wide enough to
prevent the bird from gripping them. Care should be taken
when using metal conduit in colder climates. Frost-bite
can occur if a bird’s foot contacts a frozen bar. PVC bars
are easily handled. They also “give” if a bird flies into
them. However, PVC can become brittle with age and
exposure to sunlight and may break unexpectedly. Vertical
bars often are used in conjunction with other materials,
such as metal wire (Chapter One). The bars can prevent
injury caused by flying into metal wire while retaining the
security provided by the strength of the wire (Enderson
1986).
Figure 2-5: Behlan enclosure 17
 Caution must be taken when using metal wire for
enclosures. Chicken wire should not be used where
raptors may come into contact with the material (Gibson
1996, Arent and Martell 1996). Rapp and Crawford
(1982), Gibson (1996), and Arent and Martell (1996)
reported that birds housed in facilities constructed with
chicken wire may experience broken feathers, cuts on the
cere, sliced toes, and broken talons from contact with
chicken wire. The types of metal wire most commonly
used for raptor enclosures are chain link fencing and
welded-wire. Chicken wire and other types of metal wire
can be buried in the ground or placed around the outside of
an enclosure as an inexpensive predator guard.
Wiemeyer (1987) reported housing eastern screech
owls (Otis asio) in cages constructed with metal wire.
Fledglings housed in these enclosures often had damaged
ceres and eyes. Some of the eye injuries resulted from cage
mates while others were probably caused by striking the
pens or objects in the pens
Crawford (1983) recommended that wire should not be
used with Accipiter spp. or harriers. Behlan® wire can be
purchased as a standard, circular enclosure (Fig. 2-5) or as
panels for use in custom designs. Figure 2-6 shows
Behlan® wire used in a rectangular, outdoor cage.
Welded-wire is buried beneath the surface to prevent
predators from tunneling under (the wire is barely visible
in figure 2-6 under the leaf-litter before burial). Behlan®
wire is strong and weathers well, but is expensive.
Galvanized wire should not be used except on the Figure 2-6: Rectangular enclosure with Behlan wire sides
exteriors of enclosures. Galvanized wire can cause zinc or
lead toxicosis depending upon the type of galvanization. If
galvanization is needed in areas where metal is prone to
rust, such as on the coast, the wire should be scrubbed with
acetic acid and a wire brush to remove any loose galvaniza-
tion material (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Immediately
after scrubbing, the wire and the surrounding area should
be rinsed throughly. Some materials, such as the wire used
in Behlan® enclosures, are galvanized, but are also coated
with non-toxic materials.
Vinyl mesh, such as Bird Barrier®, and netting are
adequate materials for raptor enclosures (Arent and Martell
1996, Gibson 1996). Some caretakers have experienced
problems with vinyl mesh. Specifically, they found that it
did not provide enough of a visual barrier. Vinyl mesh also
may cause feather or foot damage in active birds and the
plastic may eventually become brittle and break. Gibson
(1996) stated that plastic mesh is appropriate for use as
ceilings and enclosures for educational birds. Some types
of plastic mesh have rounded mesh while other have angled
mesh. Angled mesh may cut the bird’s feet when grabbed.
A sample should be requested before purchasing large
amounts of material to determine if it is appropriate. The
gaps in the netting should be small enough that the raptor
cannot stick its head through and that predators cannot
enter the enclosure. Birds are more likely to see the Bird
Barrier® and are less likely to fly into it and become
entangled. Vinyl mesh appears to be more flexible than Figure 2-7: Raptor enclosure with wooden lattice siding
18
either metal wire or vertical bars. This flexibility may
prevent injury when a bird bates or attempts to elude the
caretaker.
The most commonly used siding material is wood,
either in slats or solid wood sides (Chapter One, Caudell
and Riddleberger in press). Wood is often used in combi-
nation with other materials, such as metal wire or plastic
mesh. A common type of construction for NRR enclosures
is to build a chamber with a wooden frame, solid wood
knee wall, and mesh-covered openings extending to the
ceiling. One facility used wooden-lattice as a wall panel
material (Fig. 2-7). Wooden and plastic lattice can be
purchased in various thicknesses. The thickest lattice
should be used. It is not known how well this material will
stand up to stress or time. Some caretakers feel that
wooden lattice is poorly constructed and does not present
the raptor with the same degree of visual barrier that
vertical barring provides (J. Karger, Last Chance Forever,
personal communication). McKeever (1979) reported
using translucent solid panels in place of wooden panels.
The entire facility should be set up on a concrete curb
so thatno wood contacts the ground. This increases the
life of the structure substantially in areas of high humidity.
A concrete curb also deters predators from digging
underneath. If the interior walls are not set upon a
Figure 2-8: Partially covered roof. Notice that water drains to the inside of the enclosure. This should be avoided. A
gutter system could be added to this structure to improve the design.
concrete curb, wire should extend from the wall into the
ground. A few caretakers reported that rain washed out
sand floors leaving a gap between individual enclosures,
allowing a larger raptor to pull a smaller raptor under the
wall and kill it.
Raptor enclosures should be built with the finished
side in to aid in cleaning the inside (Gibson 1996). Also,
this prevents raptors from perching on exposed studs used
in construction. Common walls of two enclosures should
both be finished. If enclosures will be visited and a
finished exterior is desired, both sides can be finished.
Building material should also be easy to clean. Rough
surfaces will hold feces and other debris making them
harder to clean. The surfaces should be smooth-sealed
with a weather sealant to facilitate cleaning. Because
hawks have “projectile” feces, a sheet of plastic can be
placed on the walls behind a hawk’s perch to ease cleaning.
Clean or replace plastic frequently to prevent build-up of
feces.
ROOF CONSTRUCTION
When building the roof or any other part of the
structure, there can be no exposed nails or screws. If a tin
roof is used, there should be an air space between the tin
and the birds. In the summer the metal will get hot and the
19

Figure 2-9: Raptor enclosure with roof sloping away from the
interior of the enclosure
birds can suffer thermal burns if they touch the inside
surface. Common roof materials include solid wood,
shingles, slats, metal wire, plastic mesh, translucent
panels, and tin panels (Chapter One, Caudell and
Riddleberger in press). The roof can be completely
open, partially open, or completely covered (Fig. 2-8).
If the roof is completely open, a box or other covered
structure where the animal can escape the elements
should be provided.
Opinions differ as to the amount of roof coverage.
Arent and Martell (1996) and Gibson (1996) stated
that a section of the roof should remain open (but
covered with wire) to the elements to allow the bird to
sun or bathe in the rain. Arent and Martell (1996)
recommended that 25% to 50% of the roof be solid
material to provide protection from the elements. If a
partially open roof is used, the covered part should be
pitched away from the open area to prevent water from
draining into the enclosure (Fig. 2-9 and 2-10).
However, complete roofs are stronger in high winds
(Parry-Jones 1994). Solid roofs are also more resistant
to damage in the event a tree limb falls on them. If
nylon mesh or vinyl wire is used to cover open areas,
they can accumulate leaf litter which is difficult to
clean and can damage or stretch the wire.

Floor Plan

Existing enclosure with

single entry way

Add on double
entryway

Figure 2-10: Raptor enclosure with second entryway retrofitted to a single entry enclosure. Adapted from Glasier (1978).
20
 Work area
Enclosure 1 Enclosure 2 Enclosure 3
Fig 2-11: Floor plan of facility in figure 2-12. This plan demonstrates the use of a hallway for a double-door system.
ENTRY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The most important design aspect of entry construc-
tion is the use of double doors. When entering raptor
enclosures, birds may fly at the opening and escape. A
second door will prevent escape. Enclosures without
double doors can be retrofitted with a second door (Fig. 2-
10). Doors also should be equipped with spring hinges
and latches that are easy to work. Do not use springs that
are exposed because they can injure the birds. To maxi-
mize space and the use of construction materials, several
enclosures can be designed into one facility with a hallway
/ workroom with a second entry that serves as the double
door (Fig. 2-11 and 2-12)
FLOOR SUBSTRATE
The material used should be easy to maintain and not
be a breeding ground for disease. Floor substrate should
prevent birds from coming into contact will their own
waste (Heidenreich 1997). Pine needles or other vegetation
are aesthetically pleasing as floor substrate, but should not
be used because such materials retain moisture and heat,
are difficult to clean, and promote fungal growth such as
Aspergillus (Parry-Jones 1994, Gibson 1996). Neverthe-
less, some facilities reported using pine straw and other
similar materials with no reported adverse effects (Chapter
One). Wiemeyer (1987) reported using fine hardwood
chips for the propagation of eastern screech owls and
included no mention of illness or death related to the
substrate. If pine straw or other such materials is used, it
should be changed at least weekly.
Sand is commonly used as floor substrate (Chapter
One). Opinions vary as to whether or not sand is an
appropriate substrate for raptor enclosures. Gibson (1996)
stated that ingestion of sand on food items can cause
digestive problems. The Raptor Trust (flight cage plans,
Millington, NJ USA.) recommended using crushed gravel
covered with sand. Heidenreich (1997) also recommended
Fold down
work table
Enclosure 4 Enclosure 5
sand as an appropriate floor substrate for small aviaries. A
thick layer of washed, round river rock or pea gravel is a
good choice (Weaver and Cade 1991, Heidenreich 1997).
Gibson (1996) recommended that pea gravel be at least 7
cm to 10 cm deep. To provide cushion for flightless birds
jumping down from high perches, it should be at least 30
cm deep. Gravel is fairly inexpensive and allows proper
drainage during heavy rain. However, Parry-Jones (1994)
stated that large gravel can damage feathers. Parry-Jones
(1994) also reported that finer pea-gravel can become so
hot as to damage the birds feet. Round-river and crushed
gravel were the most commonly used floor substrate
material used by educational facilities throughout the
United States (Chapter One). Gibson (1996) recommended
that gravel be changed at least annually.
The ground should be prepared before the rock is
placed. A 10% solution of chlorine bleach in a hand pump
sprayer can be used to spray the ground thoroughly and
allow it to dry. Place rock in the enclosures 5cm to 10cm
deep. To clean the cage, remove the soiled rock down to
dry earth and replace it with fresh gravel. Both the ground
and the gravel should be sprayed with cleaning solution,
throughly rinsed with fresh water, and allowed to dry. Do
not wash the interior of the cage while the birds are
present. After rinsing, let the cage air out before returning
the bird. Do not place the bird back in the enclosure if you
detect any odors. Birds can experience respiratory distress
if chlorine fumes are present.
A concrete floor with central or corner drainage is easy
to clean. Such floors also can be disinfected rapidly and
do not have to be replaced periodically. However, if the
concrete has a brushed surface, it can damage the bird’s
feet (personal communication Burnie Kessner, Georgia
Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources
Division). A thick layer of river rock can be added over the
surface to prevent damage to the bird’s feet and still permit
proper drainage.
21
 Many raptor facilities use either dirt or grass in raptor VISUAL SEPARATION
enclosures (Chapter One). Heidenreich (1997) stated that In many cage designs, walls are shared. If this is the
large, open aviaries do well with planted grass and small case, there should be visual separation between the cages if
bushes. The wire mesh ceiling allows rain to wash feces raptors of different species and sizes occupy adjoining
into the soil. The removal of dirt directly underneath cages. Some raptors feel threatened by the presence of
perches several times per year help cages remain clean. another species or conspecifics and may become anxious,
flighty, or may stop eating (Arent and Martell 1996). Solid
SEPARATION OF SPECIES walls between the enclosures reduces stress and prevents
Animals housed in the same enclosure must be larger birds from injuring smaller birds (Fig 2-12). Two
compatible. In Georgia, animals cannot be housed near layers of mesh, mesh of a small size, or shade cloth are
other animals that will interfere with their health or cause other alternatives. Another solution is to provide a shelter
them discomfort (Appendix 1). Raptors should not be in box. The size of this box is dictated by the size of the
view of predators or prey species to minimize stress and raptor. A screen can also be erected inside large cages to
related health problems. Many raptors are incompatible allow excitable birds (such as Accipiter spp.) the ability to
with conspecifics and some cannot be housed with a escape each other visually (Rapp and Crawford 1982).
different sex of the same species.
Most conspecifics can be housed together with the SEPARATION FROM OTHER ANIMALS
exception of human imprinted birds, american kestrels Raptor enclosures should be located away from other
(Falco sparverius), and Accipiter spp. (Arent and Martell animal facilities. Disease may be spread between raptors
1996). An imprinted bird may not have the “social skills” and other avian species, such as domestic chickens. Pets
needed to protect or assert themselves. Birds already should not be kept or allowed near raptor enclosures. The
housed in an enclosure may harass a new cage mate, presence of canines and other animals may cause stress.
particulary if the new resident is disabled and cannot Environmental education or nature centers that display
defend itself. McKeever (1979) stated that regardless of its other wildlife should prevent both visual and actual contact
disability, female owls will never be attacked or harassed between raptors and other species. The presence of species
by a male of its species. that normally prey on raptors may be a constant source of
Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) can be housed with stress to the birds.
several different species such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus The birds also should be protected from native
leucocephalus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), great- wildlife. Raccoons can dig underneath walls and kill or
horned owls (Bubo virginianus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo maim captive birds. Wire should be buried underneath the
jamaicensis), rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus), and
Swainson’s hawks (Buteo swainsoni). Swainson’s hawks
can be housed with all of the preceding species except the
owls and eagles. Eagles can be housed with each other and
turkey vultures. Great-horned owls can be housed with
red-tailed hawks, rough-legged hawks, and turkey vultures.
Red-tailed hawks can be housed with great horned owls,
rough-legged hawks, Swainson’s hawks, and turkey
vultures. Rough-legged hawks can be housed with the
same species as red-tailed hawks. Peregrine falcons (Falco
peregrinus) and prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) can be
housed with each other (Arent and Martell 1996). This list
of compatible species is not complete or absolute. Some
individuals may not be able to be housed with another bird.
Do not put two birds in the same cage if one is the other’s
prey. If two birds are placed together, observe them often
to determine if one is being harassed and separate them if
needed. If there is any doubt about whether a bird can be
housed with another bird, contact a local rehabilitator, zoo,
or other educational facility with raptors.
If birds are housed together, each bird must have
adequate food, shelter, and perches. If shelter boxes are
provided, each bird must have its own. All perches should
be placed at approximately the same height for each bird.
If there is only one high perch, the birds may fight over it.

22 Figure 2-12: Visual seperation at this facility is accomplished by

solid partitions between the enclosures
 Table 2-1: Recommended minimum enclosure sizes for captive raptors adapted
from Arent and Martell (1996).

Size of Raptor Flight ability Length (m) Width (m) Height (m)

Small Raptors1 flighted 1.8 1.8 2.1

flightless 0.9 0.9 0.9
Medium Raptors2 flighted 3.7 1.8 2.1
flightless 1.8 1.8 2.1
Large Raptors3 flighted 12.2 3.1 2.7
flightless 3.7 3.1 2.7

1
American kestrels, screech owls, and saw-whet owls.
2
Buteo sp., great-horned owls, barn owls, barred owls, and goshawks.
3
Eagles, vultures, and osprey.

Table 2-2: Median enclosure dimensions of non-releasable raptors from raptor

centers throughout the US (Chapter One this volume).

Type of raptor Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Area (m2)

Hawks 4.2 2.4 2.4 11.8

Eagles 5.4 3.7 2.8 16.7
Vulture 4.9 2.4 2.4 11.8
Large Falcons 2.4 2.4 2.4 7.4
Small Falcons 3.1 2.4 2.4 5.8
Large Owls 3.7 2.4 2.4 9.6
Small Owls 2.4 1.4 2.0 3.2

floor substrate and outside the cages to prevent burrowing
animals from entering the facilities. Burrowing predators
quickly become discouraged when they encounter buried
wire (Gibson 1996). Another method to discourage
burrowing predators is to construct a concrete curb
extending into the ground. Enclosure wire should be small
enough to prevent predators from reaching in an grabbing
the birds.
Some animals may transmit pathogens to the birds.
Rats that enter in an attempt to eat the raptor’s food items
may have been poisoned or diseased. Contact with wild
raptors or other birds should be minimized.
SPACE REQUIREMENTS
Determining the space requirements for raptors is
difficult. Few attempts have been made to set minimum
standards for enclosure sizes for birds of prey. Arent and
Martell (1996) provide suggestions for both flighted and
non-flighted raptors (Table 2-1). Heidenreich (1997)
provided suggestions for aviary dimensions. Both Califor-
nia Department of Fish and Game and the Texas Parks and
Recreation Department have established guidelines for
enclosure size for NRR. Other enclosure suggestions can
be found by examining literature regarding the propagation
of raptor species (Carpenter et al. 1987b, Wiemeyer 1987,
Weaver and Cade 1991), falconry literature (Glasier 1978,
Parry-Jones 1991), and rehabilitation literature (McKeever
1979, Conroy 1981). Guidelines for enclosure sizes in
Georgia are based on median cage sizes for raptor centers
from across the United States (Table 2-2).
Enclosures should be constructed and maintained to
provide sufficient space for each animal to make normal
postural and social adjustments with adequate freedom of
movement. Inadequate space may be indicated by malnutri-
tion, poor condition, debility, stress, or abnormal behav-
ioral patterns. However, for NRR used for educational
programs, larger spaces are not always better. Spaces that
are too tall may make it difficult for the caretaker to catch
the bird. Individual species habits and requirements should
be taken into consideration when designing raptor enclo-
sures.
Harriers and Accipiter spp. must have as much room as
can be provided due to their nervous disposition (Crawford
1983). Smaller raptors, such as screech owls (Otis spp.) do
not require as much space as larger birds. It is important to
determine which species are desirable for the program, set
a limit for the number of species housed at the facility, and
build enclosures to suit those needs.

23
 (~10 cm x 10 cm x 100 cm) over the holes. Mark the end
of the post where the screws are to be attached. Remove
the post and put silicon sealant on the bottom of the post
and around the screw holes. Attach the post to the oil pan
with appropriately sized wood screws. Allow sealant to set
according to the directions. Fill with water and check for
leaks. Screw a section of plywood to the top of the post.
Place the tray on top of plywood for easy removal to clean
food residue from the tray. The pan should be large
enough to provide enough weight to prevent the platform
from tipping over. To increase weight, gravel can be placed
in the bottom of the pan.

PERCHES
Proper perches are important for bird health (Rapp and
Crawford 1982). Forbes and Parry-Jones (1996) stated
that the majority of bumblefoot cases are caused by
Figure 2-13: Ant resistant platform
improper perches. Each species and each individual bird
may have different perching needs. Often a bird will sit on
FOOD PLATFORM
an inadequate perch, even if it is causes foot damage
A clean feeding container for the birds is essential.
(Glasier 1978). Perches that are too small can exert too
Contact between feces and the bird’s food should be
much pressure on a localized spot on the bird’s foot,
minimized. Even though the ground may appear clean,
leading to bumblefoot.
fecal material may be present that can contaminate food.
Size and shape are important considerations when
A non-porous material should be used as a food
building perches. Falcons prefer to perch on flat surfaces
container, such as school lunch trays, slabs of slate, pet
but other raptors like to grip around an object (Forbes and
food dishes, and plastic plates. Dishes should be resistant
Parry-Jones 1996). Arent and Martell (1996) suggest that
to damage caused by the bird perching on it or biting it. A
bumblefoot can be prevented in some species with the use
dish can be placed on the ground or an elevated platform.
of specifically designed perches (Fig. 2-14). Forbes and
Elevated platforms should be large enough for the bird to
Parry-Jones (1996) note that falcons have bumblefoot more
perch on comfortably and eat its meal. A perch constructed
often than other raptors. They recommend that falcon feet
of appropriate material should also be provided. The food
be checked 2-3 times per week for early signs of
platform itself can be attached to the wall or placed under
bumblefoot. Be observant of the bird’s behavior both in
the feed slot.
the enclosure and sitting on the perch. It may be necessary
In areas where ants pose a problem, a free-standing,
to change the perch size, location, material, or height
“ant-resistant” platform can be constructed (Fig. 2-13, J.
before the bird is comfortable.
Karger, personal communication). A large water pan, such
Perch widths are determined by the size of the raptor’s
as a new oil change pan, can be used as a base. Drill three
foot (Fig. 2-15). This measurement can be used as an
to four small holes in the center of the pan. Place a post

2.5 cm

9 cm
Cork bark or other covering 2 cm 2 cm 1.3 cm

Shaped wood block

4 cm 4 cm 4 cm
Figure 2-14: Cross-section of shaped wood blocks used for raptor perches. Adapted from Arent and Martell (1996)
24

X
Figure 2-15: Location of measurement for determining
perch width; X = width of perch
initial size for the trial and error process of providing the
proper perches. Birds with new perches should be
monitored daily for perch use and pink spots (erosions)
developing on their feet. Perch size may need to be
adjusted for the size of the bird. The bird’s toes should
never encircle the perch (Rapp and Crawford 1982).
Avoid putting perches in the corner of the chambers.
They should be a minimum of 0.5 m from a wall to prevent
the raptor from damaging its feathers by hitting the walls.
There should be perches in both the indoor and outdoor
areas of the enclosure. Rapp and Crawford (1982)
recommend two to three perches per enclosure. Check
outside perches for underlying surface wetness. Physically
Tree branch or other bar
Rubber strap
Figure 2-16: Bow perch; perch cover goes over tree branch or bar. Rubber strap (Fox 1995) is used
for cushioning when the bird bates.
check perches each day. Flightless raptors require step-up
perches or perches that are low enough for the bird to hop
onto (Rapp and Crawford 1982).
Rough or irregular materials are necessary to prevent
foot problems. Smooth perches can result in “hot spots”
on the raptor’s foot. The hot spots are the equivalent of
blisters in humans. The material must be easily cleaned
and replaced. Climate is also a factor in determining what
type of perches to use. In warm moist climates, such as
Georgia, the material must not absorb or hold water.
Absorbent materials can cause fungus to develop in the
perch and possibly infect the bird with pathogens if the
raptor’s foot is damaged.
Monsanto Tall Turf ® and artificial turf are commonly
used perch materials (Chapter One, Jones 1993). They are
durable, inexpensive, and have rough surfaces that are
beneficial to the raptor’s feet. They also are easy to clean
and hold up well in warm, humid climates. Cork bark is
another perch material that is inexpensive, aesthetically
pleasing, and has many irregular surfaces (Forbes and
Parry-Jones 1996, Heidenreich 1997). However, cork bark
is rarely used in the United States (Chapter One). Tall
Turf® and cork bark are used to cover both perches and
platforms. Cork bark and artificial turf can be easily
attached with “cable ties” (available from hardware stores).
Tall turf should be replaced when it starts looking flat and
thread-bare.
Natural branches, stumps, and logs are the most
commonly used perches in raptor facilities throughout the
United States (Caudell and Riddleberger in press, Chapter
One). Natural branches must be the correct size, the bark
must be intact, and they must be replaced often, especially
Perch ring
25
when they become smooth. Avoid cherry (Prunus spp.),
rose (Rosa sp.), beech (Fagus spp.) and other smooth-
barked wood. Do not use branches or stumps with thorns
or other sharp protrusions. Replace any perch material that
shows loss of irregular surfaces, build up of fecal matter, or
other condition that may damage the bird’s foot.
Weaver (1991) and Jones (1993) recommended using
“coca mats” for falcons. The mats are long lasting and
provide cushion to prevent bruising of the feet. Indoor/
outdoor carpeting is another perch material commonly used
throughout the United States (Chapter One).
Some facilities recommend using sisal or manilla rope
to wrap perches (Jones and Gumbs 1984, Arent and
Martell 1996). Rope is aesthetic and provides an irregular
surface, but in Georgia and other humid climates it may
pose problems. If rope is used, it should be checked
regularly for mold and fraying.
Bow perches are used often in falconry and educa-
tional programs. Jones (1993) described the construction
of a horizontal bow perch that can be affixed permanently
in raptor enclosures. Bow perches (Fig. 2-16) can be
covered with rope, coca mat, astroturf, or leather (Jones
1993, Parry-Jones 1994, Fox 1995, Arent and Martell
1996). Cable ties can also be used to attach perch covers
to bow perches. They are inexpensive and can be replaced
each time the perch material is replaced. However, they
should not come into contact with the bird’s feet.
Crawford (1983) recommended that a small piece of
emory cloth wrapped around a portion of the perch will
provide an area for birds to “freak” their beaks. Large
stones placed in the enclosures may also facilitate this
process. Not all birds will utilize these items efficiently
and trimming of the beaks may be required.
BATHS
Some birds of prey do not drink often (Glasier 1978,
Bird 1987) because they get most of their water from prey
items. However, many birds do like to bathe occasionally
(Glasier 1987, Carpenter et. al 1987a). A water container
should be large enough for the bird to bathe in, but not so
deep that it could drown.
Water containers can be made from several different
materials. McKeever (1979) suggested that the surface of
the pool not be plastic or metal, since both are slippery and
frightening to owls. However, Wiemeyer (1987) used
stainless steel watering pans for eastern screech owls with
no reported problems.
In the winter, freezing temperatures can pose a
problem with providing water. Caretakers at the Patuxent
Wildlife Research Center in Maryland placed warmers
underneath metal water pans during winter months to
prevent freezing (Wiemeyer 1987). In the Southeast, long
periods of freezing temperature are infrequent. Water can
be checked often or removed at night to prevent freezing.
In large water containers, placing a perch on one side
that dips into the water will allow a bird to move in and out
of the water easily. Adjustments in design should be made
26
to accommodate birds with disabilities. Perches near the
bathing container allow the bird to dry upon exiting the
water. If the bird is wild and has not yet adapted to
captivity, the bath should be placed on the side of the cage
least likely to be approached by anyone (Glasier 1978).
A commonly used design for exhibition facilities is to
build a concrete pool in the enclosure. The surface should
be lightly brushed while the concrete is setting to prevent
slipping. It should not be so rough that cleaning is
hampered. The sides should allow the birds to move in and
out freely and facilitate cleaning. Another option for
exhibition facilities is to use baths that blend in with the
bird’s environment.
The largest owls (e.g. great-horned owls) will require a
water container ~2 m in diameter (McKeever 1979).
Smaller owls, such as screech owls, will require a container
with a diameter of 0.3 m. Depth is more critical than
diameter. The depth of the water should not come above
the abdomen of the bird when it is standing in the con-
tainer. Small owls should have water 5 cm deep. Larger
owls require water 15 cm deep. Weimeyer (1987) used a
20 cm diameter x 7 cm deep container for eastern screech
owls. The sides should not be so high or steep that it
would hamper the bird exiting from the container. Water
containers should be cleaned daily because some species
tend to defecate in water. It is important to flush the
container with a large amount of water to remove chemical
residues after disinfection.
CLEANING
Good hygiene involves frequent cleaning of the bird’s
enclosure and is far more important in the prevention of
disease than the use of disinfectants (Perry 1994). Organic
debris must be physically removed before a disinfectant
will be effective. Water and food containers should be
physically scrubbed or placed in a dishwasher at least
twice weekly (preferably daily) to prevent slime and algae
from forming (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl
Greenacre, University of Georgia School of Veterinary
Medicine).
Place the bird in a spare enclosure or travel carrier to
prevent stress while cleaning, even if your bird enjoys
being sprayed with water. Remove feces from cage walls
and perches using a water hose and a brush. A garden hose
adaptor used to add soap to the water will facilitate the
process. A mild soap will work to remove most mutes and
debris. When cleaning, take precautions to avoid inhaling
spores and dried aerosolized particles of feces.
Arent and Martell (1996) recommended that each pen
be cleaned daily. This includes removing castings (pellets
coughed up by raptors consisting of undigested food) and
food remains and providing fresh water. Pens should be
throughly disinfected at least once per week. Birds should
not come into direct contact with or be exposed to the
fumes of any disinfection agent. The constant use of
powerful disinfectants in the absence of a disease threat is
not beneficial and continued contact with these chemicals
can be detrimental to the birds and to caretakers (Clubb
and Flammer 1994).
Gravel should be completely replaced every 2 years
(Ardent and Martell 1996). Gravel underneath the perches
and other areas contaminated with feces and food remains
should be removed weekly and throughly washed. Gravel
can be washed by spreading it out and soaking it with a
disinfectant. It should then be rinsed thoroughly with
water and allowed to dry. The surface underneath the
gravel should be sprayed with disinfectant after the gravel
is removed and allowed to dry. Before the bird is returned,
fresh gravel must be placed on the cleaned surface. Hard
surfaces, such as concrete, can be cleaned in the same
manner as the walls.
Ideally, cleaning tools should not be used for more
than one cage (McKeever 1979). The initial outlay for a
large number of brushes and other tools will be offset by
the reduction in the possible spread of pathogens. How-
ever, for birds in permanent collections that are in close
contact, providing separate brushes may not be necessary.
COMMON DISINFECTANTS
A disinfectant is a germicidal compound that is
usually applied to inanimate objects. A compound may act
both as an antiseptic and a disinfectant, depending on the
drug concentration, condition of the exposure, and number
of organisms. To achieve maximum efficiency, it is
essential to use the proper concentration of the disinfectant
for the purpose intended. The logic that “if a little is good,
then more must be better” is not only uneconomical, but
often has toxicological implications (Fraser 1991).
Many disinfectants emit toxic fumes and should only
be used in a well ventilated area and never near the bird.
Disinfectants should be rinsed thoroughly from the
enclosure and off accessories to prevent the bird from
coming into contact with chemical residue. Household
chlorine bleach is the most cost efficient of the common
disinfectants. Few disinfectants are effective in the
presence of organic residue. Directions on the use of the
chemical should be followed closely. All disinfectants are
toxic and should be used in a conservative fashion for the
specific purpose of preventing exposure to infectious
agents. There is no such thing as a safe disinfectant. If it
is safe, it does not kill microbial agents (Clubb and
Flammer 1994). The least toxic agent that will effectively
meet the disinfecting needs should be chosen. In most
cases, a 5% dilution of sodium hypochlorite is the safest
and most efficacious, with the least potential for leaving
toxic residues.
A disinfectant should kill disease agents to which
raptors are susceptible (Arent and Martell 1996). These
agents include strains of Pseudomonas, Salmonella,
Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Escherichia coli, Chlamy-
dia, Candida, and Mycobacterium.
Chlorine Bleach - Chlorine exerts a potent
germicidial effect against most bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
and fungi (Fraser 1991). Chlorine bleach is effective in
killing Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp. Streptococcus
spp., and Staphylococcus spp. and other bacteria (Clubb
and Flammer 1994) It is ineffective against Mycobacte-
rium spp. To use as a disinfectant, chlorine bleach should
be mixed with water on a 1:10 ratio (bleach:water). The
longer chlorine is in contact with an organism, the more
effective it is (Ritchie and Harrison 1994). The effective-
ness of chlorine bleach can be increased by either decreas-
ing the pH of the water or by increasing the temperature
(Clubb and Flammer 1994). It is important to use only
liquid chlorine bleach and not granulated chlorine. The
latter can release toxic levels of chlorine gas. Birds should
never come into direct contact with chlorine bleach.
Exposure to chlorine fumes can cause epiphora, coughing,
sneezing, rhinorrhea, and dyspna in most avian species
(Ritchie and Harrison 1994). Chlorine can react with some
metals and it is also difficult to rinse out of porous
materials.
Virkon-S® - Virkon-S® (a phenol) is a broad
spectrum disinfectant designed primarily for use in chicken
houses. It is effective against many bacteria, viruses, and
fungi. A normal application requires spraying or soaking
the object in the solution and then rinsing (Durvet Inc.
1996).
Phenol (1-Stroke®) - Phenol (carbolic acid) is
bactericidal / fungicidal used at 1-2% concentrations. The
bactericidal activity is enhanced by warm temperatures and
is decreased by alkaline medium, lipids, soaps, and cold
temperatures. Phenol has been implicated as a carcinogen
(Fraser 1991).
Hot Water - Water above 180 oC can be useful for
disinfecting food and water dishes. Many dishwashers use
water at or above this temperature; however, check the
manufacturer’s literature to be certain. Do not use the
same dishwasher that is used on household dishware.
Quaternary ammonia solutions (Quats) - Roccal®
is a name brand of quat used in veterinary hospitals. Quats
are used as table washers and cold sterilization. They can
also be used to clean enclosures or to soak nets, dishes,
perches, and other equipment (Johnson-Delaney 1994).
Because the solutions are toxic to birds, the equipment
should be rinsed throughly after disinfection. Quats are
effective against some fungi (including yeast), protozoa,
most bacteria, and is recommended for chlamydia. Quats
are ineffective against mycobacterium, viruses, and spores
(Fraser 1991, Clubb and Flammer 1994). Quats are of
limited value in the presence of blood and tissue debris
(Fraser 1991). Rubber gloves should be worn because it is
an irritant.
Chlorhexidine - Nolvasan® (Fort Dodge, Bio
Ceutic) is available as a disinfectant solution that is
usually mixed at 90 ml/3.8 L. Fraser (1991) stated that it
has a potent antimicrobial activity against most gram-
positive and some gram-negative bacteria, but not against
spores. A 0.1% aqueous solution is bactericidal against
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomo-
27
nas aeruginosa in 15 sec. It is somewhat less active
against other gram-negative organisms and most viruses.
Nosocomial infections by Pseudomonas sp. have occurred
from the use of contaminated chlorhexidine solutions in
which the bacteria persisted (Fraser 1991). Chlorhexidine
is not effective against gram-positive cocci (Ritchie and
Harrison 1994). Chlorhexidine is more gentle on tissue
than quats and is effective against viruses and candida.
However, it is not effective against Chlamydia and many
other pathogenic bacteria (Johnson-Delaney 1994). The
effectiveness of chlorhexidine is reduced by the presence
of organic matter (Fraser 1991, Perry 1994).
Chlorhexidine is extremely toxic to aquatic environments.
Waste products must be handled carefully. Chlorhexadines
can also irritate eyes and mucus membranes (Ritchie and
Harrison 1994).
28
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
Policies concerning cleaning, bookkeeping, training of
volunteers or paid employees, and use of the birds should
be set and followed. While policies are tedious to set, they
can prevent confusion among workers in the long run.
An important policy to set at a facility is program fees.
Deciding how much to charge for programs can be diffi-
cult. All costs must be taken into consideration including
food, maintenance, yearly veterinary charges, employee
payroll, and travel for programs. Incidental costs such as
replacing substrate, cleaning fluid, repairing or replacing
gauntlets, jesses, leather conditioner, etc. must also be
considered. Facility managers must keep in mind the need
for construction of new enclosures, upkeep of old enclo-
sures, and modifications required by changes to state or
federal regulations. A portion of the yearly budget should
be dedicated for construction and maintenance.
CHAPTER 3: EQUIPMENT

Using non-releasable raptors (NRR) in educational birds (200 g - 2000 g) should have a jess 20 cm long and
programs will require falconry equipment. Jesses, leashes, 10 mm - 13 mm wide.
swivels, bow perches, and other supplies will be needed for Jesses for large birds (>2000 g) should be 25 cm long
using birds in demonstrations. Additional equipment, such and 19 mm wide. The tail-width of the jess should be ~4
as radio-telemetry equipment may also be necessary if free- mm narrower than the body width (Fig. 3-1). The length of
flights are performed. Purchasing quality materials is of the body will be based upon measurement taken from the
upmost importance. A broken jess or leash can lead to the leg of the raptor. These are suggested sizes. Individual
loss of a raptor that the caretaker has spent many hours birds may need jesses tailored to fit more precisely.
training. It may also mean death for a bird that has Aylmeri bracelets for small birds should be from 6 mm
escaped, but cannot fend for itself. - 10 mm with an eyelet <6 mm. For medium sized birds,
bracelets should be 13 mm - 19 mm with a 6 mm - 8 mm
JESSES eyelet. For large birds, bracelets should be 25 mm - 32 mm
Jesses are small leather straps placed on the raptor’s wide.
leg. They are used for attaching a leash (Chiles and Traditional Jess - Traditional falconry jesses are still
Crawford 1985). Jesses and Aylmeri bracelets are made used but are now illegal for use in falconry when a bird is
from high quality leather such as kangaroo hide or cow being flown (50 CFR 21.29(g)(2)). Traditional jesses have
hide (Heidenreich 1997). Hides of lesser quality leather the tendency to twist as the bird moves around on the
such as goat or elk can also be used (Glasier 1978).
The leather must be pliable and strong. Leather can be
tested before buying it by cutting a strip the width of a jess
and pulling on each end to see if it will break. If it does
Tab 1
not break, cut a small slit in it to see if it will rip easily.
Leather has varying degrees of stretch. It will stretch more A
down the length of the grain than across the grain. Be sure
to allow for the stretch when crafting the jess. Equipment
needed to craft jesses include a pair of sharp scissors, a Body
small sharp knife, a cutting board, and a leather punch
(Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994). If Aylmeri bracelets are
used, grommets and a grommet tool will be needed. Never B
use a hammer and anvil to attach an Aylmeri to a bird’s leg.
Two jesses should be used on raptors. As a raptor
bates (attempts to fly off the handler’s glove), a large
Total
amount of stress is placed on the jess and the bird’s leg. If
length
only one leg is attached to a jess, twice as much force is
applied to the raptor’s leg compared to a raptor that has
two jesses (Chiles and Crawford 1985) . Jesses also can Tail
break. If the bird has two jesses and one breaks, it will
not be able to fly away. However, improperly maintained
jesses have been known to break at the same time. Jesses
should always be placed on the bird with the rough side of
the leather away from the bird’s leg.
Jess and Aylmeri sizes - The length and width of the
jesses will vary for each bird. A hawk’s leg (tarsometatar-
sus) is longer than a falcon’s. Therefore, a hawk’s jesses
should be cut wider than a falcon’s jesses to provide more
support (Glasier 1978). Do not cut the jesses longer than C
necessary. Jesses may become entangled on the furniture
in the cage and may injure the bird. Tab 2
Arent and Martell (1996) provided suggested sizes for
both Aylmeri bracelets and jesses. For small birds (<200
g), use a jess 15 cm long and 6.4 mm wide. Medium sized
Figure 3-1: Traditional jess
29
 Tab 1

Slit A

Body

Slit B

Figure 3-2: Attaching a traditional jess to a raptor’s leg

handler’s glove or its perch (Chiles and Crawford 1985).

Others feel that traditional jesses have a tendency to
tighten on the bird’s leg and should NEVER be used Tail
(personal communication, John Karger, Last Chance
Forever). Traditional jesses can be used for educational
birds, but cannot be used for free-flight demonstrations
(Arent and Martell 1996). Discontinue use if the bird Slit C
develops sore spots under the jess.
Begin with a strip of leather 2-4 cm wide and ~30 cm
long. The initial size can be taken from either the sugges- Tab 2
tions provided above or by measuring around the bird’s leg
(for the body length of the jess). The hole for slit A (Fig 3-
1) should be punched where the taper of tab 1 begins. Slit Figure 3-3: Modified jess as
B should be made between the body and the tail. Slit C described by John
should be made near the end of the tail, but not extending Karger
into tab 2. Pressure relief slits (Fig. 3-1) should be cut
into the jess body to prevent sore spots from developing on
Next, measure around the bird’s leg (smooth side of the
the bird’s leg. To attach the jess, wrap the body around the
leather against the bird’s leg) so that the squared off
leg of the bird. Insert tab 1 into slit B. Pull tab 2 through
corners of the tab contact the leather of the jess on the
slit A. Slit C is used for attaching swivels or clips.
other side forming a loop. Mark using your fingernail or
Modified Jess - A modified version of the traditional
pen to indicate where slit B (Fig. 3-3) will be made. The
jess (Fig. 3-3) was described by John Karger (personal
body must be measured correctly to ensure the bird wears
communication). It is an alternative to using an Aylmeri or
the jess comfortably. It should not bind the bird, but it
traditional jesses. This modified jess is less likely to
should not be so loose that the bird can work it off its foot.
tighten around the birds leg because of the squared-off
Cut slit B (Fig. 3-3) the exact width as the width of
intersection of tab 1 and the body. This jess also retains it
the tab. Cut out the lower portion of the jess by folding
shape better than the traditional jess. Figure 3-4 shows
the tab section over so that the base of the tab lies on slit
how to attach the jess to the raptor. Although needle-nose
B. Cut the lower portion of the jess the same width as the
pliers are not essential, it is quicker and easier to put the
base of the tab 1. The length of the tail is determined by
jesses on the bird if they are used.
checking that the jess does not extend past the tail feathers,
To make the modified jess, begin with a strip of
but it must be long enough to be held comfortably in the
leather 2-4 cm wide and ~30 cm long. Adjust the jess to
gloved hand. Cut slit C approximately 2.5 cm long. Cut
size of bird. A larger width is needed for larger birds
pressure relief slits on the part of the jess that is around the
(>2000 g). A smaller width is used for smaller birds (<200
bird’s leg. Cut slit A about the width of the tail of the jess.
g). The first step is to cut a tab at one end of the leather
After the jess is finished, you should soak it in a leather
approximately 0.5 cm in towards the center (on both sides)
conditioner for 24 hours (Chiles and Crawford 1985).
and about 4 cm from the end in the center of the strip.
After it has soaked, pound the jess with a hammer or a
30
 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Figure 3-4: Attaching a modified jess to a raptor’s leg

mallet. This will strengthen the jess and increase its life.
The slits around the edge are to relieve direct pressure from
the bird’s leg. The holes at the ends of the slits are
important to relieve pressure from the leather to prevent it
from tearing (Glasier 1978).
Wrap the body of the jess around the bird’s leg
(Fig. 3-4, step 1). Feed the tab through slit B and pull
snug (Fig. 3-4, step 2). Take tail of the jess, double it back
through slit A (Fig. 3-4, step 3), and pull snug . Double
check the fit then make the second jess for the other leg
following the same procedure.
Snap Jesses - Snap jesses (Fig. 3-5) have been
developed independently and used by several centers with
varying degrees of success.
They were developed to be
Tab 1 used temporarily or with Figure 3-6: A snap jess attached to a raptor’s leg
Snap 1 raptors that are especially
adapted to removing jesses
in their enclosures. Careful Aylmeri bracelets - Aylmeri bracelets were designed
attention must be paid to to take the place of traditional jesses (Glasier 1978). They
the raptor to prevent the consist of two leather anklets, one on each leg, which are
Body jesses from unfastening secured by a metal grommet (Fig. 3-7). A leather “mews
them while in use. jess” with a button or knurl knot (Fig. 3-8) at one end or a
The snap jess pre- jess made from nylon parachute cord is threaded through
sented here is adapted from the grommet (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994, Arent and
the modified jess. Follow Martell 1996). A swivel slit is cut or tied at the other end.
Slit A Originally, Aylmeri were intended only for small
instructions to make the
Snap 2 modified jess, but do not falcons, but are now rapidly coming into general use for all
cut slit A into tab 1 (Fig. 3-
3). Place snaps on tab 1
and below slit A. The
distance from slit A to snap
2 should be the same
distance as snap 1 is from
Slit B the upper end of the body
(Fig. 3-5). Place the jess
around the bird’s leg.
Tab 2 Thread tab 1 and snap 1
through slit A and close
Figure 3-5: Snap jess snaps (Fig. 3-6). Figure 3-7: Aylmeri bracelets. Note: always place smooth
side of leather against the bird’s leg.
31

Figure 3-8: An Aylmeri and mews jess attached to a
raptor’s leg
types of hawks and falcons. Some birds, particularly
kestrels, frequently pull the buttons off the end of mews
jesses (Glasier 1978). The size of the grommet is depen-
dent upon the size of the bird and the jess. Smaller
raptors, such as the American kestrel (Falco sparverius) or
the eastern screech owl (Otus asio), generally require a
smaller grommet (size 2: 8 mm hole). These can be put on
with grommet pliers. Larger birds require larger grommets.
A red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) may require a #3
(10 mm hole) grommet. Eagles may require a #4 (11 mm)
grommet (Chiles and Crawford
1985). These usually are put on
with a grommet tool (Parry-
Tab 1
Jones 1994). A hammer and
A anvil is another method used for
attaching grommets; however,
this should NEVER be used
Body with raptors since an accident
may result in breaking the
raptor’s leg. When putting
B Aylmeri bracelets on a new bird
it will be necessary to hold the
bird during the process. Glasier
(1978) states that once birds
Tail
become accustomed to the
process, Aylmeri can be attached
with the bird sitting on the fist.
Tab 2 To make a bracelet, cut a
piece of leather about 15 cm
Figure 3-9: False Aylmeri
long and about 4 cm wide. Cut
a hole for the grommet. Size the bracelet around the bird’s
leg and mark the spot for the grommet hole on the other
side. Cut pressure relief slits around the bracelet. Using a
grommet tool, assemble the bracelet around the bird’s leg.
The mews jess then is threaded through the grommet
(Glasier 1978).
32
FALSE AYLMERI BRACELETS
False Aylmeri bracelets (Fig. 3-9) are another option
for attaching a leash to the bird (Glasier 1978). The false
Aylmeri is made the same way as the traditional or modi-
fied jess with a few modifications. Instead of the long tail
that is on a traditional jess (Fig. 3-1), a shorter tail is used.
A grommet then is inserted into the tail as is done with the
Aylmeri bracelet (Fig. 3-7). The false Aylmeri then is put
on the same way as the traditional jess. A mews jess is
threaded through the grommet, as is done with the Aylmeri.
Glasier (1978) states that it is possible for the bird to get
its hallux caught in the grommet on a false Aylmeri.
MAINTENANCE
It is important to prevent jesses from hardening.
Chiles and Crawford (1985) recommend soaking jesses in
a leather preservative for at least 24 hours before attaching
them to the bird. Jesses should be changed when they
become hard and worn, or at least once per year (Parry-
Jones 1994).
Jess grease should be non-toxic because raptors
sometimes pick and chew on the jess. Jess grease can be
made by melting ~30 g beeswax and 70 g paraffin wax
together (Glasier 1978). Add 280-340 ml of medicinal
paraffin. Mix well and pour into a wide-mouth, shallow
jar with a lid. In cold weather, additional liquid paraffin
will be required. If the mixture is too stiff, melt it down
and add more liquid paraffin. Use the jess grease fre-
quently. If the leather is allowed to become too hard it will
be difficult to get it supple again.
Commercially available non-toxic
leather conditioning products from a
shoe or saddle store can also be used.
Parry-Jones (1994) recom-
mended checking and greasing jesses
on a daily basis. This is also a good
time to check the bird’s feet for hot,
pink, or red spots. If the jesses
harden it can cause sores to develop
on the bird’s leg.
LEASHES AND SWIVELS
Leashes and swivels must be
provided for the raptors. Leashes are
tied to both the perch or instructor
and jesses (via a swivel). They are
used to prevent raptors from escaping
when they are being used in programs
(Arent and Martell 1996). Leashes
should be made from quality nylon
cord. Traditionally, leashes were
made from leather cord. Parry-Jones
(1994) stated that anyone still using
leather leashes must be “mentally
deficient” because leather leashes can
break without warning. Leashes are Figure 3-10 Snap swivel
used to prevent the raptor from FALCONER’S KNOT
flying off should their jesses be The falconer’s knot is the proper knot to use when
released during a presentation, tying a bird to a perch, or to yourself, when the bird is
while being weighed, or while outside the cage (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994). The
some other activity is performed knot must be learned using only one hand since the bird
outside of their enclosure. will be resting on the other hand. Learn to tie the knot
Swivels are used when a with both your left and right hand. Figure 2-12 shows in
bird is tethered to a perch or detail how the knot should be tied.
being used in a demonstration. Imagine that a bird is on your gauntlet with the leash
If swivels are not used, jesses clipped into the jesses. Pull the free end of the leash
can twist, entangle the bird, or through the ring on the perch or whatever you are tying to.
break. Either ball-bearing or Pull about 2/3 of the leash through and away to your left.
snap swivels (Fig. 3-10) can be Lie the working part (the part of the leash that has passed
used. Snap swivels are often through the ring) between the end of the index and middle
used in educational programming finger. The thumb will be over the standing part (the
because of the ease and speed portion of the leash attached to the bird). Now move the
they can be attached or removed. gloved hand away from the perch until the leash is just
However, only ball-bearing taunt. Within ~3 cm of the ring pass your thumb under the
swivels should be used for portion of the leash between your forefinger and the ring.
tethering a bird to a perch and Curl up your fingers then straighten them out, but at the
they should not be used on same time keep your thumb well up, so that the loop that is
unattended birds. Raptors may around it will not slip off. Turning your hand away from
Figure 3-11: Swivel
open snap swivels and escape. you, as if your thumb were the axis on which it rotates.
attached
Figure 3-11 shows the proper Keep the loop on your thumb. The back of your hand
to jesses
way of attaching the jesses to a should now be facing upward. Move your thumb and
ball-bearing swivel. Parry-Jones (1994) and Heidenreich fingers towards each other. The part of the leash resting on
(1997) recommended purchasing top quality swivels to the ball of your index finger is now pushed through the
lessen the chance they will break. loop on your thumb, at the same time your thumb is pushed
out of the way. The working part is now pulled a short
distant through the thumb loop, so that it itself forms a
loop. Pull the right-hand side tight and the second loop
will tighten. Having tightened the knot, put the free end of
the leash through the newly formed loop (Glasier 1978).

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7

Figure 3-12: Tying a flaconer’s knot. Adapted from Arent and Martell (1996) and Glasier (1978).
33
SCALES
A scale must be available to weigh the raptor and food
(Glasier 1978). It should be graduated to increments of at
least 0.01 g and have a tare feature. Construct or purchase
a perch that will attach onto the plate of the scale to
facilitate weighing the bird. The tare feature compensates
for your perch so it does not have to be subtracted from the
weight each time. Be sure your scale has the capacity for
any bird you need to weigh plus the weight of the perch.
Scales dedicated to weighing birds can be purchased from
falconry or veterinary suppliers. Perches with suction cups
can also be purchased and attached to any scale to make it
easier to weigh birds.
GLOVES
Leather driving gloves are adequate for small hawks or
owls. For larger birds, such as a red-tailed hawk, thicker
gloves are needed (Fig. 3-13). Glasier (1978) recom-
mended gloves of pigskin or deerskin. Motorcycle
gauntlets will serve, though many of these are made with
the skin side out and will quickly get pricked by the bird’s
talon. Chrome tanned industrial or gardening type gloves
are usually hard and uncomfortable. Large raptors have a
strong grip that can easily drive their talons through what
appears to be thick leather. Good gloves are judged by
density and not by thickness. There has to be a certain
degree of flexibility in the glove.
Properly tanned buckskin, while difficult to obtain, is
a type of leather which combines strength, flexibility, long
life, and comfort. Often, gloves advertised as “buckskin”
are actually made of something else. The best way to
acquire real buckskin gloves is to make them or have them
made.
Vet-Pro™ Leather / Kevlar Animal Handling Gloves
are excellent gloves for working with raptors. They are
made with cowhide leather to protect hands from blunt
trauma and Ballistic Kevlar™ to prevent talons from
penetrating the skin. The glove has an extra wide cuff that
can be worn over clothing and is long enough to protect the
forearms. However, they are available in only one size.
MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES
A rake, pitch fork, and wheel barrow are needed to
clean the enclosures. The roof must be swept, raked, or
blown with a power blower occasionally to remove leaf
34
litter. The facility also will need a water hose long enough
to reach all enclosures. A dry, clean storage shed with
electricity and water to keep equipment and for food
storage is ideal. If such a building is not available, a small
closet can be constructed in the raptor facility to keep
carrying cages, equipment, cleaning supplies, and scales.
HOODS
Hoods are used in falconry to calm birds (Parry-Jones
1994, Fox 1995). They can be used in EE programs for
transport, weighing, and examinations. Hoods are used
with falcons and hawks. Hoods should not be used with
owls (Parry-Jones 1994). However to calm an owl, a light
cloth can be placed over their eyes temporarily. A hood
should not be over-used. Hoods can be purchased from
falconry suppliers or made from plans found in falconry
manuals (Fox 1995, Glasier 1978).
TRAVEL ENCLOSURES
Appropriately-sized dog kennels work well for raptor
travel cages (Fox 1995). Arent and Martell (1996)
provided the following recommendations for kennel carrier
sizes. Small raptors (<200 g) should have a kennel 51 cm
x 28 cm x 32 cm (length x width x height). Medium sized
raptors (200 g - 2000 g) should have a kennel 66 cm x 51
cm x 51 cm. Large raptors (>2000 g) should have a kennel
102 cm x 79 cm x 76 cm.
Perches can be attached to the inside of the carrier by
placing a perch that extends from one side of the enclosure
to the other. Screws can then be driven through the
enclosure side into the end of the perch. Proper substrate
can then be attached to the wooden perch. The perch
should not be so high as to cause improper posture of the
bird. Another option is to build free-standing perches (a
cadge) and place them in the enclosure (Arent and Martell
1996). The bottom of the cage should be lined with
artificial turf or newspaper (Fox 1995).
A separate travel enclosure should be provided for
each bird possessed. They are relatively inexpensive and
are invaluable in the event of an emergency that would
require evacuation of your facilities. They can also be used
to house birds inside in the event of an extreme tempera-
ture drop. Providing a separate travel enclosure also will
help prevent the spread of disease.
CHAPTER 4: FEEDING
Feeding captive raptors properly is an important aspect
of management. Raptors fed insufficient diets can develop
health problems. Calcium, for example, is used in bone
formation, blood clotting, nerve impulse transmission, and
muscular contraction (MacWhirter 1994). Phosphorus is
important for many bodily functions including bone
formation, maintenance of acid-base balance, and carbohy-
drate metabolism. Raptors must be provided with the
proper quantity of food that contains appropriate amounts
of nutrients in a digestible form.
GENERAL FEEDING HABITS
Raptors are carnivores. They should be fed whole-
animal diets which resemble their natural diets as closely
as possible (Enderson 1986). Small mammals and birds
are commonly used food items for most raptors. Birds
such as bald eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) and osprey
(Pandion haliaetus) eat mainly fish. The food should
always be fresh and of good quality. Food caught in the
wild can be used, but there is a risk that the bird may
contract parasites or other diseases. John Karger (personal
communication, Last Chance Forever) related instances of
caretakers using meat substitute, such as soy products to
maintain raptors. This is not an acceptable diet because
raptors do not have the proper digestive enzymes for
effective digestion of plant material.
Raptors should be fed as close to their natural feeding
times as possible. Owls usually eat once per day near
dusk. Great-horned owls (Bubo virginianus) hunt both day
and night, but are mostly nocturnal. Hawks and falcons are
diurnal. It may not be possible to feed the raptor during
the hours it would normally eat in the wild due to the
operating hours of the facility. No literature is available
regarding whether or not this is detrimental to the bird’s
health. However, spoilage or re-freezing food is a concern.
In the summer, food presented to owls in the morning may
not be consumed until dark and could spoil or become
infested with maggots by the time the bird is ready to eat.
In the winter, food could re-freeze making it dangerous for
the bird to consume. Typically, owls should be fed by staff
at the end of the day. Whatever time of day raptors are fed,
a routine should be established and maintained (Arent and
Martell 1996).
The correct quantity of food should be presented to
the bird. Any remains will either freeze or become maggot-
ridden. Most raptors (other than vultures and eagles) will
not normally eat carrion. Great-horned owls tend to
partially bury uneaten remains (McKeever 1979).
During the warm months, a common practice among
raptor caretakers is to provide a “fast” day (a day without
feeding) for the birds. Do not put two fast days back to
back. Fast days should not be observed during the winter
because the birds have a greater need for calories. Fast day
should never be used as an excuse not to feed the birds on
a weekend or a time that is inconvenient for the handler.
Although fast days are an accepted practice in captive
raptor management, there are no published papers docu-
menting or researching the benefits.
LABORATORY MICE
Domestic mice (Mus musculus), ranging from 20 g to
50 g, are considered to be an appropriate food item for
many captive birds of prey (McKeever 1979). Mice are
similar to the natural food of many birds of prey
(Johnsgard 1988, Johnsgard 1990, Kaufman 1996 ).
“Wild” mice probably have different diets compared to
captive mice. They eat a wide variety of vegetation, tubers,
and other plant material. However, it is unknown whether
the wild diet is more complete than captive diets. Nutri-
tional content of mice will depend on their diet. Mouse
food is available that is nutritionally complete or mice can
be fed a wide range of food to improve their diet. Use mice
that have just entered the adult phase. Older mice are more
likely to have developed a high fat content. By raising the
mice in-house, the caretaker is able to determine the
quality by feeding the mice a complete diet. Excess mice
can be frozen for future use before they begin to put on
additional body fat. This also gives the caretaker control
over preparation and initial freezing.
LABORATORY RATS
If mice are not readily available during the year,
weanling domestic rats (Rattus norvegicus) can be tempo-
rarily substituted. McKeever (1979) suggested that
weanling rats are a superior food source to day-old chicks,
primarily because natal down is an intestinal irritant.
Administer comprehensive vitamin-mineral supplements if
weanling rats are used. Supplements are administered in
liquid form by injecting the fluid into the base of the neck
of the food item (McKeever 1979). Avoid injecting the
lower portion of the abdomen and rump. These parts are
often left uneaten.
Whole adult rats, even though they are of excellent
nutritional value, are often too large a meal except for large
raptors. However, adult rats can be cut in half and pre-
sented to smaller raptors. Parts of the rat are often left
uneaten and, if not removed, will decompose leaving an
unhealthy environment in the enclosure.
DAY-OLD CHICKS
There are many questions and misunderstandings
about feeding day-old chicks to raptors. Day-old poultry
(domestic chickens and turkeys) are similar in size to
natural prey. Forbes and Perry-Jones (1996) suggested that
35
chicks are inadequate as the sole source of nutrition. Bird
and Ho (1976) showed that chicks have less calcium,
phosphorus, and other minerals and vitamins than mice.
However, it has not yet been determined what this means in
nutrient availability to captive raptors.
The use of chicks for raptor food is well-documented
(Crawford 1983, Bird 1987, Wiemyer 1987, Forbes and
Perry-Jones 1996). However, chicks do not consist of a
major portion of the diets fed to captive raptors throughout
the US (Chapter One). Bird (1987) cited an unpublished
study by Andre Lavigne which showed that nestling
kestrels raised on unsupplemented chicks showed growth
patterns superior to nestling kestrels raised on laboratory
mice. This line of research could be explored further to
determine if there are differences in growth patterns and
health based on different diets.
Heidenreich (1997) stated that birds of prey fed solely
on chicks can remain perfectly healthy. However, over-
grown beaks may result from the soft consistency of the
chicks. Heidenreich (1997) also stated that since the
chicks are hatched from relatively sterile eggs and are
killed soon after they are hatched, the chicks should be
safe from a pathogen standpoint. However, this is not
universally agreed upon (personal communication, Dr.
Cheryl Greenacre, University of Georgia School of
Veterinary Medicine).
Another suggested reason to avoid feeding chicks to
raptors is that the natal down of chicks is an intestinal
irritant (McKeever 1979). Some of the finer natal down
may pass through the sphincter of the muscular stomach
and form a small clump in the upper intestine. This can
cause inflammation of the mucous membrane. These
problems can be solved by using poultry at least two weeks
old. However, by the time the chicks are two weeks old
they may be too large to be handled by raptors, except for
larger species.
It may be possible to increase the nutritional value of
the chicks by taking possession of them alive and feeding
them a nutritional diet for a few days. An inexpensive
chicken coop can be constructed and a commercially
available, nutritionally complete diet fed to the chicks until
they are 1-2 weeks old. This would allow the bones to
calcify and the chicks to become a healthy diet. The chicks
can be euthanized by cervical luxation or carbon dioxide
(CO2) and frozen for future use.
If day-old chicks are fed to raptors, thiamine supple-
mentation (30 mg/kg, as fed basis) on alternate days is
recommended (Fraser 1991). Feeding the chicks wet will
help prevent the irritant down problem and allow the
nutrient supplement to adhere to the food. Until more
research is done on the value of chicks in raptor diets,
supplements of other food, vitamins, and minerals should
be provided.
COMMERCIAL BIRD-OF-PREY DIET
Commercial bird-of-prey diet can be used successfully
by many species and often provide a simple, economical
36
alternative to whole prey items. A commercial diet suitable
for a variety of raptor species is 55-60% moisture and
contains (dry-matter basis) 45-50% crude protein, 18-20%
ether extract, 2.2-2.5% crude fiber, 1-1.5% calcium, and
0.7-1% phosphorus (Fraser 1991). Due to the soft
consistency of these diets, it is desirable to provide whole-
prey items at least twice per week to prevent beak over-
growth and to provide insurance of a complete diet (Fraser
1991).
OTHER COMMONLY USED DIETS
Road-killed prey items should not be used to feed
raptors. It is difficult to determine how long the animal has
been dead or the cause of death. The animal could have
been weakened by disease, poisoned, or shot before it was
killed on the road. Some may argue that in the wild, some
birds, such as turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) or bald
eagles, commonly eat road-killed prey. In enclosures the
bird is in close contact with its feces and under stress. The
immune system can be weakened and the constant expo-
sure to pathogens may cause the raptor to be susceptible to
a disease it is normally not susceptible to in the wild.
Other animals or animal parts that are not recom-
mended include wild caught or shot game birds, pigeons
(Columba livia), pork, mutton, liver, lungs, heart and
kidneys (Glasier 1978). Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) can
carry Trichinella spp. (Fraser 1991). Pigeons can carry
several diseases and parasites including trichomoniasis
(Trichomonas spp.) and gapeworm (Syngamus spp.).
Arent and Martell (1996) recommended against the use of
pigeons as a food for raptors. White-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus) may be used in small amounts,
but it is important to supplement the meat with other, more
nutritionally complete foods. Venison is high in protein
and can dehydrate a bird (personal communication, John
Karger, Last Chance Forever).
In the wild, bald eagles and osprey eat fish. Fish can
be fed to raptors live, freshly killed, or frozen and thawed.
However, freezing and thawing reduces the water soluble
nutrients, especially thiamin. Thiamin supplements are
recommended when frozen fish is used.
Domestic rabbit meat is another alternative that can
occasionally be used to feed raptors. Rabbits are relatively
easy to raise and yield large quantities of meat. Whole
rabbits are too big for most birds, but rabbits can be fed in
pieces to the birds at intervals with mice. Fur and bones
should be left attached because they are important for
proper beak and talon development and for normal casting
(pellet formation and expulsion). Rabbit carcasses must
be thoroughly pounded to crush the bones prior to feeding
them to raptors. The bones tend to splinter when broken
by the raptor and, if swallowed in this condition, may
injure the bird internally.
Quail is another common food item. Crawford (1983)
states that Accipiter spp. do well on a diet of quail. It also
is a common food item for several other birds of prey
(Caudell and Riddleberger in press, Chapter One).

QUANTITY
A raptor’s weight can be used to determine how much
they will eat initially. Table 4-1 shows the amount of food
and approximate percentage of body weight that raptors
will consume. The information presented in table 4-1 can
be used as an initial guideline from which the actual
consumption of food of individual raptors can be deter-
mined. It is important that the bird gets the proper caloric
value and not just the proper weight of food. This can be
determined by monitoring weight trends and the relation-
ship of the keel to the breast muscles (Fig. 4-1). The
condition of the bird can be checked by palpating the
breast muscles (Ritchie and McConnell 1990). A firm,
well developed muscle overlying the keel indicates that
little weight loss has occurred.
A loss of muscle mass, represented by an easily
palpable keel (also known as hatchet-breast), indicates the
animal has been unable or unwilling to eat for several days
and is losing weight. Consult a veterinarian immediately if
the bird is severely underweight. Rehydrate before any
solid food is administered. If the keel cannot be palpated
at all, the bird may be overweight. A chronically over-
weight bird can develop serious health problems. Reduce
caloric intake and monitor the weight. Contact a veterinar-
ian if there are trends in the feeding/weight data that
cannot be explained. Small raptors can consume as much
as 25% of their body weight per day, whereas a larger
raptor may consume only 4% of its body weight. Raptors
should be weighed regularly to monitor weight gain and
loss. Adjust food intake accordingly (Fraser 1991). Each
bird will eat different amounts according to activity level,
temperature, mental condition, health, and season. Learn
each bird’s eating habits. Keep weight and feed charts to
spot trends that are detrimental to the bird’s health.
Regular weighing is an important guide to the bird’s
condition (Cooper 1978). Spikes (abrupt weight changes)
in the chart are expected if the bird is weighed every day.
Always weigh the bird at the same time of day, preferably
before a meal. Weigh raptors a minimum of once per week.
New birds should be weighed every day for a month until
its optimum weight can be determined. Chart these
Figure 4-1: Palpate the breast muscles to feel for the prominence of the keel (Ritchie and McConnell 1990, reprinted
with permission of GADNR)
A - severly underweight B - underweight
weights so trends in the bird’s weight can be monitored.
For example, a bird eating well but gradually losing weight
may indicate a need to increase the portion of food or the
bird may have an underlying disease or intestinal problem.
Feeding records must also be kept to show significance to
the trends in weight.
QUALITY
Quantity is not as important as quality. Unfortunately,
there are many unanswered questions about the quality of
common food items. It is possible to provide sufficient or,
even excess amounts, of food and not meet the daily
nutrient requirements of the raptor. The important con-
stituents of a diet are water, protein, fat, carbohydrates,
minerals, vitamins, and roughage. Insufficient or excess
quantities of these can result in disease (Cooper 1979).
Bird (1976) showed the differences in some mineral levels
of commonly used prey items but no one has researched the
availability of those nutrients for absorption by the bird.
The moisture/roughage ratio of the food item is
important. A diet low in roughage and high in moisture for
over 14-21 days can result in diarrhea (Cooper 1978).
Roughage can be added by using feathers, hair, or other
indigestible material from prey animals. Too little mois-
ture content with low amounts of roughage can lead to an
impaction of the crop. Moisture content is often deficient
when prey items are slowly thawed after being frozen.
Thawing the item in warm water can prevent dessication.
Wallach and Flieg (1970) believed the optimum ratio
of calcium/phosphorus (Ca/P) is 1.5 : 1. An all meat diet
may have a Ca/P ratio as skewed as 1 : 40. The average Ca/
P ratio of mice and day-old chicks is 1.4 : 1 and 1.3 : 1
respectively (Bird and Ho 1976). Raptors with deficient
levels of calcium in their diet will not show a dramatic
decrease in calcium in the blood chemistry because calcium
is reabsorbed from their own bones to maintain blood
calcium levels. Clinical signs of calcium deficiency, such
as brittle bones or fractures, may not show up for years in
adult animals.
The percentage of protein needed for raptors is
unknown. Cooper (1978) estimated it to be 15% - 20% by
weight based upon information for poultry diets. Because
C - proper weight D - overweight
37
Table 4-1: Approximate amount of whole-prey items for feeding raptors. Data for owls are from McKeever (1979)
and Johnsgard (1988). Data for other raptors adapted from Cooper (1978), Dunning (1984), Arent and
Martell (1996), and Johnsgard (1990).

Suggested feeding amounts from:

1
Weights based upon suggested weight for daily intake of captive raptors in Minnesota (Arent
and Martell 1996). Food items include mice, rats, rabbits, poultry, quail (180g), and fish.
2
Weights based upon adult mid-winter (Jan-Feb) diets of owls maintained at a sustaining
weight in Canada (McKeever 1979). Diet consisted of various sized mice.
3
Weights based upon food consumption of raptors (Brown and Amadon 1968).
4
Weights based upon winter food consumption of raptors at a facility in south Georgia.

Common name Scientific name Weight of food (g) Approximate

% of body weight
American kestrel 1 - 3 (Falco sparverius) 25 -50 27

bald eagle 4 - 1 (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 220-350 7

barn owl 1 - 2, 4
(Tyto alba) 50-150 24-27

barred owl 2 -1, 4 (Strix varia) 70-150 10-12

boreal owl 2 (Aegolius funereus) 25 16-21

broad-winged hawk 1 (Buteo platypterus) 50 18

burrowing owl 1 (Athene cunicularia) 50 32

eastern screech owl 1, 4 (Otis asio) 25-30 12-14

golden eagle 1, 3 (Aquila chrysaetos) 250-350 6

great grey owl 2 (Strix nebulosa) 120-90 8-9

great-horned owl 1 - 2, 4 (Bubo virginianus) 120-175 9

long-eared owl 2 - 1 (Asio otus) 35-50 13

northern goshawk 1 (Accipiter gentilis) 100-150, 180 12

osprey 1 (Pandion haliaetus) 250 16

peregrine falcon 1, 3 (Falco peregrinus) 75-100, 180 15

prairie falcon 1 (Falco mexicanus) 75-100, 180 12-15

northern hawk owl 1 (Surnia ulula) 50-60 14-16

northern pygmy owl 2 (Glaucidium brasilianum) 20 33

red-tailed hawk 1, 3, 4 (Buteo jamaicensis) 100-150 11

rough-legged hawk 1 (Buteo lagopus) 100 9

northern saw-whet owl 2 -1 (Aegolius acadicus) 20-25 17-21

sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) 25

short-eared owl 1 (Asio flammeus) 50-60 14-15

snowy owl 1 (Nyctea scandiaca) 200 - 240 11

Steller’s sea eagle 3 (Haliaeetus pelagicus) 251 3

turkey vulture 1 (Cathartes aura) 150-200 12

38
raptors and chickens have different food habits, the needs
of raptors can not be inferred from the needs of poultry.
However, until research is done on the dietary requirements
of raptors, estimating the needs of raptors based upon other
birds may be the only option. Even less is known about
the importance of dietary fat. Since much is still unknown
about the dietary requirements of raptors, it not recom-
mended for operators to formulate “homemade” artificial
diets.
VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
Vitamins can be added to ensure that raptors are
receiving the highest quality diet (Arent and Martell 1996).
Vitamin and mineral supplements must be in a form that
can be absorbed. There are several vitamins specifically
developed for birds. D. B. Scientific produces Vita-Hawk
Vitamin Supplement® in a breeding and maintenance
formula. It is a supplement used by falconers, zoos, and
educational facilities. Another supplement developed for
raptors is Nekton-S®.
Other supplements used include Fort Dodge Clovite®
and Purina 12/12®. Both of these are vitamin and mineral
supplements designed for horses, but can be used in small
amounts for raptors. No scientific information exists
regarding the use and value of vitamins and minerals. A
small amount (1/8 - 1/4 teaspoon) sprinkled on food is
adequate. Over supplementation can be detrimental to the
birds health.
Birds housed indoors should be provided with
Vitamin D3 supplements. Vitamin D3 is made when
ultraviolet light from sunlight converts D2 into D3. Cod
liver oil can be added to food items once per week by
injection at 0.5 cc per kilogram of the raptor’s weight
(Arent and Martell 1996). Additional cod liver oil can
cause problems with calcium metabolism.
Calcium supplements are important for bone develop-
ment and other bodily functions. Boneall®, a calcium
powder developed for horses, can be used for raptors by
sprinkling a small pinch (1/8 - 1/4 teaspoon) on the food.
CASTING
Birds fed pure meat will not cast. Casting may be an
important aspect of the bird’s physical, and possibly
mental health (Glasier 1979). Whether or not it is of any
value to the bird, it is a natural function and does them no
harm. A common practice is to provide casting material two
meals per week, but it can be given every day. Casting
material can be made by putting feathers (larger feathers
should be cut up first) and short animal hair in a bucket.
Drop moist food in the bucket and roll it around until
coated.
FOOD PREPARATION AND STORAGE
If possible, food items should be received alive. The
caretaker can properly prepare the food and can determine
if food items are healthy. Carbon dioxide is a humane
method used to euthanize rodents and poultry (McKeever
1979, Burnham et al. 1991, Andrews et al. 1993, Arent and
Martell 1996). Carbon dioxide can be purchased in
compressed form in cylinders or in a solid state as “dry
ice.” It is inexpensive, nonflammable, nonexplosive, and
has minimal hazards. The carbon dioxide is pumped into a
sealed container where it will kill the mice or chicks.
Food items are commonly stored in a freezer. For
sanitary reasons, prey items should not be stored with food
used for human consumption or prepared in areas used for
human food preparation. Large quantities of chicks and
mice that will be frozen should be air cooled first
(Heidenreich 1997). Burnham et al. (1991) suggested
fasting prey items for 24 hours before euthanizing and
freezing them. When the prey items are freshly killed their
body temperature is high. If they are frozen in a mass, it
takes a long time for the heat to dissipate, causing im-
proper freezing. This is especially the case with chicks.
Down is an excellent insulator and can retain a high
internal body temperature for several hours. If prey items
are purchased frozen, inquire as to the methods of euthana-
sia and freezing.
Food items are harder to separate if frozen in a large
mass. Raptor food should be wrapped throughly with
freezer paper or other suitable wrap to prevent freezer burn.
Separating the items with freezer paper, wax paper, or
freezer bags will facilitate preparation of raptor meals.
One center visited in Georgia used newspaper as an
inexpensive method of individually wrapping prey items.
Weights of food items were marked on the paper and the
items were stored in weight classes to facilitate meal
preparation.
Arent and Martell (1996) stated that prey items can be
frozen for six months with only a minor decrease in
quality. No more than a six month supply of food should
be kept on hand. Freezers can malfunction or power
outages can occur ruining food supplies. If the items are
not rotated (old items used first) they can spoil, even in a
freezer. Freezing food can be beneficial by killing Tri-
chinella spp. larvae that are encysted in the muscle tissue
(Heidenreich 1997).
WATER
There should be a source of potable water near the
facilities. Even though hawks do not drink often, water
should be provided (Glasier 1979). Birds of prey get the
majority of water they need from meat (Parry-Jones 1994).
Additional moisture can be provided either on or in food
items. One center in Georgia injects water into food items.
Clean water also is important for birds housed outside
in the summer. Raptors may require occasional spraying to
cool them off. Before refilling the drinking container,
allow water to run out of the hose or pipe for several
minutes. Water that has been sitting in plastic or copper
pipes can accumulate toxic levels of some chemicals (Perry
1994). By allowing the water to flow for a minute, the
chemicals will be flushed out.
39
LABORATORY MICE HUSBANDRY
Housing - Enclosures should provide adequate three-
dimensional space to allow for normal postural adjustment
and species-specific behavior (Fraser 1991). Primary
enclosures should be constructed of durable materials, be
easily cleaned and sanitized, and designed for comfort and
safety. Ten gallon aquaria can be used. Larger aquaria can
also be used, especially when housing large numbers of
mice that eventually will be frozen. Slightly damaged
aquariums are often available from pet stores at a reduced
price. Specially designed rodent cages that are easier to
clean and maintain also are available. These can be found
in biological supply catalogs and are worth the additional
expense in saved time and food cost. Besides being easier
to clean than aquariums, the specially designed top
protects food from mice feces and urine and protects water
bottles from damage. These speciality cages are lighter
than aquariums and can be stacked on racks.
Cage tops - Manufactured cage tops from pet stores
can be expensive. Inexpensive tops can be constructed
from hardware cloth or wire mesh. It can be formed around
the top of the aquarium with a wooden frame to keep it in
place. The holes should be small enough to prevent mice
from escaping.
Water bottles and holders - An inexpensive watering
system is to use a 16 oz water bottle on the outside of the
cage (on the cage top) with only the watering nipple on the
inside. The mice will need a structure inside their cage to
reach the water if this method is used. The alternative is to
put the water bottle inside the cage enclosed by a metal
guard.
Feeding apparatus - Any small, easy to clean bowl,
that the mice cannot destroy, is suitable to hold feed.
Feeders that hold several days supply of food are also
available. These devices prevent waste and contamination
of the food.
Food - Food should be palatable, free of contami-
nants, and nutritionally adequate (Fraser 1991). Food
specifically manufactured for research animals are more
likely to be uniformly constituted, nutritionally complete,
free of contaminants, and mill dated. Use fruit to supple-
40
ment mouse diet. This will increase the nutritional value of
the mice and make them more valuable as a food source.
Bedding material - Bedding substrate should be
non-irritating, absorbent, free of chemical contamination
and pathogens, and in adequate quantities to keep animals
dry and clean between changes of bedding (Fraser 1991).
Cedar shavings absorb odor better than pine or aspen
shavings and are relatively inexpensive. Some veterinar-
ians do not recommend the use of cedar shavings, because
mice may experience respiratory disease from the aromatic
resin in cedar. It is recommended to use aspen shavings,
towels, or paper as a bedding substrate (personal communi-
cation Dr. Cheryl Greenacre). Bedding material should be
changed 1-3 times per week.
Breeding stock - Inform your supplier that you are
breeding mice for raptor food. Purchase adult mice if they
are available because juvenile mice will not produce a litter
immediately. A 1:3 male to female ratio is adequate for
each cage (Fraser 1991).
Problems with mice eating their young can be avoided
by providing plenty of food, space, and water. Even then,
the first litter is often cannibalized. Cannibalization can
also occur if the mice are stressed. Breeding mice can save
money in the long run. Once the initial investment has
been made, it is inexpensive to raise mice. Excess mice
can be frozen for future use when supplies are low due to
seasonal availability. Look for strong healthy individuals
that may be used for breeders and keep them instead of
freezing them or using them for food. Rats can be bred the
same way, but require a larger enclosure.
In general, the cage temperature should be maintained
at 66-79°F for most rodents. Relative humidity should be
maintained at 40-70%. Ventilation rates should be 10-15
air changes per hour (Fraser 1991). Air should not be re-
circulated unless it has been treated to remove gaseous and
particulate contaminants. Lighting intensity should be
evenly distributed, and adequate to permit inspection of the
animals and maintenance of sanitation and personal safety.
Day/night cycles, as determined for a given species, should
be controlled by automatic timers (Fraser 1991).
CHAPTER 5: RAPTOR HEALTH
Captive animals require periodic health care. Non-
releasable raptors (NRR) may have problems that require
constant attention. Programs for disease prevention,
parasite control, euthanasia, and adequate veterinary care
should be established and maintained.
Animals should be observed every day by the primary
caretaker or by someone working under their direct
supervision. Georgia law requires that sick, diseased,
stressed, injured, or lame animals be provided with
veterinary care or humanely destroyed, unless such action
is inconsistent with the purpose for which the animal was
obtained and held (Appendix 1). The use of NRR for use
as program birds by environmental education (EE) facili-
ties is allowed under permits.
This section addresses diseases or problems commonly
associated with housing NNR. It is not intended as a
treatment guide. Symptoms can be monitored and related
to veterinary health care professionals. This section will
also allow the caretaker to communicate more effectively
with veterinarians.
VETERINARIANS
A good relationship with a qualified veterinarian is
important to the health of your raptors. An ideal situation
would be for a veterinarian to visit your facility monthly or
bi-monthly to give the raptors a check-up in their enclo-
sures. Veterinarians may be able to detect changes in
behavior that may not be apparent in the exam room, such
as sitting in an awkward position on a perch. They may
also notice a problem with your facility that has gone
unnoticed.
Ask the veterinarian about their experience with
raptors. They may be able to refer you to someone in the
area with more experience with captive wildlife. Make
every possible attempt to find a veterinarian experienced in
treating captive raptors.
It is important to include estimated veterinarian costs
when developing a budget. Veterinary bills can be high,
especially at the onset of a new program. Recently
acquired birds may injure themselves before becoming
adjusted to their new environment. To keep the cost of
veterinary services low, at least one person on your staff
should be comfortable continuing treatments prescribed by
the veterinarian. This may include administering injec-
tions, flushing wounds, and giving oral medication to
raptors.
The easiest way to keep the bird in good health is by
providing the necessary housing conditions and diet. Birds
must be housed so that it can avoid unnecessary dampness
or dryness and to choose conditions freely. Raptors must
have ample sunlight and shade and be protected from drafty
conditions or excess heat. The food provided to the raptor
should conform as closely as possible to their natural diet.
MAINTENANCE EXAMS
Arent and Martell (1996) suggested giving captive
raptors perodic maintenance exams. This includes
checking the feet, feathers, beak, talons, and “equipment”
once per week for small raptors (<200 g), twice per month
for medium-sized raptors (200 g-2000 g), and once per
month for large raptors (>2000 g). Others feel it prudent to
check all raptors once per week because problems such as
bumble foot can become serious if left unattended for a
month. A schedule should be established and followed
closely.
It is recommended to give a thorough external exami-
nation to locate evidence of recent injuries and to detect
any external parasites. External parasites fall into three
groups: mites, lice, and hippoboscids. Most birds have a
small number of external parasites and without serious
problems. Large numbers of parasites can cause diseases
and weaken the bird’s resistance to secondary infection
(Heidenreich 1997).
HANDLING TECHNIQUES
Raptors must be restrained periodically for examina-
tions and maintenance. Untrained raptors can be restrained
by cornering them in their enclosure, throwing a light
blanket or towel over them, and grasping the upper part of
their legs. Initially, grab one leg in each hand and then
transfer both to one hand. Hold the raptor upright with its
back against the handler’s chest. To minimize struggling,
keep the head covered, but not so much as to interfere with
breathing. The towel is useful for restraining the bird’s
wings and for weighing (remember to subtract the weight
of the towel later). A towel can be partially removed to
view areas of the bird’s anatomy.
Trained birds can be grabbed from the glove using
either the body grab (for small birds <200 g) or the leg grab
technique (for larger birds). The body grab consists of
placing a towel around the bird, grabbing it around the
body, and grasping their legs. Legs must always be
grasped on the upper parts. The leg grab consists of
grabbing the bird’s legs first. The bird can then be
wrapped with a towel to minimize struggling. The raptor
should be held upright with its back against the handler’s
chest with the legs in one hand. Holding the bird on its
back or upside down can cause the contents of the bird’s
crop to be regurgitated and aspirated. Always hold the
bird’s upper legs since the bird can break its legs from
struggling if the feet are held.
The bird can be recovered by placing the bird back on
the trainer’s glove. It may “bate” (jump off the glove in an
attempt to escape) at first but should quickly recover
(Arent and Martell 1996). The bird can also simply be
released back into its enclosure.
41
WEIGHING RAPTORS
Trends in a raptor’s weight are an important tool for
diagnosing health problems. Arent and Martell (1996)
recommended weighing the bird on the same interval as the
maintenance exam. However, weighing a raptor monthly
may not show periodic trends in the bird’s weight.
Initially, a new bird should be weighed daily for a
month or two. Weights should be graphed at regular
intervals with RAPTOR WEIGHT on the Y-axis and
DATE on the X-axis. A graph allows quick visual inspec-
tion of weight trends. Weighing raptors can become a
routine handling chore worked into training. The bird will
have fluctuations in its weight until it becomes accustomed
to the facility, food, and handler. Once a baseline for the
bird’s weight has been established, weighing the bird one
or two times per week is sufficient.
Weigh the bird at the same time and with the same
equipment (e.g., jesses, hoods, etc.) each time. Trained
birds can be placed on a scale modified with a perch as
described in the equipment section of this manual. Birds
that have not been trained can be captured with a towel and
placed on a scale. If the head is covered, the bird will
struggle less. Lay the covered bird on the scale and slowly
release your hold on the bird. Without touching the bird,
quickly read the weight and remove the bird. Weighing
should be done indoors to prevent escape.
FECAL EXAMS
Fecal samples should be periodically examined by a
veterinarian to detect internal parasites such as intestinal
worms, coccidia, and pathogenic bacteria (Heidenreich
1997). The dark central part of the feces is required for
examinations. Collect a sample of fresh feces from the
bird’s enclosure and place it in a Styrofoam® cup, plastic
35 mm film canister, or other suitable container. Feces are
easily collected by spreading plastic around the bird’s
perch (or on the wall behind it in the case of hawks) to
catch them. This prevents contamination from the enclo-
sure substrate. Take the sample to the veterinarian for a
gram stain, fecal float, or other diagnostic test. With
training, the proper reagents, and a good microscope, these
tests can be run at your facility. However, no diagnosis
should be made without consulting a veterinarian. Feces
can also be rinsed with water and strained through a sieve
to check for abnormal materials, such as sand, grass, or
fibrinous pseudomembranes (Heidenreich 1997).
Whenever abnormal feces are noticed, it is essential to
get a laboratory examination as soon as possible. When
pathogenic bacteria are present, antibiotic sensitivity tests
also are required to administer the proper antibiotic. In the
case of bacterial enteritis, coliforms are often responsible.
In this case, ampicillin is a useful broad spectrum antibi-
otic with which to initiate treatment should laboratory
results be delayed. Dehydration is often a complicating
factor and considerably increases the severity of the
condition, particularly with severe cases of enteritis.
Treatment should be carried out using lactated ringers,
42
preferably by injection and where possible, by intravenous
route (Williams 1978).
ZOONOSIS
There are over 200 diseases that can be transmitted
directly from animals to humans. Birds transmit several of
these diseases to humans (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b), but
the chance of infection from the majority of zoonotic
diseases can be reduced with proper management practices
and personal hygiene.
Rabies can be carried by any warm-blooded animal
and is probably the most well known zoonotic disease. It
is unlikely that birds carry rabies, other than in clinically
induced cases (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). However,
handling carcasses of road-killed mammals used for raptor
food may pose a risk to the caretaker. Salmonellosis is a
common zoonotic disease that could be transmitted from
both raptors and prey items (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a).
Tuberculosis, Newcastle disease, and other zoonotic
diseases are discussed in detail later in this text.
The risk of infection from zoonotic diseases may be
minimized through personal hygiene and clean facilities.
Minimizing the use of wild prey items also decreases the
chance of disease. However, domestic food items can carry
zoonotic diseases.
VITAMIN AND MINERAL DEFICIENCIES
Vitamin deficiencies from inadequate diet or improper
management can cause problems in captive raptors.
Vitamin deficiencies were infrequently reported in our
survey but other reported illness may have been the result
of undiagnosed deficiencies. Nevertheless, they appeared
to be of minor importance (Chapter One).
Vitamin A - Vitamin A deficiencies can cause low
fertility in males and females, produce changes in the
lining of the respiratory and alimentary tracts which makes
infection easier, affect eyesight, result in poor skin quality,
cause corns on the feet, and cause embryo death (Cooper
1978). Raptors fed solely on meat (muscle only) are often
deficient in vitamin A. Add supplements such as cod-liver
oil, animal liver, or manufactured vitamin supplements to
the diet (Arent and Martell 1996). However, switching the
animal to a whole-animal diet is probably the best course
of action.
Vitamin B group - Vitamin B (B1 in particular)
deficiencies can cause nervous disorders, retardation in
growth and development of feathers, poor fat metabolism,
and poor chick development. Raptors fed a diet of fish,
muscle, or poultry chicks should receive B1 (thiamin)
supplements. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended 50
mg thiamin/250 g fish. Thiamine deficiency can cause a
loss of coordination that may vary from slight loss of
balance to an inability to stand. It can also cause wing
fluttering and spasmodic convulsions (Williams 1978).
Vitamin C - Vitamin C deficiencies can cause poor
albumin quality of the egg. However, this is not a major
problem in birds used only for educational purposes.
 Vitamin D - Vitamin D is essential for normal mineral
metabolism. Deficiencies can cause rickets and soft-
shelled eggs. If natural sunlight is present, raptors can
normally produce vitamin D. If raptors are kept inside
without exposure to full sunlight (windows can block the
wavelengths necessary to produce vitamin D), then
supplements should be given.
Calcium and phosphorus - Calcium and phospho-
rous are important in a bird’s diet and has been studied in
some detail. Phosphorus is needed to stimulate the
production of a hormone that draws calcium out of the
bones of a digested prey item. Excess phosphorus can lead
to bone disease because it also binds the calcium in the
intestines and prevents it from being absorbed into the
blood (Arent and Martell 1996). The optimum ratio of
Ca:P intake is 1.5 : 1. This is needed to maintain good
health and bodily functions in raptors (Wallach and Flieg
1970). Day-old chicks have a ratio of ~1.3 : 1 (Bird and
Ho 1972). Mice have a Ca:P ratio of ~1.4 : 1. Beef liver
and beef muscle can have a Ca:P ratio as skewed as 1:44.
The Ca:P ratio found in chicks and mice is close enough to
the required levels to avoid supplements.
Trace elements - Trace elements are a group of
chemicals required by the bird in small amounts. In the
wild, these elements are consumed by eating a variety of
foods. In captivity, trace elements can be obtained from
most standard vitamin and mineral supplements (Williams
1978).
PARASITES
Both internal and external parasites are common in
captive and wild raptors (Chapter One). However, Redig
(1993) stated that parasites are seldom significant. They
can become a problem if the bird is under stress from the
environment, over-used in programs, continuously
reinfected from a contaminated enclosure, or weakened
from a disease or other illness.
External parasites - Several species of mites can
cause trouble by biting the bird and sucking its blood.
They cause irritation and, in large numbers, can cause
anemia (Redig 1993). Some mites cause internal irritation
by burrowing into the tissue around the eyes and cere.
Some species can cause feather damage. Lice are often
present and pose no threat in small numbers but can cause
similar problems in larger numbers. Hippoboscids are
small, insect-like creatures that can infest the feathers of
the bird. They are relatively harmless, but in some cases
are suspected in transmitting certain types of blood
parasites. If any of these parasites are suspected, veterinary
advice should be sought for of identification and treatment.
Internal parasites - Internal parasites are common in
raptors. However they rarely cause problems to healthy
raptors. Often another illness, such as bumblefoot, will
weaken the birds and parasites can multiply to problem
levels. Haemoproteus spp. are common blood parasites
that can be transmitted by hippoboscids. Other internal
parasites such as roundworms, Trichomonas spp., Capil-
laria spp., and Syngamus spp. are discussed in detail later
in this chapter. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended
feeding only food from a known source that has been
properly stored to prevent infestation of internal parasites.
CONDITIONS RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Chemical Poisoning - can occur from several sources.
In the wild, birds ingest prey that may have eaten insects
that have been sprayed with insecticides. This is also
possible in captivity if either contaminated wild prey is fed
to raptors or it directly feeds upon insects that have been
sprayed as part of the center’s pest control program.
Organophosphates are a common type of insecticide that
cause problems in raptors (personal communication, Dr.
Cheryl Greenacre, University of Georgia School of
Veterinary Medicine). No instance of chemical poisoning
was reported in our survey (Chapter One), but undiagnosed
instances may have been the cause of other problems.
Symptoms include a rapid loss in condition, occasional
convulsions, and death. Avoid using wild prey. Consult a
veterinarian before beginning any pest management plan
involving chemicals. Do not store chemicals near jess
material, enclosures, or near other equipment with which
the raptor may come into contact.
Frostbite - Frostbite is most likely to occur on
unfeathered area of the bird’s body during periods of
excessive cold (Arent and Martell 1996). However,
instances of frostbite in raptors in rare in the southeastern
United States (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl
Greenacre). No instance of frostbite was reported in our
survey (Chapter One). Frostbite begins as a brownish-pink
discoloration on the toes or as fluid-filled patches of skin
on the wing tips (Arent and Martell 1996). A small shelter
box will prevent ice build-up on perches and aid the bird in
staying warm.
Heat Stroke can be caused by excessive heat and
humidity. A sick or distressed raptor may have trouble
cooling itself properly. Symptoms of heat stroke include
excessive panting, wing droop, weakness, and collapse.
However, Arent and Martell (1996) stated that some
species droop their wings to shade their legs. Provide the
raptor adequate shade, and access to drinking and bathing
water. Never leave the raptor in a hot car, and be aware of
the raptor’s condition during programs on hot days.
Northern species of raptors tend to be less tolerant of heat
than species native to the south (Arent and Martell 1996).
If the program uses northern species, limit their use to
cooler days or indoor programs. During long, hot summer
days, a sprinkler system on an automatic timer can help
cool birds. Be sure to have areas where raptors can retreat
from the sprinkers.
PHYSICAL INJURY
The most common injury or illness reported in our
survey was physical injuries (Chapter One). Physical
injury can result from a bird flying against the enclosure
material, jumping from a high distance (especially if the
43
 length of incubation, it is often difficult to assess the
bird is flightless), during handling, contact with other
source of infection.
animals, or improper perches. Improper perches can result
Bacterial Enteritis - Enteritis is common in raptors
in bumblefoot if not diagnosed early enough. The United
(Cooper 1978). Symptoms include diarrhea, loss of
States Fish and Wildlife Service has restricted the use of
weight, loss of appetite, and watery, discolored mutes
amputated birds as program animals (Appendix 3) partly
(Williams 1978). Cooper (1978) states there may also be
due to their inability to maintain their balance. Cage mates
regurgitation of food. Proper cleaning of facilities can
or wild animals can also injure or kill a program bird by
lessen the chance of infection by bacterial enteritis. There
reaching through or under an enclosure. Instances of
is no zoonotic potential.
physical injuries can be reduced with proper management
Bumblefoot - Bumblefoot is a general term for
techniques, but injuries cannot be completely eliminated.
inflammation of raptor “feet” from infection (Arent and
Martell 1996). A healthy foot will be rough to the touch
DISEASES AND OTHER ILLNESSES
and not have any smooth spots. Bumblefoot is commonly
Aspergillosis - Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that
caused from a blister that forms, breaks, and becomes
has been identified in raptors for years (Cooper 1978). It
infected or from a puncture wound. Bumblefoot was the
may be the most common cause of death of raptors in both
second most frequently reported problem in our survey
the United States and Britain. Though not reported as a
(Chapter One). Symptoms of bumblefoot include swollen,
cause of illness in our survey, this disease may be the cause
hot feet. The bird will rest on one foot and in severe cases
of respiratory infections or other problems reported by
will lie down. Depending upon how long the infection has
caretakers (Chapter One). The spores often infect raptors,
been active, there may be a scab in the mid-underside of the
but usually only immunosuppressed individuals present
foot (Williams 1978). This type of lesion occasionally is
clinical signs (Arent and Martell 1996). Symptoms include
seen on the toes and upper parts of the foot. In generally,
increased respiratory rate, difficulty in breathing, and
infections of the foot are difficult to treat. Veterinary
appetite loss (usually in terminal stage). Arent and Martell
advice should always be sought at the first signs of
(1996) also report a change in the raptor’s “voice.”
bumblefoot. Bumblefoot is a serious problem that can be
Aspergillosis is almost always a secondary invader. Often,
avoided by checking the bird’s feet at regular intervals (at
the bird’s resistance was initially reduced by some other
least twice per week). Bumblefoot is caused by the wrong
disease, poor or insufficient food or bad housing (Williams
type (size or material) of perch and can be corrected with
1978). Reducing stress to the bird can hlep prevent
the proper perches (Chapter Two). To check for the onset
aspergillosis (Arent and Martell 1996). Stress can be
of bumblefoot, hold the bird and feel its feet for excess
caused from noise, abnormal or unaccustomed tempera-
heat, pinkness, smoothing, and swelling. For any open
tures, contact with other raptors, and over-use in programs.
wound, consult a veterinarian immediately. There is no
Cleanliness is also important. A build-up of feces can
zoonotic potential.
infect other birds and the handler. The fungus that causes
Candidiasis - Candidiasis is a yeast infection of the
aspergillosis is found in wheat straw and corn. Neither of
gastrointestinal tract that is often a secondary complication
these materials should be stored near raptor enclosures.
from another illness (Arent and Martell 1996). Symptoms
Humans can become infected from breathing fecal dust.
include small white plaque in the mouth, decrease or loss
Proper cleaning of facilities and use of a dust mask will
of appetite, problems with swallowing, and vomiting
help protect handlers.
(Arent and Martell 1996). Monitor the bird during any
Avian Tuberculosis - Tuberculosis is caused by
illness for onset of this problem. There is no zoonotic
infections of Mycobacterium spp. Incubation can last
potential associated with candida.
weeks to months (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Mycobac-
Capillariasis - Capillaria sp. are threadlike worms
teria are found in many species of birds including raptors.
that live in the raptor’s intestines, esophagus, or orophar-
Avian tuberculosis is mainly caused by M. avium, but birds
ynx (Heidenreich 1997). The eggs, usually in the soil, can
are also susceptible to M. tuberculosis and M. bovis.
be ingested by birds. Capillariasis symptoms are similar to
Symptoms include a loss of coordination, though less
roundworm infestation. The bird’s appetite is variable and
violent than with a Thiamin deficiency. There is also a
its mutes watery. In severe infestations, a bird can have
general loss of condition (Williams 1978). Tuberculosis is
blood-stained mutes, regurgitation of crop contents, and
usually contracted by feeding infected food to captive
frounce-like lesions in the mouth (Williams 1978). Soil
birds. Pigeons are common carriers. Throughly examine
ingestion must be controlled to reduce exposure to
the carcass, particularly the liver and other viscera, for
earthworms because they play a major role in transmission
yellowish-white foci of tuberculosis infection (Williams
of the disease (Heidenreich 1997). Providing proper
1978). Tuberculosis bacilli are resistant to typical clean-
substrate and placing food on a tray should be sufficient to
ing. The best preventative practice is to minimize contact
reduce soil contact. There is no zoonotic potential.
with wildlife (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Birds are
Coccidiosis - Coccidia spp. are parasites that live in
rarely implicated in the transmission of tuberculosis to
the raptor’s liver, digestive system, kidneys, and other
humans (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). However, due to the
tissue (Cooper 1978, Arent and Martell 1996). There is a

44
general loss of condition, variable appetite, and often
blood-stained mutes in raptors infected with Coccidia spp.
(Williams 1978). The feces may initially may be soft
progressing to runny brown, and eventually turning bloody
(Heidenreich 1997). Captive raptors are difficult to protect
from exposure to coccidia. A substrate consisting of 2 to 3
cm of pea gravel underlain by a layer of lime will allow
mutes to drop away from the bird and reduce exposure to
earthworms (Heidenreich 1997). Also, always feed birds
on a platform or use some other method to keep the food
off of the ground. There is no zoonotic potential.
Gapeworm - Gapeworm (Syngamus spp.) are nema-
todes found in a bird’s trachea. If nematodes are numer-
ous, they can interfere with the bird’s respiration
(Heidenreich 1997). Initially, the bird’s respiratory rate
increases. Later, gasping, open-mouth respiration devel-
ops. In heavy infestations, the worm can be seen in the
trachea (Williams 1978). Gapeworm may also cause a
gurgling sound in the bird’s throat (Cooper 1978). Wild
birds can be infested with gapeworm (Heidenreich 1997).
Infestations in captive raptors can be reduced by limiting
contact with wild birds, including not feeding wild birds to
raptors. Converting an existing aviary for raptor use
requires removal of all substrate and several inches of the
underlying dirt and thorough disinfection There is no
zoonotic potential from gapeworm.
Hypoglycemia - Hypoglycemia is low blood sugar,
usually caused by an inadequate diet (Cooper 1978).
Symptoms of hypoglycemia include seizures and muscle
weakness. Weight and feeding records are important in
making a proper diagnosis. Report any significant changes
in weight to a veterinarian. There is no zoonotic potential.
Inflammation of the Crop - Cooper (1978) states
that inflammation of the crop has been seen in falconery
birds for years. Bacterial or parasitic infection of the crop
is a likely cause. Clinical signs of inflammation of the
crop include persistent regurgitation of crop contents and
watery mutes (Williams 1978). Also immediate regurgita-
tion or flicking food away may be observed (Cooper 1978).
To prevent inflammation of the crop, feed raptors food
from known sources. There is no zoonotic potential.
Newcastle’s Disease - Newcastle’s disease is found
worldwide. Development of clinical signs depends upon
the health of the host, the strain of the virus, and degree of
viral exposure (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). Newcastle’s
disease primarily affects gallinaceous species but also
occurs in owls, quail, and pigeons. Clinical signs vary but
generally include depression, diarrhea, anorexia, ruffled
feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis,
dyspnea (difficulty breathing), ataxia, wing tremors,
paralysis, muscle tremors, and sudden death (Ritchie and
Dreesen 1988b). Proper management techniques (disinfec-
tion, quarantine of new birds, minimize contact with
wildlife) will lessen the chance of Newcastle’s disease.
Feeding raptors food from known sources (no wild prey
items) will also reduce the chance of infection.
Newcastle’s disease can be transmitted to humans from
aerosolized respiratory exudates and contact with feces
(Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). In humans, clinical signs
include mild acute granular conjunctivitis, general malaise,
and sinusitis that is resolved in 7 to 20 days. However,
Ritchie and Dreesen (1988b) could find no reports of
transmission of Newcastle’s disease to humans.
Pneumonia - Pneumonia results from damage to the
lung that is caused by a foreign body, faulty administration
of medicine, improper hand feeding, inhalation of fluids,
bacterial or fungal infections, or direct trauma to the lungs
(Fraser 1991). Symptoms include an increased respiratory
rate, a distressed appearance, rapid reduction in appetite,
dyspnea, and (occasionally) nasal discharge (Williams
1978). Most cases of pneumonia are probably bacterial in
origin but chilling and exertion can contribute to it
(Cooper 1978). Providing the bird a dry retreat in its
enclosure will help. There is no zoonotic potential.
Respiratory Infection - Respiratory infection is any
general infection of the respiratory system. Clinical signs
of respiratory infection include nasal discharge, swollen
eyelids, increased respiratory rate, variable appetite that
may be altogether lost in later stages, and regurgitation
(Williams 1978). General cleanliness of enclosures and
reduction of stress will minimize chances of respiratory
infection. There no zoonotic potential.
Roundworm and Tapeworm Infestation - Round-
worms are long, smooth, unsegmented worms that are
tapered at both ends. They live in the stomach and
intestines of infected birds. Some species may live in the
air-sacs of raptors. Tapeworms are long, segmented,
worms with a head and a tapered end. They are found in
the stomach and intestines of host species (Arent and
Martell 1996). Symptoms include watery mutes, voracious
appetite but with no increase or loss in weight, and
diarrhea (rare) (Williams 1978, Heidenreich 1997).
Roundworm and tapeworm eggs are resistant to most
disinfectants. After de-worming birds, the enclosure
substrate should be replaced. There is no zoonotic
potential.
Salmonellosis - Salmonella spp. infections are one of
the most commonly reported zoonotic diseases infecting
humans that can be traced back to an avian host (Ritchie
and Dreesen 1988a). Salmonella spp. are found in many
species of birds including raptors, but was infrequently
reported in our survey (Chapter One). Salmonellosis may
or may not present clinical signs. Clinical signs include
depression, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, shivering,
diarrhea, a pasty vent, lameness, abscess formation,
convulsions, and sudden death (Ritchie and Dreesen
1988a). Proper cleaning and disinfecting of enclosures is
essential to prevent the spread of Salmonella. Care also
must be take when preparing food items. Personal hygiene
is essential to preventing salmonellosis (Arent and Martell
1996). Transmission occurs from aerosolized fecal
material, direct contact with feces, or contact with contami-
nated food (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a, Arent and Martell
1996).
45
 Sour Crop - Sour crop is often caused from a yeast
infection within a bird’s crop. This problem is easily
detected by an odor (a sweet smell) coming from the
mouth. A bird with undigested meat in its crop will have a
rancid smell. Monitor the bird’s “breath” and crop each
day to determine if the previous meal has been digested. If
24 hours has passed since the last feeding and the bird still
has a full crop, consult a veterinarian immediately. Always
feed fresh food and remove any leftover food from the
enclosure. There is no zoonotic potential.
Starvation - Starvation is the lack of proper nutrition.
It should not occur in captive birds if the food intake and
weight of the raptor is monitored. However, starvation can
occur if the raptor is given enough food, but of low
nutritional value. Raptors can appear dejected, experience
weight loss, and generally be in poor condition. Some
birds appear to want to eat, but having taken a mouthful,
flick it away (Williams 1978). It is important to monitor
the bird’s weight and food intake closely. Provide food of
adequate quality and quantity. There is no zoonotic
potential.
Stomatitis - Stomatitis is an infection of the oral
cavity. It has many causes including parasitic infection
(trichomoniasis), bacterial infection, vitamin A deficiency,
and cuts in the mouth. Stomatitis can cause a yellow
caseous substance to exude from the mouth (as in frounce),
but the bird usually remains quite active and attempts to eat
food. Monitor the bird’s mouth for bleeding or soreness.
Do not feed sharp objects to the bird, such as broken
bones. Ingesting broken bones may cause cuts, though this
is difficult to prevent. There is no zoonotic potential.
Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused
by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Hosts for this parasite
includes cats, rodents, and some wild birds (Heidenreich
1997). Sexual reproduction of T. gondii occurs mainly in
a cat’s intestine and the oocysts are shed in cats’ feces.
The oocysts may be ingested by small rodents which can be
eaten by either a cat or a bird of prey. Toxoplasma spp.
reproduce in the bird’s internal organs, muscles, and
nervous system. No symptoms are directly associated with
toxoplasmosis, but the bird often develops latent infections
(Heidenreich 1997). Toxoplasmosis is transmitted by
eating cat feces and by worms, flies, and roaches that come
into contact with cat feces. Keep cats away from raptor
enclosures. Avoid feeding wild prey to captive raptors.
There is no zoonotic potential.
Trichinosis - Trichinella spp. are parasitic nematodes
found in the muscle tissue of pigs, carnivores, and rodents
(Heidenreich 1997). Reduced muscular activity is associ-
ated with trichinosis due to infestation in the muscle tissue
(Heidenreich 1997). Trichinosis is common in pigs and
species of wildlife preyed on by raptors. Heidenreich
(1997) suggested that freezing food may kill the larvae in
the muscle tissue of prey items. Chances of exposure can
be reduced by avoiding wild prey items or food items that
are commonly infected, such as pigs, carnivores, and
rodents. Trichinosis can be spread to humans by eating
46
undercooked or infected meat (Fraser 1991). However,
humans are rarely infected through contact with an infected
animal.
Trichomoniasis (Frounce) - Frounce is frequently
seen in captive raptors that have been allowed to feed on
infected wild pigeons. Trichomoniasis is one of the most
common internal parasites of clinical significance (Redig
1993). Symptoms of trichomoniasis include a yellow
caseous debris that forms in the mouth (usually at the base
of the tongue), loss of appetite and lethargy (Williams
1978). There is also a foul, necrotic odor associated with
this disease (Heidenreich 1997). The bird’s appetite will
often be unaffected in the early stages. An esophageal
lesion could grow large enough to interfere with swallow-
ing causing the bird to lose weight quickly. Trichomonia-
sis is caused by a protozoan parasite in the bird’s mouth
obtained from eating contaminated food. Pigeons are a
common source of infection (Williams 1978, Heidenreich
1997). Either freeze the food before feeding or do not use
pigeons as a food item. Monitor the mouth with routine
inspections. There is no zoonotic potential.
STRESS
Patton and Crawford (1985) defined stress as a
raptor’s response to factors that threaten its homeostasis.
Threats can be perceived or real. and includes the threat of
bodily injury or death, change in internal temperature
balance, a stimulus forcing changes in behavior, the danger
of nutrient deficiency, or any other abnormal situation that
the bird experiences. Examples of stress-causing situa-
tions include beak trimming, harassment by predators,
improper diet, and loud noises. Responses to stress can be
behavioral, psychological, biological, or a combination of
these. Stress can cause raptors to have greater susceptibil-
ity to internal parasites, to pace, to have slow recovery from
an illness, or to refuse to eat.
GENERAL SIGNS OF DISTRESS
A fluffed bird (Fig. 5-1) usually indicates an unhealthy
bird. The normal posture for a bird is to sit upright with its
feathers not fluffed. The muscles in the head are con-
tracted to maintain this posture. When the bird is not well
it does not contract these muscles and therefore appears
fluffed. The bird may fluff feathers other than on the head
when it is cold or hot. The eyes are another health
indicator. If they are almond-shaped due to a slight closing
of the lids, it may be an indication that something is wrong
with the bird. The heart rate of raptors can increase as
much as 450% with the approach of the handler (Busch et
al. 1972, Patton et al. 1985), but heart rate increase also
depended upon the level of contact (Patton et al. 1985).
Heart rate is lowest with noise, increases with visual
contact, and heart rate is highest with actual contact by the
handler. Hoods reduce actual stress only slightly, but
hoods can reduce physical response to a large degree.
Stress is an important factor with program birds since
they will be exposed to additional stress during educa-
tional programs. Proper training and a gradual introduc-
tion to an audience will allow the raptor to become tolerant
to the stress of educational programs. However, some birds
may never become accustomed to programming and
continued use may be detrimental to their health.
BEAK AND TALON TRIMMING
Talons and beaks which are overgrown need to be
trimmed. Overgrown talons can puncture the bottom of the
bird’s foot and can cause bumblefoot. An overgrown beak
can lead to difficulties in feeding. If the bird’s beak or
talons need to be trimmed, consult a veterinarian or other
experienced professional regarding the proper method.
You will also need a helper to assist with this procedure.
Talons can be trimmed with a rotary tool and cone-
shaped grinding stone. Trim only a small portion (~1/16")
at a time. If bleeding occurs it can be stopped with a silver
Figure 5-1: A stressed, fluffed bird (left) vs. and unstressed bird (right)
nitrate stick (available from a local veterinarian). Another
method is to use short-blade podiatric nail clippers or a
cat-nail trimmer to trim the tip of the nail (Perry 1994,
Arent and Martell 1996).
Beaks also can be trimmed using the rotary tool and
cone-shaped grinding stone. Again, trim only a small
portion of the beak at a time. After the bird is restrained,
prop open the bird’s mouth by placing a thumb in the soft
portion of the bird’s mouth. Trim both the length and the
sides of the beak. The upper and lower portion of the beak
should close properly. Smooth over any cracks. If the
beak starts to bleed, stop immediately. Arent and Martell
(1996) recommended using gauze and pressure to stop the
bleeding. If that doesn’t work, apply a silver nitrate stick.
However, Perry (1994) cautioned that the silver nitrate
deposited at the wound site can burn the tongue or oral
mucosa.
47
CHAPTER 6: EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Non-releasable raptors (NRR) are commonly used for
educational programs. One of the first steps in developing
a raptor education program is selecting program birds. Not
all birds can be used in educational programs. A bird must
be trained so that is becomes accustom to large numbers of
people. Although counter to the bird’s instincts, some can
adapt to the presence of humans. Opinions on how to train
raptors vary. This discussion is limited to training birds
for educational programs where the bird is “fisted” (held
on a glove for demonstrations) or placed on display.
SELECTING A PROGRAM BIRD
The type of bird desired for educational programs
depends on the focus of the educational program. For
instance, a program that focuses on endangered species
may want to possess a bald eagle (Haliaeetus
leucocephalus) or peregrine falcon (Falcon peregrinus).
Other programs may wish to focus on common or native
raptors. A common source of NRR are veterinarians or
rehabilitators. Some programs focus on diurnal or noctur-
nal raptors. The number and type of birds housed at your
facility should be predetermined. This allows the caretaker
to inform contacts as to what type of bird is needed. Some
birds are available seasonally depending on migration and
breeding. Smaller birds, such as the eastern screech owl
(Otis asio), can be difficult to locate for use as program
birds (personal observation).
Species choice is important. However, legal consider-
ation should be discussed first. The type of raptors that
can be possessed legally depends upon the type of permits
held by the center’s personnel. Some educators feel that
certain species are not suited for program use. Accipiter
spp. usually are difficult birds to manage in captivity
(Crawford 1983, Arent and Martell 1996) and are used
infrequently at raptor centers throughout the nation (Table
6-1). Arent and Martell (1996) suggested that some owls
are less amenable to handling or changes in their manage-
ment and are not as useful for program birds as other
species. However, no published research has determined
which species are most appropriate for program use.
Choices usually are based on the personal experience and
preferences of the handler. Individual differences among
birds of the same species disallow broad generalizations.
Rapp and Crawford (1982) suggested that golden eagles
(Aquila chrysaetos) and Buteo spp. adapt well to captivity.
Buteo spp. were the most commonly used birds in educa-
tion programs throughout the United States (Chapter One).
Flightless birds are often chosen for display or
program use (Arent and Martell 1996). Their space
requirement is less than that of flighted birds. However,
full wing amputees are more susceptible to injury than
partial amputees. As a general rule, young animals adapt
faster than older animals to new or strange situations.
48
RAPTOR BEHAVIOR
A handler must be aware of a bird’s body language. A
hawk will often raise the feathers on its head when agitated
(Arent and Martell 1996). This may happen often when
the bird is first being trained. An owl might raise its
feathers to try to increase the appearance of its size. It may
also click its beak, stomp its feet, and move its neck from
side to side. Birds may become agitated in the presence of
another bird, dog, person, and even certain colors. A bird
may move its head around when it is trying to focus (sight
or hearing) in on a distraction.
When a bird becomes too stressed or hot, it may begin
open-mouth breathing or wing drooping. In a cool room,
such behavior may indicate stress and use of the bird
should be temporarily discontinued. Preening or tucking
up one foot indicates that the bird is at ease.
HANDLING
When handling a bird, move slowly, but confidently
around the bird (Arent and Martell 1996). Quick, jerky
movements might cause the bird to bate. Be consistent
when handling birds, such as using the same glove on the
same hand. Typically, the non-dominant hand is the
gloved hand. Get the bird into a routine of fisting, weigh-
ing, walking, and returning to the enclosure (or some other
regimen). Work with the bird until it gets accustom to
your hands. Perform slow, fluid movements with your
hands. At times it may be necessary to physically check
the bird, put jesses on, or perform some other hand
movement. Expose the bird to a variety of new situations.
Always be patient and never rush training. Many short
sessions per day are more effective than one or two long
sessions. Provide rest periods at least as long as periods of
handling.
When teaching a class, it is important to maintain
control of both the class and the raptor. Keep students
quiet and have them refrain from moving around. If the
children become unsettled, the bird may need to be put
away until control of the class is regained. When the bird
is put away, the class usually focuses their attention on the
instructor, pleads to have the bird brought back, and
promises to behave properly. When arranging the students,
do not allow them to form a ring around the instructor and
bird. This makes it hard to communicate with all the
students and it makes the bird uncomfortable. If the bird
sees people on all sides, it may become unsettled (Arent
and Martell 1996).
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM TRAINING
Training consists of repetition, time, and patience. A
bird cannot be trained in a few days. Some birds never
become good program birds. A raptor that has had
previous training may not accept any other caretakers as its
 Table 6-1: Relative usage of raptor species (Chapter One) and recommendations for use in educational
programs (Arent and Martell 1996).
NL = not listed in Arent and Martell (1996).

Raptor Relative Recommended Recommended

frequency (%) for display bird for education programs

Buteo spp. 19.6 Yes Yes

Otus spp. 10.5 No Yes
Falco sparverius 10.1 Yes Yes
Bubo virginianus 9.6 Yes Yes
Falco spp. 6.8 No Varies
Strix spp. 6.8 Yes Yes
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 6.5 Yes Yes
Tyto alba 5.8 Yes Yes
Aquila chrysaetos 4.0 Yes Yes
Cathartes aura 3.3 Yes Yes
Asio spp. 3.0 No No
Accipiter spp. 2.3 No No
Parabuteo spp. 2.3 NL NL
Coragyps atratus 2.3 Yes Yes
Aegolius spp. 2.6 Yes Yes
Pandion haliaetus 1.2 No No
Circus spp. 1.2 NL NL
Caracara plancus 0.5 NL NL
Ictina mississipiensis 0.7 NL NL
Athene cunicularia 0.5 Yes Yes
Nyctea scandiaca 0.2 NL NL
Glaucidium spp. 0.2 NL NL

handler. The best way to learn to train a bird is to contact
several others who have had success in the past. Try
different techniques until a sequence is found that works
for the program and the raptor.
When a new bird is received, initial weighing, applica-
tion of jesses, and physical check-ups should be done in a
quiet, dimly lighted room (Parry-Jones 1994). Birds
should be allowed several days to acclimate to the new
surroundings before any attempts at training are made. The
bird may not eat for a few days until it becomes accus-
tomed to its enclosure. Offer only small amounts of food.
A new bird will require time to adjust to the
handler(s). Initially this involves being in the enclosure
with the bird. Gauntlets should be worn while the bird
becomes accustomed to the handler. As the bird becomes
accustomed to the handler, move closer, touch the bird’s
jesses, or gently touch the bird. As training progresses,
attempt to get the bird to stand on the gloved hand. Leave
transport carriers, gauntlets, and other teaching props in
the bird’s enclosure to allow the raptors to become
accustomed to their presence.
To fist the bird, grasp the jesses in the un-gloved hand,
bring the gloved hand behind the birds legs and gently
bump them. The bird should step backwards onto the
gloved hand. Once the bird has stepped onto the hand,
thread the jesses through the handler’s fingers and attach
the leash to the jesses (Parry-Jones 1994). In general, the
bird is held on the fist with the arm bent out to the side.
The jesses are threaded through the fingers in a comfort-
able fashion with the leash tied or clipped to a belt loop or
other part of the clothing. Sufficient lead on the jesses will
allow the bird to pick up its feet and get comfortable, but
not so much as to encourage it to bate.

49
 When the bird bates, use your free hand to reach
around the bird, support its back, and gently set the bird
back up on your glove. Do not lower the hand when the
bird bates. This can make the bird think that it is gaining
ground and will continue to bate.
Practice carrying the bird through doorways, putting
them into carriers, and having the bird stand on scales.
When moving through a doorway, either back the bird
through the doorway or distract it with hand movements.
The bird can also be backed into a carrier.
Introducing the bird to the public is the last step in the
initial training. Begin with short programs, preferably with
small groups. Maintain awareness of the bird’s health
during the presentation. If the bird begins to show signs of
stress, put it away. The bird can be used for increasingly
longer times as it becomes accustomed to the audience.
Each bird can have different tolerances to people.
Some will readily take to being trained. Some will never
perform properly. If a bird does not perform, a tough
decision must be made. If your facility has display birds, it
can still be of some use. If not, try to place it with another
facility. The bird may perform for a different trainer, may
be used as a display bird, or may be used for breeding.
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
The instructor’s actions and words will make a lasting
impression on what the audience learns about raptors and
wild animals in general. The instructor does not want to
give the impression that the bird is a “pet.” The raptor is a
wild animal, treat it like one.
Anthropomorphism is the application of human form
or behavior to animals. Handlers often anthropomorphize
raptors by naming them. Some handlers feel this is
acceptable but others do not. If you have a red-tailed hawk
(Buteo jamaicensis) that you have renamed Bobbie, then
every time a child sees a red-tailed hawk he will probably
think it is a “Bobbie” bird. The name red-tailed hawk
helps describe the bird and it gives people something to
identify the bird. “Bobbie” does not. Some instructors
believe that naming birds allows their younger audience to
identify with the raptor. Some caretakers name birds for
record keeping or convenience, but do not allow presenters
to use the bird’s name in programs. This decision should
be made by the facility managers, caretakers, and curricu-
lum specialist.
Somewhere in the program, the difficulty of maintain-
ing raptors should be discussed. Tell the audience about
the laws pertaining to raptors and the permits necessary to
keep them. Explain a little about raptor rehabilitation and
what they should do if they encounter an injured raptor.
Stress that young birds will often have parents nearby and
not to bother them. The parents may fly to a safe distance
as a threat approaches or it may be off hunting for food.
It is up to the educator to develop his/her own teaching
style and the material used. Brush up on bird information
in general. If you do not know the answer, tell them you
do not know. Never give false information.
50
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Knowing how an audience perceives wildlife is
important to developing an effective program. Kellert and
Westervelt (1983), Westervelt and Llewellyn (1985), and
Westervelt (1988) examined the beliefs and behaviors of
fifth and sixth grade students toward wildlife. Kellert and
Berry (1980) examined the knowledge, affection, and basic
attitudes towards animals in American society. These
references are valuable sources of information for under-
standing how others perceive wildlife. Groups of different
ages and backgrounds should be approached differently
when presenting a program. Although it is possible to
present the same program to all audiences, to maximize
returns the attitudes of the audience should be considered.
Westervelt (1988) stated that opportunities to instill
appreciation of the natural environment in children are
greatest at ages 10 to 12. However, children aged 15
through 17 years have the highest appreciation for ecologi-
cal relationships. Based on these results, programs can be
tailored to fit the audience’s level of understanding. A
program for younger children may consist of showing birds
and using activities on wildlife appreciation. Older
children may understand relationships between raptors and
other birds or their role as predators.
Different attitudes toward wildlife are important
concepts to understand. Emotional affection was the most
common attitude expressed toward wildlife (Westervelt and
Llewellyn 1985). Of the children surveyed, 43% felt that
wild animals become lonely in the wilderness. Seventy-
nine percent disapproved of sport hunting, especially
among children from urban areas, female students, and
children from the Pacific Coast states. Children showed
only a modest interest in wildlife. Students from urban
environments showed the least interest in wildlife. Also,
children from urban environments showed the most fear of
animals, especially younger children. According to the
study, females and children from the South were the least
knowledgeable about wildlife.
Animal preference was also surveyed (Westervelt and
Llewellyn 1985). Among children and adults, the eagle
was ranked as the most preferred and the second most
preferred species of wildlife, respectively. Owl were the 3rd
most preferred animal among children. Birds were the top
three preferred animals among children. Skunks and rats
were the least preferred animal. Using raptors as program
animals has the advantage of being an animal children
“like.” With other wildlife programs, such as with snakes,
a good portion of the program is spent instilling the
importance of snakes and why we should appreciate them.
Since children and adults prefer raptors, less time has to be
spent with this part of the program. However, with farmers
or children from rural areas who believe that raptors eat
their livestock, poultry, and game species, more time may
need to be spent convincing them that raptors are impor-
tant.
SAMPLE RAPTOR CURRICULUM
TITLE: Raptors/Birds of prey
GROUP SIZE: 10 - 30 Students
LENGTH: 45 minutes to 1 ½ hours
AGE: 6 and up (depending upon desired objectives and
included educational material and objectives)
OBJECTIVES: The student will be able to:
1. Recognize birds of prey
2. List and describe the characteristics of birds of prey
3. Show greater knowledge of the role that raptors play
in the environment
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the problems that
man has created for raptors and how they can
contribute to solutions
5. Understand management of wild populations
General Bird Information
Introduction - Before the instructor begins talking
about raptors, there is some general information about birds
that will be useful for students to know. This information
can be presented before the raptor portion or interspersed
throughout the raptor program. If the general bird
information is given initially, intersperse the bird activities
throughout the general bird information. It is the instructor’s
responsibility to pick out the information that is relevant to
the age of the group. The level of information in this section
ranges from 3rd grade to 12th grade.
Birds are in the Class Aves. Ornithology is the study
of birds. Birds can be distinguished from all other animals
by 2 main distinguishing features: 1) all birds have feathers
and 2) birds have a horny beak. Also, all birds lay eggs. Not
all birds are capable of flight. Some people believe that
reptiles are the closest relatives of birds (Pough et al. 1998).
Flying Adaptations - There are about 9600 species of
birds (9658) with 2050 recognized genera. All birds are built
around a common plan. All have feathers and all have a
horny beak. However, there are significant variations in how
they are built, such as the difference between a hummingbird,
a penguin, and a hawk. Size is the most obvious difference
between these birds, but there are other differences in their
feet, beaks, and feeding strategies.
There are 7 extinct orders and 29 living orders. The
largest living bird is the ostrich (Struthio camelus) (>8' tall,
317 lbs) (Harrison and Loxton 1993). The smallest living
bird is the Scintillent hummingbird (Selasporus scintillus)
(~1 inch tall, 0.08 oz). All birds are built as flying machines,
even though some are unable to fly. They all have 3 basic
characteristics:
1. Relatively low body weight
2. High power
3. Aerodynamic design
Weight reducing adaptations - Birds are well-suited
for flight through many special characteristics. They have
fewer and lighter bones than most other animals. For
example, ~4.4% of the body weight of the pigeon (Columbia
livia) is skeleton. In rats, ~5.6% of the body weight is
skeleton. Even penguins are well-suited for “flight”
underwater.
The skeleton is composed of rather elastic bones. Most
of the long bones are hollow and some are even fused
together to form one unit. Reducing the number of bones
helps make birds lighter. For example, the finger bones are
reduced from more than a dozen to one. The hipbones (ilium,
ischium, and pubis) are fused to form the synsacrum. To
reduce weight even further, birds do not have teeth, the
densest unit in the body. Another weight reducing
adaptations are light feathers. For their weight, feathers are
one of the strongest materials known to man. They are
flexible and act like propellor blades. Feathers are also good
insulators allowing birds to live in the coldest places in the
world.
The skin is extremely thin and lacks glands. However,
some birds have one gland, the uropygial gland, located in
the rump underneath the skin. It is also called the oil or
preen gland. The uropygial gland is found most commonly in
waterfowl. The secretions are used to oil the feathers during
preening - adjusting and oiling the feathers. Birds spend
some amount of time every day preening. Waterfowl reach
back and put the bill to the uropygial gland then preen the
feathers to help waterproof them.
Additional Adaptations for Flying - A bird’s lungs
have a series of air sacs attached to them that penetrate many
parts of the body cavity and bones. These air sacs are used
for storing air. They are also used for dissipating the large
amounts of heat generated by birds by exhaling hot air.
While we can only exchange about 32% of the air in our
lungs, birds exchange almost 100% of the air with every
inhalation and exhalation. Another adaptation for flying is
the lack of an urinary bladder. Birds have kidneys that
excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid. Birds also typically
void the contents of the cloaca before flying to make
themselves even lighter.
The reproductive system also has adaptations for flight.
Female birds possess only one functional ovary and oviduct
(the left one in most birds). The right one is present, but is
vestigial. In raptors, the right ovary is functional and the left
one is vestigial. During the spring, the functional ovary
increases in size dramatically (recurdescense). For example,
the ovary in a starling increases in size and weight by 1500
times in its non-breeding season. After the breeding season,
it is reduced in size.
To further lighten the load of birds, the digestive system
is more efficient than that of other animals. Most birds eat a
specific type of food and the stomach has only a few specific
enzymes to digest that particular food. This allows the
digestive system to be short, efficient, and light. In the
grosbeak (Pheucticus spp.), for example, foods can pass
through the digestive system in 8 minutes. Many birds have a
crop that is used for food storage allowing a longer periods of
foraging. The bird can then return to a safe perch and digest
51
its food. This saves energy and reduces the time that it is
vulnerable to predators.
Power Producing Adaptations - Only birds and
mammals are endothermic (have the ability to maintain a
relatively high body temperature) as opposed to reptiles,
amphibians, and fish which are ectothermic (their body
temperature is related to the environment). Birds maintain
a higher temperature than mammals of the same size. This
high temperature is essential for flight because it allows
them to digest and assimilate food rapidly.
Birds have extensively developed breast muscles,
which are essential for flight. The breast muscles make up
about ½ of the total body weight. To attach these over-
sized muscles to the body, the sternum has an adaptation
called a keel (anchor point for the large breast muscles).
All carinate birds (flying birds) have a keeled sternum,
including penguins that “fly” under water using a flapping
motion. Some birds cannot fly and therefore do not have a
keel. These birds have a flat sternum and are called ratites.
A bird can have a well developed breast muscle, but not
have the capability of sustained flight. This is due to two
types of muscles, white and dark muscle. In white muscle
there are few blood vessels and low or no mitochondria. A
domestic chicken or turkey breast is a good example. In
dark muscle, there is a large blood supply, lots of
mitochondria and lots of glycogen.
In any flying machine, weight must be balanced so the
bulk of the weight and the center of gravity is located
between the wings. Birds are no exception. The gizzard,
the heaviest portion of the digestive system, is located to
the right of the center of the wings. The liver is down and
to the right, which is counter balanced on the left by the
reproductive tract. The tail is used to counter balance the
head.
Skillful flight requires excellent eyesight and muscle
coordination; therefore, the eyes and brain are not reduced
in size. To compensate for relatively large eyes, only a few
muscles are present to move them. Birds look around by
moving their head. Birds typically have a wide field of
vision and most have stereoscopic vision. Birds have
relatively large brains compared to other, similar sized
animals to deal with increased vision (10x greater in some
cases) and muscle coordination. The two areas of the brain
that deal with vision (optic lobe) and muscle coordination
(cerebellum) are enlarged. The area that deals with the
sense of smell is reduced, so it is assumed that most birds
do not have a keen sense of smell.
Another adaptation for flight is a streamlined body.
There are very few projections to hinder the movement of
air over the bird’s body. The legs either pull up under the
body or extend behind the bird. An example of the
effectiveness of this plan is the American golden plover
(Pluvialis dominicus). It breeds in the arctic circle, then in
the fall it migrates to Labrador (northern Canada) and feeds
on bay berry, which has a high fat content. When the
52
golden plovers are ready the birds migrate non-stop to
Argentina, 2400 miles. When they arrive, they weigh only
2 oz less than their initial weight. The most efficient
airplane would require 120 gallons of fuel.
Feathers - Some scientist believe feathers evolved
from reptilian scales. Several reptiles had scales with
fringes. This has lead evolutionary biologist to theorize
that scales that gave rise to feathers. The germ bud that
gives rise to scales on the leg of an eagle is the same germ
bud that gives rise to feathers on the legs of owls. The
follicle is a depression in the skin. Papillae produce cells
by cell division which push up and out of the follicle. As
they push up, they die and are covered with keratin. There
are several types of feathers, many of which can be found
on the same bird, while others are specialized to the bird’s
environment.
Contour feathers form the major covering of the
bird’s body. All birds have contour feathers. They are
located all over the body. Some are specialized. Remiges
are wing feathers that help with flight (wing feathers).
Rectrices are specialized contour feathers on the tail (tail
feathers).
Semi-plume feathers have a rachis and barbs with
barbules, but have no hooks. These feathers are light and
fluffy. Many birds have these between the contour
feathers. They keep the feathers from hitting each other
and act as a lubricant. There are two types of filoplume
feathers. One has a rachis with a small vane on the very
end. These are sometimes found on tropical birds, mostly
in males. They are probably used as an attractant. Another
type of filoplume has a vane at the bottom with a long
rachis that extends far past the end of the vane. These
possibly have a sensing function, but no one is sure. They
simply may be decorative.
Bristle feathers have a rachis with no vanes or barbs.
They are usually found on the head and look like stiff
hairs. Some are found around the cere or around the mouth
(rictal bristles) and are used to catch insects. Some birds
have bristle feathers found around the eyes for protection.
Down feathers have a short rachis and extremely long
barbs. They are found on birds that nest in cold areas.
They are also associated with aquatic birds. Down
provides insulation for birds by trapping large amounts of
air. The arrangement of other feathers and their waterproof
nature keep the down dry. Powder down grows from a
follicle, but immediately disintegrates and coats the
contour feathers with a powdery-like substance. It is well
developed in heron and egrets .
In most birds, feather grows from a follicle with a
smaller feather growing in the same follicle directly behind
it called the afterfeather. The contour feather is normally
much larger than the afterfeather. In some birds, the
afterfeather is as large or larger, giving the appearance of 2
feathers growing together.
Raptors
Introduction - What are “birds of prey”? Birds of
prey, or raptors, are birds that catch and kill their prey
with their feet which have claws (also called talons).
Birds of prey have a wide range of sizes, shapes, and
colors. There are about 292 species of diurnal birds of
prey (Newton 1990) including falcons, eagles, hawks, and
vultures. There are 162 species of nocturnal birds of prey
(owls).
The types of birds that are grouped together as birds of
prey are sometimes very different from each other. Owls,
for example, are built differently from hawks and eagles.
They hunt at night (nocturnal), while hawks and eagles
are daytime hunters (diurnal). However, the differences
seem unimportant when compared to the one great skill all
birds of prey have in common - their ability to take live
prey with their talons. Other birds hunt, but lack the
characteristics that make raptors a unique group of birds.
What are some of the characteristics that make these birds
such good hunters? (flight, eyesight, beaks, hearing and
talons)
Flight - Birds of prey are often spectacular fliers.
Birds of prey have strong flight muscles to help them fly
when carrying prey. All birds have hollow bones to help
make their bodies lighter. As light as the skeleton is, it is
strong. The shape of the wings of raptors affect how they
catch their prey. The big broad wings of eagles, vultures,
and buzzards provide maximum lift. This allows larger
birds to fly for long periods without moving their wings.
The short and stubby wings of many hawks and some owls
provide a lot of lift with some speed. They are good for
maneuvering among trees in the forest. The thin wings of
falcons and other small birds of prey are built for speed.
Feathers not only help in the actual flight of these
birds, but also help many of the birds of prey (for example,
owls) keep their flight very silent. Soft feathers with
fringed edges contribute to the bird’s ability to fly silently.
This keeps their prey from hearing their approach.
Activities:
• Poster of wings and study skins
• Poster board and cut-outs of falcon, eagle, hawk and
owl wings
• Show the feathers and wing adaptations on a live bird
Eyesight - To find their food, birds of prey must have
sharp eyesight. Raptors can see objects at a distance at
least 8 times better than a human (Johnsgard 1990). Birds
of prey usually have large bright eyes. The retinal surface
of raptor eyes is more tightly packed with sensory cells
than any other vertebrate, especially with color sensitive
cones in the 2 retinal fovea of diurnal raptors (Newton
1990). They have three eyelids to protect their eyes.
Hawks close their eyes most of the time by moving their
lower lids up. Owls move their upper eyelids down -
adding to the human appearance of their faces. The third
eyelid, called the nictitating (NICK-tit-ate-ing) membrane,
closes from side to side. It moistens and cleans the eye, as
well as serving a protective function.
Owls have a tapetum lucidum which increases the
light gathering capability of the eye (Johnsgard 1988). It
serves as an image-amplifier under low light conditions.
This is the reason that owl’s eyes shine whenever a light
hits it at night, similar to a cat’s eye.
Activities:
• Point out adaptations of raptor eye on a live bird
Beaks - All birds of prey have beaks for ripping and
tearing flesh. The size and shape of the beak depends on
the kind of prey it commonly eats. The most common form
is the curved hook on the tip of the upper mandible, which
drives into flesh like a knife (Newton 1990) Small birds,
like the American kestrel (Falco sparverius) have short
beaks for eating insects and other small animals. The snail
kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) has a long and curved beak
for probing inside the shells of snails. The bald eagle has a
heavy and powerful beak for ripping apart large pieces of
meat. Owls tend to swallow their prey whole and cough up
a pellet of indigestible parts. In raptors, the beak may also
serve a secondary role in display and in flight by working
together with the head as an anterior airfoil (Newton
1990).
Activities:
• Beak poster (poster of different beak types)
• Viewing of a bird
• Which Beak is Best (see Activities section below)
Talons - The size of talons (or “claws”) of a bird of
prey generally depend on the size of the prey that the raptor
carries. Harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja) have large talons
that are suited for killing monkeys and other large
mammals seized in trees (Newton 1990). Their talons can
be as large as the claws of a grizzly bear. Barn owls (Tyto
alba) take rats, mice and other small animals. Their talons
are smaller and more delicate. Falcons use their feet to
strike their prey while flying at high speeds to stun or kill
them.
Activities:
• Poster of different bird feet
• Feet from different raptors (road-killed specimens;
note - additional permits are required to keep raptor
“parts”)
Raptor Food - Birds of prey eat a wide variety of
foods, but all are carnivores (meat eaters). Some birds are
highly specialized, such as the snail kite of south central
Florida which eats only apple snails. Some raptors, such
as the red-tailed hawk will eat almost anything small
enough to kill (Kaufman 1996). Food selections often
leads to special adaptations in raptors. Osprey (Pandion
haliaetus), which mainly eat fish, have the soles of their
toes covered with tiny spicules which help grasp slippery
prey (Newton 1990). The snail kite has a long curve in the
upper mandible to help extract snails from their shells
(Kaufman 1996).
53
 In many raptors, the crop (where freshly eaten food is
stored) is well developed (Newton 1990). However, owls
lack a crop. Raptors will regurgitate food that is not
digested, usually bones, feather, and hair. Since owls lack
a crop, their regurgitated pellets contain a higher
proportion of bones than those of hawks (Johnsgard 1988).
Pellets can be used to identify the type of prey eaten and
help determine the type of raptor that is in an area.
Activities:
• Owl Pellets (Project WILD 1994)
• Quick Frozen Critters (Project WILD 1994)
Hearing - All species of raptors are sensitive to sound
and are able to detect its direction, both by angle and
elevation (Newton 1990). This is especially well
developed in owls. Owls may have moveable ear flaps that
are present in front of and behind the opening of the
external ear (Johnsgard 1998). The ears are asymmetrical
in either size or position. This assists the owl in
determining the direction of sound. The facial disk of the
barn owl probably serves as an amplifier, by focusing the
sound on the opening of the external ear.
Smell - All birds have a sense of smell. A few species
have a dorsal chamber of the olfactory bulb that has
elaborate folds that increase the surface area for detecting
chemicals in the air. The chamber is well developed in
some vultures that locate food by smell. In most raptors,
the sense of smell has not been studied. They are likely to
rely more on sight and sound to locate prey (Newton
1990).
Raptors and Humans - In most developed parts of
the world, birds of prey numbers are now only a fraction of
what they were 100-200 years ago. Three main factors
have contributed to population declines: habitat
destruction, deliberate persecution, and poisoning by
agricultural pesticides (Newton 1990). Habitat destruction
has been occurring ever since man began farming. It has
been accelerated in recent times by urbanization, draining
wetlands, plowing grasslands, and other forms of
disturbance. Some raptors thrive in areas that have been
disturbed by humans, but many species cannot and their
numbers are generally reduced with human disturbances
(Newton 1990).
Birds of prey, and many other predators, have been
persecuted deliberately to protect domestic animals and
game. Most of the early reduction in birds of prey
populations in Europe and North America is due to
shooting or poisoning that occurred between 1850 and
1900, before legal protection was in place. Killing birds
of prey is now illegal in many countries. For example, in
Alaska from 1917-1952, rewards were paid for 128,273
bald eagles (Newton 1990). Some common raptors are still
trapped and killed in North America, but this activity
requires a depredation permit from the US Department of
Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,
54
Wildlife Services office and cooperation with local game
and fish departments.
Problems created by pesticides are relatively recent.
The most notable is the development of DDT and other
synthetic forms of crop protection from the 1940’s onward.
The peregrine falcon was seriously endangered in the mid-
20th century due to DDT (Kaufman 1996). These
synthetic pesticides work their way through the food chain
and accumulate in large concentrations in the top
predators. These concentrations caused widespread failure
to reproduce during the 1940’s-1970’s, and the species
disappeared from much of its former breeding range. The
peregrine falcon was reintroduced successfully in many
temperate areas in North America.
Activities:
• Deadly Links (Project WILD 1994)
• Habitat Lap Sit (Project WILD 1994)
• Birds of Prey (Project WILD 1994)
Activities
The sample activities listed below are used during the
program to drive home points about raptors. It is important
that the students understand the purpose behind each
activity. Which Beak is Best is an activity from the Staff
Curriculum Training Manual. The origins of the activity
are unknown to the authors. The instructions here have
been adapted from what was presented in the manual.
Additional activities are listed below.
Which Beak Is Best? - Supplies needed include
paper plates, clothes pins, plastic spoons, cards, marbles,
toothpicks, and macaroni. Divide the class into four teams.
Each team represents one species of non-specialist feeders
and each species has a different type of beak. Team one
has all clothespins for bills. Team two has toothpick bills,
Teams three and four have spoons for bills. All teams
utilize the same habitat (or field) containing cards,
macaroni, and marbles as representative food resources.
The goal for each team is to try to collect as much food as
possible OF ALL TYPES in a set time limit (~1 minute).
(Put the food for each team in a paper plate a short distance
away from the starting line). Children should not run to
prevent injury.
In order for the bird group or team to survive, a
minimum amount of food is required. For a team of 4
children, they need a minimum of 10-15 items depending
upon how far away the items are placed, how many total
items there are, how hard they are to find, etc. You may
need to experiment first to determine the optimum number.
Once they are done, you can then discuss what has
occurred and how it relates to the lesson. If all the teams
get the proper amount of food in that round, in the next
round increase the minimum amount of food necessary for
survival or decrease the amount of time allowed to collect
the food.
Birds have many types of beaks. Some birds are
generalists and can eat (pick up) many types of food.
Some birds are specialists and may be only able to eat one
type of food. For instance, snail kites have hooked shaped
bills that allow them to eat apple snails. A red-tailed hawk
has a sharp beak that allows it to eat meat by tearing off
bits from relatively large animals. A spoonbill has a beak
that allows it to sift through the water to catch small
invertebrates. A finch has a small, stout beak that allows it
to eat seeds. This list can go on. In our activity, the birds
with clothes pins for bills could pick up the cards, but
would have a difficult time with the marbles. The birds
with the spoons for bills would have had a tough time
picking up the cards. Therefore, the two species would not
compete for the same food resources. However, those of
the same species (or teams) would be competing with each
other.
Also, the only thing the toothpick team could pick up
easily is the macaroni (unless they stab the cards which
you should not let them do). Other teams may be able to
pick up the macaroni as well as other food. Therefore, the
other teams compete with the toothpick team for food
However, the toothpick team is unable to use other types of
food. The spoon team would generally pick up the easier
food, which was probably the macaroni.
Lets try the activity again, but re-divide the children
into five groups. The fifth group is allowed to pick any
type of food with only their fingers. Before you begin
remember to replace the food items in the field.
The new team in an introduced species, like European
starlings or rock doves (pigeons). These birds can eat any
food in the habitat more effectively than any of the other
species. If they choose to concentrate their efforts on the
macaroni because of proximity for instance, then the
toothpick team may not collect enough food.
Let’s introduce another element into the mix. Choose
2-3 children to be raptors. Their job is to swoop in and
capture children and take them back to their “nest”. Once
a child is captured, they have to remain captured until the
end of the game.
Because the toothpick and the spoon teams have the
most difficulty picking up and carrying their food, they
tend to be the most vulnerable. Once the clothes pin team
has acquired their food, they can move fairly fast.
However, since the introduced team can pick up their food
and run as fast as possible without fear of dropping their
food, they potentially can run the fastest and are more
likely to avoid the predator.
Another option is to decrease the amount of time in
the round and/or increase the amount of minimum food
required for survival. This can be used to demonstrate
additional stressors on the animals, such as nestlings.
When you put the food out, you can put a limited amount
of a particular food item to simulate a hard year for a
particular crop. A third option is to increase the number of
raptors to 1/4 - 1/3 of the population to demonstrate what
happens when predators are overabundant. There is a
myriad of different options that can be used to relate
different concepts of raptor and avian ecology.
An advanced activity that could be done with children
that have been learning these ecological principles is to
have them hypothesize about the outcome with each
change. After you make the changes to the activity, have
the children form a hypothesis about what will happen. As
the teacher, you are the data collector. After recording the
outcome for a round, you can discuss whether or not it
matched their hypothesis and why. You can either end it
here or take it a step further by letting them trade places
amongst the teams. Run the activity 2-5 more times letting
them change teams each time.
Now you can discuss the outcomes. Was the outcome
the same each time? Discuss why or why not. Was anyone
misbehaving or bored with the activity? If so, that round
might be an outlier to be excluded from the data. If all the
rounds had exactly the same or similar outcomes, what
does that tell you about the hypothesis? Is it more or less
likely to be accurate? If you kept on playing and getting
similar results, what would that tell you about the
hypothesis? If you kept playing and got a different result,
could you determine why? Basically, what you are doing
is introducing them to the scientific principle. This could
then lead to a discussion on how researchers conduct
wildlife research.
Project WILD Activities - Project WILD is an
interdisciplinary, supplementary conservation, and
environmental education program emphasizing wildlife.
The list below are a few suggested activities that work well
with material that can be presented as part of a raptor
education program.
Deadly Links
Habitat Lap Sit
Birds of Prey
Owl Pellets
Quick Frozen Critters
For more information regarding Project WILD, additional
activities, or to take part in a Project WILD workshop,
contact the wildlife agency in your state.
Additional Resources for Activities - Project
Learning Tree (PLT) is considered one of the premiere
environmental education programs in the world. It
contains activities useful for habitat related concepts that
might be explored in a raptor education program.
Information regarding PLT can be acquired through your
state coordinator for PLT or by contacting the American
Forest Foundation at 1111 19th Street, NW, Washington,
D.C. 20036.
Keepers of Life (Caduto and Bruchac 1994), Keepers
of the Earth (Caduto and Bruchac 1989), and Keepers of
the Animals (Caduto and Bruchac1991) are a collection of
books that utilize Native American stories to express
ecological principles. Activities accompany many of the
stories to reinforce the principles illustrated by the stories.
These can be ordered through most bookstores.
55
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Arent, L. and M. Martell. 1996. Care and management of captive raptors. The Raptor Center @ University of
Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.

Beynon, P.H., N.A. Forbes, and N.H. Harcourt-Brown (editors). 1996. BSAVA manual of raptors, pigeons, and
waterfowl. British Small Animal Veterinary Association Limited. Gloucestershire, England.

Bird, D.M. 1987. Small falcons. Pages 364-368 in B.A. Giron Pendleton, B.A. Millsap, K.W. Cline, and D.M. Bird,
(editors), Raptor management techniques manual. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C., USA.

Bird, D.M. and S.K. Ho. 1976. Nutritive values of whole animal diets for captive birds of prey. Raptor Research 10:45-
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Brown, L.H. and D. Amadon. 1968. Eagles, hawks, and falcons of the world. Country Life Books, Hamlyn House,
Middlesex, England in Cooper, J.E. 1978. Veterinary aspects of captive birds of prey. 1st edition. Standfast Press,
Saul, Gloucestershire, England.

Burnham, W., B.J. Walton, J.D. Weaver. 1991. Management and management. Pages 10-18 in J. D. Weaver and T. J.
Cade. Falcon propagation: a manual on captive breeding. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise, ID, U.S.A.

Caduto, M.J. and J. Bruchac. 1989. Keepers of the earth. Fulcurm, Inc. Golden, Colorado, U.S.A.

Caduto, M. J 1991. Keepers of the animals. Fulcurm, Inc. Golden, Colorado, U.S.A.

Caduto, M. J. 1994. Keepers of life. Fulcurm, Inc. Golden, Colorado, U.S.A.

Carpenter, J.W., R.R. Gabel, S.N. Wiemeyer. 1987a. Eagles. Pages 350-355 in B.A. Giron Pendleton, B.A. Millsap,
K.W. Cline, and D.M. Bird, (editors), Raptor management techniques manual. National Wildlife Federation,
Washington, D.C., USA.

Caudell, J. N. and K. A. Riddleberger, Jr. In Press. Management of non-releasable raptors for conservation education
programs. Journal of Raptor Research 35:00-000.

Carpenter, J.W., R.R. Gabel, S.N. Wiemeyer, W.C. Crawford, Jr., W.A. Burnham, J.D. Weaver, T.J. Cade, and D.M.
Bird. 1987b. Captive breeding. Pages 349-370 in B.A. Giron Pendleton, B.A. Millsap, K.W. Cline, and D.M. Bird,
(editors), Raptor management techniques manual. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Childes, T.L. and W.C. Crawford, Jr. 1985. Handling and jessing techniques for birds of prey. Wildlife Rehabilitation.
4:49-57.

Clubb, S.L. and K. Flammer. 1994. The avian flock. Pages 45-62 in B.W. Ritchie, G.J. Harrison, and L.R. Harrison,
(editors), Avian medicine: principles and applications. Winger Publications, Lake Worth, Florida, U.S.A.

Conroy, P. 1981. An introduction to raptor rehabilitation. Raptor Institute, SC Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department, Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries.

Cooper, J.E. 1978. Veterinary aspects of captive birds of prey. 1st edition. Standfast Press, Saul, Gloucestershire,
England.

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Crawford, Jr., W.C. 1983. Housing and maintenance of Accipiters and harriers in captivity. Wildlife Rehabilitation
2:66-69.

Crawford, W.C., Jr. 1987. Hawks and harriers. Pages 350-356 in B.A. Giron Pendleton, B.A. Millsap, K. W. Cline, and
D.M. Bird (editors), Raptor management techniques manual. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

Dunning Jr., J.B. 1984. Body weights of North American birds. Western Bird Banding Association, Monograph #1.

Durvet Incorporated. 1996 Virkon-S. Bloodsprings, Missouri, U.S.A. 1-800-821-5570.

Enderson, J. 1986. Husbandry and captive breeding of birds of prey. Pages 376-379 in M. E. Fowler (editor), Zoo and
wild animal medicine, 2nd edition. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Forbes, N.A. and J. Parry-Jones. 1996. Management and husbandry (raptors). Pages 116-122 in P.H. Beynon, N.A.
Forbes, and N.H. Harcourt-Brown, (editors), BSAVA manual of raptors, pigeons, and waterfowl. British Small
Animal Veterinary Association Limited, Gloucestershire, England.

Fox, N. 1995. Understanding the bird of prey. Hancock Press, Blaine, Washington, USA.

Fraser, C. M. (editor). 1991. Merck veterinary manual (7th ed.). Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, U.S.A.

Gibson, M. J. 1996. The ABC’s of housing raptors. Journal of Wildlife Rehabilitation 19:23-31.

Glasier, P. 1978. Falconry and hawking. Charles T. Branford Co., Newton Centre, Massachuset, U.S.A.

Harrison, C. and H. Loxton. 1993. The bird: master of flight. Barron, New York, New York, U.S.A.

Heidenreich, M. 1997. Birds of prey: medicine and management. English translation. Blackwell Science, Malden,
Massachuset, U.S.A.

Johnson-Delaney, C.A. 1994. Practice Dynamics. Pages 129-143 in B. W. Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and L. R. Harrison
(editors), Avian medicine: principles and applications. Winger Publications, Lake Worth, Florida, U.S.A.

Jones, M. 1993. Constructing perches for healthier feet. Journal of Wildlife. Rehabilitation. 16:13-16.

Jones, B. and J.F. Gumbs. 1984. Utilization of unreleasable raptors as lecture birds: selection, maintenance, and
training methods. Wildlife Rehabilitation: Proceedings of the Symposium of the Natl. Wildlife Rehabilitator’s
Association, Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A.

Johnsgard, P.A. 1988. North American owls: biology and natural history. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Johnsgard, P.A. 1990. Hawks, eagles, and falcons of North America: biology and natural history. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Kaufman, K. 1996. Lives of North American birds. Houghton Mifflin. New York, New York, U.S.A.

Kellert, S.R., J.K. Berry. 1980. Knowledge, affection, and basic attitudes toward animals in American society: phase 3.
United States Government Printing Office #024-010-00-625-1, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Kellert, S.R. and M.O. Westervelt. 1983. Children’s attitudes, knowledge, and behavior toward animals: phase 5.
Unites States Government Printing Office #024-010-006-41-2, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

MacWhirter, P. 1994. Malnutrition. Pages 842-862 in B.W. Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and L. R. Harrison (editors), Avian
medicine: principles and applications. Winger Publications, Lake Worth, Florida, U.S.A.

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McKeever, K. 1979. Care and rehabilitation of injured owls, 1st edition. Canadian Wildlife Services, Department of the
Environment, Canada.

Newton, I. (editor) 1990. Birds of prey. Facts on File, New York, New York, U.S.A.

Parry-Jones, J. 1994. Training birds of prey. David and Charles, Devon, England.

Perry, R.A. 1994. The avian patient. Pages 26-44 in B.W. Ritchie, G.J. Harrison, and L.R. Harrison (editors), Avian
medicine: principles and applications. Winger Publications, Lake Worth, Florida, U.S.A.

Pough, F.H., R.M. Andrews, J.E. Cadle, M.L. Crump, A.H. Savitzky, K.D. Wells. 1998. Herpetology. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Rapp, S.R. and W.C. Crawford, Jr. 1982. Management and dietary needs of captive raptors. Wildlife Rehabilitation.
1:48-56.

Redig, P. T. 1993. Medical management of birds of prey: a collection of notes on selected topics, 3rd edition. The
Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A.

Ritchie, B. W. and D. W. Dreesen. 1988a. Avian zoonoses: proven and potential diseases, part 1: bacterial and parasite
diseases. Continuing Education of Practicing Veterinarians 10:484-492.

Ritchie, B. W. and D. W. Dreesen. 1988b. Avian zoonoses: proven and potential diseases, part 2: viral, fungal, and
miscellaneous diseases. Continuing Education of Practicing Veterinarians 10:688-697.

Ritchie, B.W. and G.J. Harrison. 1994. Formulary. Pages 457-478 in B.W. Ritchie, G.J. Harrison, and L.R. Harrison
(editors). Avian medicine: principles and applications. Winger Publications, Lake Worth, Florida, U.S.A.

Ritchie, B.W. and V.C. McConnell. 1990. Care and rehabilitation of injured native wildlife. University of Georgia,
Athens, Georgia, U.S.A and Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Social Circle, Georgia, U.S.A.

Wallach, J.D. and G.M. Flieg. 1970. Cramps and fits in carnivorous birds. International Zoo Yearbook 10:3-4.

Weaver, J.D. 1991. Facilities. Pages 3-10. in J.D. Weaver and T. J. Cade. Falcon propagation; a manual on captive
breeding. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise, Idaho, U.S.A.

Weaver, J.D. and T.J. Cade. 1991. Falcon propagation; a manual on captive breeding. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise,
Idaho, U.S.A.

Westervelt, M.O. and L.G. Llewellyn. 1985. Youth and wildlife: the beliefs and behaviors of fifth and sixth grade
students regarding non-domestic animals. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Interior,
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Westervelt, M.O. 1988. Children’s opinion about wildlife: teaching strategies for the wildlife rehabilitator. Wildlife
Rehabilitation 2:187-194.

Wiemeyer, S.N. 1987. Propagation of captive eastern screech owls. Journal of Raptor Research 21: 49-56.

Williams, M. H. 1978. Health and diseases. in P. Glasier. Falconry and hawking. Charles T. Branford Co., Newton
Centre, Massachuset, U.S.A.

58
APPENDIX 1: SPECIFICATIONS FOR HUMANE HANDLING, CARE, CONFINEMENT, AND
TRANSPORTATION OF WILD ANIMALS IN GEORGIA

O.C.G.A.§ 27-5-6. Specifications for humane handling, care, confinement, and transportation of wild animals.

(1) Facilities in general.

(A) The facility must be constructed of such material and of such strength as appropriate for the animals involved. The
housing facilities shall be structurally sound and shall be maintained in good repair to protect and contain the
animals. The facilities shall be designed in such a manner, including the inclusion of barriers of sufficient
dimensions and conformation to safeguard both the animals and the public against injury by direct contact.

(B) Reliable and adequate power, if required to comply with other provisions of this Code section, and adequate potable
water shall be available on the premises.

(C) Supplies of food and bedding shall be stored in facilities which adequately protect the supplies against deterioration,
molding, or contamination by vermin. Refrigeration shall be provided for supplies of perishable foods.

(D) Provisions shall be made for the removal and disposal of animal and food waste, bedding, dead animals, trash, and
debris. Disposal facilities shall be so provided and operated so as to minimize vermin infestation, odors, and disease
hazards. The disposal facilities and any disposal of animals and food wastes, bedding, dead animals, trash, and
debris shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations relating to pollution control or the
protection of the environment.

(2) Indoor facilities

(A) Temperature in outdoor housing facilities shall be sufficiently regulated by heating or cooling to protect the animals
from the extremes of temperature, to provide for their health, and to prevent their discomfort. The ambient
temperature shall not be allowed to fall below nor rise above temperatures compatible with the health and comfort of
the animal.

(B) Indoor housing facilities shall be adequately ventilated by natural or mechanical means to provide for the health and
to prevent discomfort of the animal at all times. Such facilities shall be provided with fresh air either by means of
windows, doors, vents, fans, or air conditioning and shall be ventilated so as to minimize drafts, odors, and moisture
conditions.

(C) Indoor housing facilities shall have ample lighting, by natural or artificial means, or both, of good quality,
distribution, and duration as appropriate for the species involved. Such lighting shall be uniformly distributed and of
sufficient intensity to permit routine inspection and cleaning. Lighting of primary enclosures shall be designed to
protect the animals from excessive illumination.

(D) A suitable sanitary method shall be provided for rapid elimination of excess water from indoor housing facilities. If
drains are used, they shall be properly constructed and kept in good repair to avoid foul odors and installed so as to
prevent any backup of sewage. The method of drainage shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws
and regulations relating to pollution control or the protection of the environment.

(3) Outdoor facilities

(A) When sunlight is likely to cause overheating or discomfort of the animals, sufficiently shade by natural or artificial
means shall be provided to allow all the animals kept outdoors to protect themselves from direct sunlight.

(B) Natural or artificial shelter appropriate to the local climatic conditions for the species concerned shall be provided
for all the animals kept outdoors to afford them protection and to prevent discomfort to such animals. Individual
animals shall be acclimated before they are exposed to the extremes of the local climate.

59
(C) A suitable method shall be provided for rapid elimination of excess water. The method of drainage shall comply with
applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations relating to pollution control or the protection of the
environment.

(4) Space requirements

Enclosures shall be constructed and maintained so as to provide sufficient space to allow each animal to make normal
postural and social adjustments with adequate freedom of movement. Inadequate space may be indicated by malnutrition,
poor condition, debility, stress, or abnormal behavioral patterns.

(5) Feeding

(A) The food shall be wholesome, palatable, and free from contamination and of sufficient quality and nutritive value to
maintain all animals in good health. The diet shall be prepared with consideration for the age, species, condition,
size, and type of animal. Animals shall be fed at least once a day except as dictated by hibernation, veterinary
treatment, normal fasting, or other professionally accepted practices.

(B) Food and food receptacles, if used, shall be in quantity and located so as to be accessible to all animals in the
enclosure and shall be placed as to minimize contamination. Food receptacles shall be kept clean and sanitary at all
times. If self-feeders are used, adequate measures shall be taken to prevent molding, contamination, and deterioration
or caking of food.

(6) Watering

If potable water is not accessible to the animals, it must be provided as often as necessary for the health and comfort of
the animal. Frequency of watering shall take into consideration the age, species, condition, size, and type of the animal.
All water receptacles should be kept clean and sanitary.

(7) Sanitation

(A) Excreta shall be removed from primary enclosures as often as necessary to prevent contamination of the animals
contained therein and to minimize disease hazards and to reduce odors. When enclosures are cleaned by hosing or
flushing, adequate measures shall be taken to protect the animals confined in such enclosures from being directly
sprayed with water or wetted involuntarily.

(B) Subsequent to the presence of an animal with an infectious or transmittable disease, cages, rooms, and hard-surfaced
pens or runs shall be sanitation either by washing them with hot water (180oF at source) and soap or detergent, as in a
mechanical washer, or by washing all soiled surfaces with a detergent cleaning solution followed by a safe and
effective disinfectant or by cleaning all soiled surfaces with saturated live steam under pressure. Pens or runs using
gravel, sand, or dirt shall be sanitized when necessary.

(C) Premises (buildings or grounds) shall be kept clean and in good repair in order to protect the animals from injury and
to facilitate the prescribed husbandry practices set forth in this Code section. Accumulations of trash shall be placed
in designated areas and cleared as necessary to protect the health of the animals.

(D) A safe and effective program for the control of insects, ectoparasites, and avian and mammalian pest shall be
established and maintained.

(8) Employees

A sufficient number of adequately trained employees shall be utilized to maintain the professionally acceptable level of
husbandry practices set forth in this Code section. Such employees shall be under a supervisor who has a back ground in
animal care.

(9) Separation

Animals housed in the same primary enclosure must be compatible. Animals shall not be housed near animals that will
interfere with their health or cause them discomfort.
60
(10) Veterinary care

(A) Programs of disease prevention, parasite control, euthanasia, and adequate veterinary care shall be established and
maintained. The pest control program shall be reviewed for the safe use of materials and methods.

(B) Animals shall be observed everyday by the person in charge of the care of the animals or by someone working under
his direct supervision. Sick, diseased, stressed, injured, or lame animals shall be provided with veterinary care or
humanely destroyed, unless such action is inconsistent with the research purpose for which the animal was obtained
and being held.

(C) (i) In the case of a research facility, the program of adequate veterinary care shall include the appropriate
use of anesthetic, analgesic, or tranquilizing drugs, when such use would be proper in the opinion of the attending
veterinarian at the research facility. Such drugs shall be used in accordance with the currently accepted veterinary
medical practices as cited in appropriate professional journals or reference guides and shall produce in the individual
subject animal a high level of tranquilization, anesthesia, or analgesia consistent with the protocol or design of the
experiment.

(ii) It shall be incumbent upon each research facility to provide guidelines and consultation to research personnel
with respect to the type and amount of tranquilizers, anesthetics, or analgesics recommended as being appropriate for
each species of animal used by that institution.

(iii) The use of these three classes of drugs shall effectively minimize the pain and discomfort of the animals while
under experimentation.

(11) Handling

(A) Handling of animals shall be done expeditiously and carefully so as not to cause unnecessary discomfort, behavioral
stress, or physical harm to the animal. Care should be exercised also to avoid harm to the handler.

(B) Animals to which the public is afforded direct contact shall only be displayed for periods of time and under
consistent with the animals health and not leading to their discomfort.

(C) During public display, the animals must be handled so there is minimal risk of harm to the public with sufficient
distance allowed between the animals and the viewing public to assure safety to both the public and the animals.
Performing animals shall be allowed a rest period between performance equal to the time for one performance.

(12) Vehicles

(A) Vehicles used in transporting animals shall be mechanically sound and equipped to provide the animals adequate
fresh air, both when moving and stationary, without injurious drafts or discomforts.
(B) The animal cargo space shall be so constructed and maintained so as to prevent the ingress of the vehicle’s exhaust
gases.

(C) The interior of the animal cargo space shall be kept physically clean.

(D) The ambient temperature shall be sufficiently regulated by heating or cooling to protect animals from the extremes of
temperature and to provide for their health and to prevent their discomfort. The ambient temperature
shall not be allowed to fall below or rise above temperatures compatible with the health and comfort of the animals.

(13) Primary enclosure to transport animals

(A) Primary enclosures, such as compartment used to transport animals, shall be well constructed, well ventilated, and
designed to protect and assure the safety of the animals. Such enclosures shall be constructed or positioned in the
vehicle in such a manner that each animal in the vehicle has access to sufficient air for normal breathing, the
openings of such enclosures are easily accessible at all times for emergency removal of the animals, and the animals
are afforded adequate protection from the elements.
61
(B) Animals transported in the same primary enclosure shall be compatible. Socially dependent animals (e.g. siblings,
dam, and young cage mates) must be allowed to have visual and olfactory contact.

(C) Primary enclosures used to transport animals shall be large enough to insure that each animal contained therein has
sufficient space to turn about freely and to make normal postural adjustments; provided, however, that certain species
may be restricted in their movements according to professionally acceptable standards when such freedom of
movement would constitute a danger to the animals or their handlers.

(D) Animals shall not be placed in primary enclosures over other animals in transit unless each floor is fitted with a floor
of a material which prevents animal excreta or other waste from entering lower enclosures.

(E) Primary enclosures used to transport animals shall be cleaned and sanitized before and after each shipment. All
bedding in the vehicle shall be cleaned at the beginning of each trip.

(14) Food and water requirements

(A) Potable water shall be provided to each animal at least once in each 12 hour period except as directed by hibernation,
veterinary treatment, or other professionally accepted practices. Those animals which, by common accepted practice,
require watering more frequently shall be so watered.

(B) Each animal shall be fed at least once in each 24 hour period except as directed by hibernation, veterinary treatment,
normal fast, or other professionally accepted practices. Those animals which, by common accepted practice, require
feeding more frequently shall be fed.

(C) A sufficient quantity of food and water shall accompany the animal to provide food and water for the animal for a
period of at least 24 hours, except as directed by hibernation, veterinary treatment, normal fast, or other
professionally accepted practices.

(15) Care in transit

(A) It shall be the responsibility of the attendant or driver to inspect the animals frequently enough to assure the health
and comfort of the animals.

(B) In the event of a breakdown or delay of the vehicle, it is the responsibility of the animal caretaker or vehicle operator
to assure that animals get adequate ventilation and protection from fumes, vehicle exhaust, and extremes in
temperature and to assure that the animals are not subjected to undue discomfort.
(C) In an emergency concerning the health and welfare of the animals, adequate veterinary care shall be provided without
delay.
(Code 1933, 45-1103, enacted by Ga. L. 1977, p. 396 1.)

(16) Nothing in this Code section shall prevent wild animal license or permit holders from processing meat or meat
products animals that are surplus to the primary purpose of their wild animal business. Such processing must be
done in compliance with the provisions of Article 3 of Chapter 2 of Title 26, the ‘Georgia Meat Inspection Act.’

62
APPENDIX 2: STATE OF GEORGIA REGULATIONS FOR WILDLIFE
EXHIBITION

391-4-9-.04 Wildlife Exhibition Permits.

(1) Purpose.

The purpose of these regulations is to protect wildlife and the citizens of Georgia by establishing minimum
requirements for obtaining a wildlife exhibition permit and establishing standards for holding and exhibiting
wildlife.

(2) General Regulations. A wildlife exhibition permit shall not be issued unless the following conditions are met:

(a) The applicant must be at least eighteen (18) years of age;

(b) Facilities for holding and exhibiting wildlife must comply with O.C.G.A. 27-5-6 and must meet minimum
requirements as specified by the Department;

(c) Applicants proposing to exhibit mammals must first obtain an exhibitor’s license from the United States Department
of Agriculture, Animal and Health Inspection Service (USDA/APHIS), or provide documentation that the applicant is
exempt from USDA/APHIS requirements; and

(d) Applicants proposing to exhibit migratory birds regulated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
must obtain an appropriate permit from USFWS before obtaining or exhibiting migratory birds. A copy of USFWS
permits shall be sent to the Department, Special Permit Unit.

(3) Fixed facilities. Wildlife exhibition permits for fixed facilities shall not be issued unless the following criteria are
met:

(a) A fixed facility for exhibiting wildlife shall be open to the public for a time no less than 30 hours per week for at
least six (6) months each year during reasonable hours of the day. A sign specifying the days and hours the facility is
open to the public shall be placed in a prominent location visible to the public and in close proximity to the facility.
(b) Each cage or pen shall be signed identifying the animal(s) by common and scientific name. Additional information
about each species shall be provided through interpretative signs and/or audio-visual material.

(4) Mobile Educational Programs. For the purpose of this rule, mobile educational program shall mean any educational
program using live wildlife and which program is conducted outside of the enclosure where the wildlife is
permanently housed. Conditions for conducting mobile educational programs are as follows:

(a) Residents holding wildlife for use in educational programs shall conduct a minimum of twelve (12) program hours
per year. Program hours must be documented and provided at the time of renewal;

(b) Animals must be handled so there is minimal risk of harm to the public and animals with sufficient distance allowed
between the animals and the viewing public to assure safety to both the public and the animals as determined by the
Department. Animals shall not be handled by the public, except that nonvenomous reptiles and amphibians may be
handled by members of the public under close supervision of the permittee.

(5) Exhibition of rabies prone species.

(a) Bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall not be exhibited in mobile educational programs.

(b) In fixed facilities, the exhibition of bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks will be made in a facility
constructed in a manner satisfactory to the Department to ensure that the public cannot gain access to animals which
may have exposure to free-living rabies vector species.
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(c) Bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall be kept in isolation from contact with other exhibit animals
and free-living wildlife for a minimum of 180 days before exhibition in fixed facilities.
(d) Persons with specific responsibilities related to handling, feeding, or caring for animals at facilities which exhibit
bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall receive rabies pre-exposure vaccination and must
demonstrate rabies antibody levels that are recommended for adequate protection before a permit is issued and at
least every five years thereafter.

(6) Exemptions.

(a) Educational institutions; federal, state, city, county, or municipal governments or their agencies; or transient circuses,
shall receive a wildlife exhibition permit at no cost, provided that such exhibition shall comply with all laws and
regulations relating to handling, care, confinement, and transporting of wildlife and rules contained herein.

(b) Falconers licensed in Georgia shall not be required to purchase a wildlife exhibition permit to conduct mobile
educational programs with raptors held under their Georgia State/Federal falconry license.

(c) Residents exhibiting wildlife at both a fixed facility and at mobile educational programs shall meet the requirements
of 391-4-9-.04 (3)(a) or (4)(a), but shall not be required to comply with both paragraphs (3)(a) and (4)(a).

(d) Persons issued wildlife exhibition permits or licenses prior to passage of this rule shall have until November 1, 1998
to comply with these regulations.
(e) Nothing in this rule shall be construed to limit or prohibit a licensed veterinarian or licensed veterinary technician f
rom providing emergency care, vaccination or other veterinary care that otherwise falls within the scope of
professional and ethical judgement.

(7) Penalties

(a) Wildlife exhibitors in violation of this rule shall have their license or permit revoked or suspended by the Department
for a period of not less than two (2) years.

Authority O.C.G.A. Title 27; O.C.G.A. §27-1-4, §27-2-13

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APPENDIX 3: USFWS STANDARD CONDITIONS
SPECIAL PURPOSE - POSSESSION / EDUCATION (LIVE SPECIMEN)

50 CFR 21.27

1. Permittee, and subpermittees, shall carry and display, upon reques, a copy of this permit whenever exercising its
authority.

2. Failure to comply with ANY of these conditions listed may result in the immediate suspension of this permit.

3. Authorization granted herin shall not be exercised contrary to laws of the appropriate State, County, Municipal,
Tribal, or Foreign government or any other applicable laws.

4. Permittee shall maintain records as required in 50 CFR 13.46 and 50 CFR 21.27.

5. All required records relating to permitted activities shall be kept at the location as indicated in writing by permittee
to the issuing office.

6. The death or escape of any birds must be reported in writing within 48 hours to the issuing office. Birds possessed
under this authority may not be used for breeding purpose.

This permit DOES NOT authorize the acquisition, transfer, trade, replacement, or removal of any bird without an
amended permit from the issuing office. No permit will be amended without prior written request from the Permittee.
Disposition of All Migratory Birds Shall Be Directed by the Issuing Office.

If the permittee is requested to acquire a bird, the request must include the following:
Identify the species that you are requesting;
A veterinarians’s statement as to why the bird is nonreleaseable;
A brief outline of the presentation involving each additional species;
A description of permanent facilities where the species will be housed;
A description of your experience handling the species being requested, if different from birds
currently listed on your permit;
A copy of any additional state authorization if applicable;
Provide information regarding the person / institution who is transferring the bird to your facility
including their name, address, and permit number.

If the permittee is requesting to transfer a bird, the written request must include the following:
Identify the species of the bird the permittee is proposing to transfer;
Provide the name of the person / institution who is requesting the bird, their address, and federal
permit number;
Provide a veterinarian’s transfer statement as to why the bird is nonreleasable.

7. Migratory birds possessed or transported under authority of this permit MAY NOT be displayed in any manner
which may imply personal use by the permittee nor representation, promotion, or endoresement of any product,
merchandise, goods, services, or any business, company, corporation, or other organization except the permittee’s
educational activities or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services.

8. The intent of this permit is wildlife conservation education. A minimum of 12 programs per bird should be presented
each year. The authority to possess migratory birds will be subject to reevaluation if this condition is not met.

9. The birds listed on this permit remain in the stewardship of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and may be recalled at
any time.

65
10. Display of any migratory birds, nests, eggs, or any parts thereof under authority of this permit shall be accompanied
by a sign indicating possession and exhibition by permission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

11. All facilities and equipment must be adequate for each species the permittee plans to possess for educational
programs. Criteria used for evaluating and inspecting permittee’s facilities for housing raptors will be based on the
guidelines established by The Raptor Center, University of Minnesota publication “Care and Management of Captive
Raptors”. All other live birds held under this permit must be maintained under humane and healthful conditions as
required in 50 CFR 13.

12. These birds must be kept under control at all times and are not allowed to come into contact with memebers of the
audience unless otherwise authorized.

13. Permittee assumes responsibility for damage or injury to any person or property occasioned through the possession
or handling of migratory birds and the United States Government shall be indemnified and saved harmless against
claims for damage or injury in such cases.

14. Acceptance of this permit authorizes inspection in accordance with 50 CFR 13.47.

66
 APPENDIX 4: SURVEY INSTRUMENT SENT TO PERSONS POSSESSING A PERMIT FOR
UTILIZING NON-RELEASABLE RAPTORS FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
IN GEORGIA

Instructions
Please have the primary caretaker complete all sections of the survey. To make analysis of the data provided
possible, please answer the questions as close to the format provided as possible. If there is other information that you
feel will be useful, please indicate so by writing in an additional comments section on the back of the page (indicate that
there are “comments on the back” by the question the comments are for). Remember to number the comments with the
same number as the question.
It will take between 15 to 30 minutes to fill out the survey depending upon the number of birds housed at your
facility. If medical and other records of the health of the birds are available, it is a good idea to have them on hand to fill
out the survey.
This is the first survey of this type to determine the quality of care in educational programs. There are many
different methods for housing birds. In Georgia, there are no strict guidelines to follow when keeping raptors. This can
be good and bad. It is good because caretakers made have unconventional methods of housing birds that work very well.
Unfortunately, these unconventional methods may be hard to explain in the event of an inspection. The methods docu-
mented by the survey will be compiled in the management recommendations and made available for educational and other
facilities.
The data collected from this survey will be compiled and will be compared to other facilities that have strict
guidelines, such as zoos, to compare the overall health of the birds kept in both facilities.
Please limit responses to birds used in educational programs. If a raptor is kept for display purpose (ie., in a
zoo) please do not include it in the survey. If, however, that bird is used in programs where the educator takes the class to
see it and teaches about it, that bird should be included.

IF you did not have educational birds at you facility in the year 1-1-1996 through
12-31-96, please sign below and return the survey to us. Thank you.

________________________________________________ Date _________________

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Center Name __________________________________________________________

General Information

1. List the species, number, and use of each raptor housed at your facility from Jan 1 1996 - Dec 31 1996.

Species Total Number Number and status of each bird

Red-tailed Hawk _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____

Barred owl _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Great-horned owl _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Barn owl _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Screech owl _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Kestrel _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Bald Eagle _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Golden Eagle _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____
Turkey Vulture _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____

Other:
________________________________ _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____

________________________________ _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____

________________________________ _______ releasable ____ non-releasable _____

2. How long have raptors been housed at your facility? ____________

Facilities and equipment (cage drawings or photos will be appreciated)

3. Please list the approximate dimensions of each raptor cage by species (length x width x height):

Hawks:_____________________________________________________________________

Large Owls:_________________________________________________________________

Small Owls:_________________________________________________________________

Falcons:____________________________________________________________________

Other (please specify):_________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. What type of perches do you use? (Circle all that apply)

astroturf cork bark natural branches shaped wood blocks lrg. stones

stumps or logs other: __________________________________

5. What type of substrate are the cage floors covered with? (Circle all that apply)

grass pine needles wood shavings crushed gravel dirt concrete floor w/ drain

round-river-rock newspaper other:____________________________________

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6. Does each raptor have a water dish large enough to bathe in? Yes No

7. What type of wire, netting, or sides do the cages have? (Please circle appropriate answer(s))

Sides - chain link fence (non-coated) chain link fence (coated) galvanized hardware cloth

wooden slats solid wood sides plastic mesh chicken wire other: _______________________

Top - chain link fence (non-coated) chain link fence (coated) galvanized hardware cloth

wooden slats solid wood sides plastic mesh chicken wire netting tin roof

shingles other: _______________________________

8. What precautions are taken to prevent the birds from overheating in the summer or from becoming too cool in

the winter? _____________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Educational Programs

9. What is the average duration that birds are used during a class?_____________

10. How long of a break (if any) do birds have between “performances” to rest?____________

Raptor Transport
11. What is the total number of transport cages at your facility? ____________

Sanitation
12. Please describe the sanitation procedures:

Item Frequency Cleaning solution

water dishes _______________ _______________________________

food dish _______________ _______________________________

cages _______________ _______________________________

substrate _______________ _______________________________

transport cages _______________ _______________________________

13. Do you have any type of insect, ectoparasites, avian, or mammal pest control program? Yes No

If yes please describe (chemicals, frequency, etc.)_______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

69
Employees and Training
14. What is the average number of employees and volunteers that work with your raptors (teaching, cleaning,

training, weekend care, etc.)?________________

15. What is the average amount of training that you provide to these assistants?_________________________

16. Before starting this program, what type and how much training (formal or informal) did the primary caretaker

have?_________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

17. Total number of years of experience, working with wildlife, of the primary caretaker:____________

Medical History

18. Do you have a regular veterinarian? Yes No

19. If yes, does your veterinarian have extensive experience with raptors? Yes No Unknown

20. How often does a veterinarian visit your facility for routine check-ups?_________________

21. How often do you take each bird to the veterinarian for a routine check-up?_________________

22. What how many and what types of medical problems have your birds experienced in the last year? Please

include all problems from 1-1-1996 through 12-31-1996.

(Please indicate if starting date if other than 1-1-1996 starting date:________________)

Species # of problems Type and number of individual injuries or problems

Hawks ________ __________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Large Owls ________ _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Small Owls ________ _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Falcons ________ _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Eagles ________ _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Vultures ________ _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

23. Number of birds housed at your facility in the last year? _________
Of those birds how many: died:______ escaped:______ no longer own:______ still own:______

24. What % of the birds that have died at your facility received a professional necropsy? _______
Feeding Strategy
25. List the primary food source(s), by percent, of your raptors (eg. Chicks 70%, mice 30%).
% of diet by weight______________
Species Mice Rats Day-old chicks Bird of Prey Diet Quail Fish Road kill Other

Red-tailed Hawk

Barn Owl

Great Horned Owl

Barred Owl

Screech Owl

American Kestrel

Bald Eagle

Golden Eagle

Vulture

26. Do you use food supplements? Yes No If yes, please indicate the species that receives it, type, frequency,

and on what type of food it is placed:

Raptor Type or name of supplement Amount Frequency Type of Food

Hawks _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Large Owls _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Small Owls _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Falcons _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Eagles _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Vultures _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

Other _______________________________ ___________ _________ ______________

71
APPENDIX 5: SURVEY INSTRUMENT SENT TO PERSONS POSSESSING A PERMIT FOR
UTILIZING NON-RELEASABLE RAPTORS FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES

Instructions
Please have the primary caretaker complete all sections of the survey. To make analysis of the data possible,
please answer the questions as close to the format provided as possible. If there is other information that you feel will be
useful, please indicate so by writing in an additional comments on a separate page. Remember to number the comments
with the same number as the question.
It will take between 15 to 30 minutes to fill out the survey depending upon the number of birds housed at your
facility. If medical and other records of the health of the birds are available, it is a good idea to have them on hand to fill
out the survey.
This is the first survey of this type to determine the quality of care in educational programs. There are many
different methods for housing birds. In Georgia, there are no strict guidelines to follow when keeping raptors. This can
be good and bad. It is good because caretakers made have unconventional methods of housing birds that work well.
Unfortunately, these unconventional methods may be hard to explain in the event of an inspection. The methods docu-
mented by the survey will be compiled in the management recommendations and made available for educational and other
facilities. The results will be either published in a scientific journal or provided to centers and individuals for their
participation.
Please limit responses to non-releasable raptors in educational programs. If a raptor is kept for display
purpose only (ie., in a zoo) please do not include it in the survey. If, however, that bird is used in programs where the
educator takes the class to see it and teaches about it, that bird should be included.

72
Center or Caretaker Name _______________________________________ State ______________

1. List the species, number, and use of each raptor housed at your facility from Jan 1 1996 - Dec 31 1996.

Species Number Species Number Species Number

Red-tailed Hawk _______ Red-shouldered Hawk _______ Golden Eagle _______
Barred owl _______ Screech owl _______ Bald Eagle _______
Great-horned owl _______ Barn owl _______ Black Vulture _______
Osprey _______ American kestrel _______ Turkey Vulture _______
_________________________ _______ _________________________ _______ ______________________ _______
_________________________ _______ _________________________ _______ ______________________ _______

2. How long have raptors been housed at your facility? ____________

3. Please list the approximate dimensions of each raptor cage by species (length x width x height):

Species: Length Width Height Species: Length Width Height

Hawks __________ __________ __________ Falcons __________ __________ __________

Hawks __________ __________ __________ Small Owls __________ __________ __________

___________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ___________ __________ __________

4. What type of perches do you use? (Circle all that apply)

astroturf cork bark natural branches shaped wood blocks lrg. stones stumps or logs other:

5. What type of substrate are the cage floors covered with? (Circle all that apply)

grass pine needles wood shaving crushed gravel dirt concrete floor w/ drain round-river-rock newspaper o ther:____________________

6. Does each raptor have a water dish large enough to bathe in? Yes No

7. What type of wire, netting, or sides do the cages have? (Please circle appropriate answer(s))

Sides - chain link fence (non-coated) chain link fence (coated) galvanized hardware cloth wooden slats solid wood sides

plastic mesh chicken wire other: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Top - chain link fence (non-coated) chain link fence (coated) galvanized hardware cloth wooden slats solid wood sides

plastic mesh chicken wire netting tin roof shingles other: _____________________________________________________

8. What precautions are taken to prevent the birds from overheating in the summer or from becoming too cool in the winter? __________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. What is the average number of employees and volunteers that work with your raptors (teaching, cleaning, training, weekend care, etc.)?________________
Average amount of training?___________________

10. Before starting this program, what type and how much training (formal or informal) did the primary caretaker have?________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Total number of years of experience, working with wildlife, of the primary caretaker:____________

73
Medical History
12. Do you have a regular veterinarian? Yes No If yes, does your veterinarian have extensive experience with raptors? Yes No Unknown

13. How often does a veterinarian visit your facility for routine check-ups?_________________

14. How often do you take each bird to the veterinarian for a routine check-up?_________________

15. What how many and what types of medical problems have your birds experienced in the last year?
Please include all problems from 1-1-1996 through 12-31-1996. (Please indicate if starting date if other than 1-1-1996 starting date:________)

Species # of problems Type and number of individual injuries or problems

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________ _______________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

Feeding Strategy
16. List the primary food source(s), by percent, of your raptors (eg. Chicks 70%, mice 30%).
% of diet by weight______________
Species Mice Rats Day-old chicks Bird of Prey Diet Quail Fish Road kill Other

Red-tailed Hawk

Barn Owl

Great Horned Owl

Barred Owl

Screech Owl

American Kestrel

Bald Eagle

Golden Eagle

Vulture

17. Do you use food supplements? Yes No If yes, please indicate the species that receives it, type, frequency, and on what type of food it is placed:

Raptor Type or name of supplement Amount Frequency Type of Food

Hawks _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

Large Owls _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

Small Owls _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

Falcons _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

Eagles _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

Vultures _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

________________ _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

________________ _______________________________ ___________ ____________________________________________

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