There are generally considered to be four principles (referred to as "laws"):

1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics, which underlies the definition of temperature.

2. The first law of thermodynamics, which mandates conservation of energy, and
states in particular that heat is a form of energy.
3. The second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of the universe
always increases, or (equivalently) that perpetual motion machines are
impossible.
4. The third law of thermodynamics, which concerns the entropy of an object at
absolute zero temperature, and implies that it is impossible to cool a system all the
way to exactly absolute zero.

During the last 80 years or so, occasionally, various writers have suggested additional
Laws, but none of them have become well accepted.

Zeroth law
Main article: Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other..

When two systems are put in contact with each other, there will be a net exchange of
energy between them unless or until they are in thermal equilibrium, that is, they are at
the same temperature. While this is a fundamental concept of thermodynamics, the need
to state it explicitly was not perceived until the first third of the 20th century, long after
the first three principles were already widely in use, hence the zero numbering. The
Zeroth Law asserts that thermal equilibrium, viewed as a binary relation, is a transitive
relation (and since any system is always in equilibrium with itself, it is furthermore an
equivalence relation).

First law
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change forms.

In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the same.

For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat supplied to the system equals the net work done
by the system.

The First Law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; rather, the amount of
energy lost in a steady state process cannot be greater than the amount of energy gained.
This is the statement of conservation of energy for a thermodynamic system. It refers to
the two ways that a closed system transfers energy to and from its surroundings - by the
process of heating (or cooling) and the process of mechanical work. The rate of gain or
loss in the stored energy of a system is determined by the rates of these two processes. In
open systems, the flow of matter is another energy transfer mechanism, and extra terms
must be included in the expression of the first law.

Fundamental Thermodynamic Relation

Here, E is internal energy, T is temperature, S is entropy, p is pressure, and V is volume.

This is a statement of conservation of energy: The net change in internal energy (dE)
equals the heat energy that flows in (TdS), minus the energy that flows out via the system
performing work (pdV).

Second law
The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.

In a simple manner, the second law states "energy systems have a tendency to increase
their entropy rather than decrease it." This can also be stated as "heat can spontaneously
flow from a higher-temperature region to a lower-temperature region, but not the other
way around." (Heat can flow from cold to hot, but not spontaneously—- for example,
when a refrigerator expends electrical power.)

A way of thinking about the second law for non-scientists is to consider entropy as a
measure of disorder. So, for example, a broken cup has less order (more entropy) than an
intact one, and it is more difficult to repair a broken cup (reducing its entropy) than to
break an intact one (increasing its entropy). Likewise, solid crystals, the most organized
form of matter, have very low entropy values; and gases, which are very disorganized,
have high entropy values.

The entropy of a thermally isolated macroscopic system never decreases. However, a

microscopic system may exhibit fluctuations of entropy opposite to that stated by the
Second Law (see Maxwell's demon and Fluctuation Theorem).

Third law
As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant
minimum.

Briefly, this postulates that entropy is temperature dependent and results in the
formulation of the idea of absolute zero.

Tentative fourth laws or principles

Over the years, various thermodynamic researchers have come forward to ascribe to or to
postulate potential fourth laws of thermodynamics (either suggesting that a widely-
accepted principle should be called the fourth law, or proposing entirely new laws); in
some cases, even fifth or sixth laws of thermodynamics are proposed[1]. Most fourth law
statements, however, are speculative and controversial.

The most commonly proposed Fourth Law is the Onsager reciprocal relations, which give
a quantitative relation between the parameters of a system in which heat and matter are
simultaneously flowing.

Other tentative fourth law statements are attempts to apply thermodynamics to evolution.
During the late 19th century, thermodynamicist Ludwig Boltzmann argued that the
fundamental object of contention in the life-struggle in the evolution of the organic world
is 'available energy'. Another example is the maximum power principle as put forward
initially by biologist Alfred Lotka in his 1922 article Contributions to the Energetics of
Evolution.[2] Most variations of hypothetical fourth laws (or principles) have to do with
the environmental sciences, biological evolution, or galactic phenomena.[3]

Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of gases under identical temperature and pressure conditions will contain
equal numbers of particles (atoms, ion, molecules, electrons, etc.).

Boyle's Law
At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure to which it is subjected.

PV = k

Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.

V = kT

Combining Volumes
Refer to Gay-Lussac's Law

Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; the energy of the universe is constant. This
is the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Conservation of Mass
Also known as Conservation of Matter. Matter can be neither created nor destroyed,
though it can be rearranged. Mass remains constant in an ordinary chemical change.

Dalton's Law
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
component gases.
Definite Composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a defined
ratio by weight.

Dulong & Petit's Law

Most metals require 6.2 cal of heat in order to raise the temperature of 1 gram-atomic
mass of the metal by 1°C.

Faraday's Law
The weight of any element liberated during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the cell and also to the equivalent weight of the element.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Conservation of Energy. The total energy of the universe is constant and is neither
created nor destroyed.

Gay-Lussac's Law
The ratio between the combining volumes of gases and the product (if gaseous) can be
expressed in small whole numbers.

Graham's Law
The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molecular mass.

Henry's Law
The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is directly proportional to the pressure
applied to the gas.

Ideal Gas Law

The state of an ideal gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature
according to the equation:

PV = nRT
where

P is the absolute pressure

V is the volume of the vessel
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal gas constant
T is the absolute temperature

Multiple Proportions
When elements combine, they do so in the ratio of small whole numbers. The mass of
one element combines with a fixed mass of another element according to this ratio.
Periodic Law
The chemical properties of the elements vary periodically according to their atomic
numbers.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy increases over time. Another way of stating this law is to say that heat cannot
flow, on its own, from an area of cold to an area of hot

LAW OF MASS CONVERSATION

The mass of the substances entering into a reaction equal the mass of the substances
formed as a result of the reaction.

Atomic-molecular concept explains this law by following manner: as a result of chemical

reactions atoms do not appear and do not disappear, but occurs their rearrangement (i.e.
chemical conversion-process of bond breakup between atoms with another bond
formation, as a result of such conversation the molecules of source substances transform
into the molecules of products of reaction). As far as a number of atoms before and after
reaction stays unchangeable their general mass also must not change.

Law of constant composition

For the first time has formulated by G. Prust (1808)

"All individual chemical substances have constant quality and quantity composition and
definite chemical structure and does not depend on how this substance was prepared."

From the law of constant composition follows that at complex substance formation the
elements combine with each other in definite mass proportions.
example

CuS- copper sulphide. m (Cu) : m (S) = Ar (Cu) : Ar (S) = 64 : 32 = 2 : 1

To get copper sulphide (CuS) it is necessary to mix up the powders of copper and sulphur
in mass relations 2:1.

If taken amounts of source substances do not correspond their correlation in the chemical
formula of compound one of them stay in the excess.

For instance, if take 3 g. copper and 1 g. sulphur than after the reaction 1 g. copper,
which did not enter in the chemical reaction will stay.

Law of combining volumes

"When gases react, the volumes consumed and produced, measured at the same
temperature and pressure, are in ratios of small whole numbers".

Consequence. Stoichiometric coefficients in equations of chemical reactions for

molecules of gaseous substances shows in which volume combinations gaseous
substances are got or react.

In the time of synthesis of ammonia from elements:

N2 + 3H2  2NH3

One volume of nitrogen is reacting with three volumes of hydrogen: 2 volumes of

ammonia are forming √ the volume of source reaction mixture will be decreased in 2
times.

Avogadro law
Equal volumes of all gases at the same conditions (temperature, pressure) contain the
same number of molecules.

This law truth for gaseous substances only.

Consequences:
 1. On mole of any substance in the gaseous state occupies the same volume at the
same temperature and pressure.

2. One mole of any gas in standard conditions (0╟C = 273K, 1 atm = 101.3 kPa)
occupies a volume of 22.4 litres.

Planetary model of atom structure

(E. Rutherford, 1911)

1. Atoms of chemical elements have a complex internal structure.

2. In the center of atom locate positive charged nucleus, occupying insignificant part
of spaces inside atom.

3. The whole positive charge and almost the whole mass of atom concentrated in
atom nucleus (the mass of electron is 1/1823 a.e.m.)

4. Electrons are moved around the nucleus on the closed orbital. Their number is a
charge of a nucleus. Therefore, atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

Nucleus of atom
Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons (general title - nucleons). The number of
protons (Z) in atomic nuclei is strictly defined and equal to the serial number of element
in the Periodic system. The number of neutrons in the atomic nuclei of one and the same
element can be different - A-Z (where A - relative atomic mass of element; Z- serial
number).

The number of protons defines nucleus charge of atom.

Nucleus mass is defined by the sum of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes
Isotopes- variety of atoms of certain chemical elements, having an identical atomic
number, but different mass numbers. Isotopes have nucleuses with an identical number of
protons and different number of neutrons.

Isotopes have an identical structure of electronic shell and occupy one and the same place
in the Periodic table of chemical elements.