Training and development refer to programs designed to help new employees adjust to the

workplace successfully. In addition, they include the formal ongoing efforts of corporations and
other organizations to improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a
variety of methods and programs. In the modem workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad
range of applications, from training in highly specific job skills to long-term professional
development, and are applicable to all sorts of employees ranging from line workers to the chief
executive officer. Training and development have emerged as formal corporate functions,
integral elements of corporate strategy, and are recognized as professions with distinct theories
and methodologies as companies increasingly acknowledge the fundamental importance of
employee growth and development, as well as the necessity of a highly skilled workforce, in
order to improve the success and efficiency of their organizations.

For the most part, training and development are used together to bring about the overall
acclimation, improvement, and education of an organization's employees. While closely related,
there are important differences between the terms and the scope of each. In general, training
programs have very specific and quantifiable goals, such as operating a particular piece of
machinery, understanding a specific process, or performing certain procedures with great
precision. On the other hand, developmental programs concentrate on broader skills that are
applicable to a wider variety of situations, such as decision making, leadership skills, and goal
setting. In short, training programs are typically tied to a particular subject matter and are
applicable to that subject only, while developmental programs center on cultivating and
enriching broader skills useful in numerous contexts.

HISTORY OF TRAINING PROGRAMS

The apprenticeship system emerged in ancient cultures to provide a structured approach to the
training of unskilled workers by master craftsmen. This system was marked by three distinct
stages: the unskilled novice, the journeyman or yeoman, and finally, the master craftsman.
Together, they formed an "organic" process whereby the novice "grew" into a master craftsman
over a period of years.

With the onset of the Industrial Age, the training of the unskilled underwent a dramatic
transformation in which vocational education and training emerged to replace the traditional
apprentice system. The division of labor in an industrial factory resulted in specific job tasks that
required equally specific training in a much shorter time span. As training activities grew more
methodical and focused, the first recognizable modern training methods began to develop during
the 19th and early 20th centuries: gaming simulations became an important tool in the Prussian
military during the early 1800s and pyschodrama and role playing were developed by Dr. J. L.
Moreno of Vienna, Austria, in 1910.

The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of training and development as a profession,
resulting in the creation of training associations and societies, the advent of the assembly line
requiring greater specificity in training, and the dramatic training requirements of the world
wars. Important groups forming during this period include the American Management
Association in 1923 (which began as the National Association of Corporation Schools in 1913),
and the National Management Association in 1956 (which began as the National Association of
Foremen in 1925). At the same time, Henry Ford (1863-1947) introduced the assembly line at his
Highland Park, Michigan, plant. Because the assembly line created an even greater division of
labor, along with an unprecedented need for precision and teamwork, job tasks and assignments
required more highly specific and focused training than ever before.

The enormous production needs of the World War I and II created a heavy influx of new workers
with little or no industrial education or skills to the workplace, thereby necessitating massive
training efforts that were at once fast and effective. In particular, the heavy demand for shipping
construction during World War I resulted in a tenfold increase in workers trained on-site by
instructors who were supervisors using a simple four-step method: show, tell, do, check. During
World War II, large numbers of trained industrial workers left their jobs to enter the armed
forces, severely limiting the organizational support normally provided by coworkers in training
their replacements. Heavy demands were placed on foremen and supervisors, and the training
within industry (TWI) service was formed to train supervisors as instructors. Job instruction
training (JIT) was employed to train defense-plant supervisors in instructing new employees in
necessary job skills as quickly as possible. Other programs included job relations training (JRT),
job methods training (JMT), and job safety training (JST). During this time, the American
Society for Training and Development (ASTD) was formed.

By the end of World War II most companies and organizations realized the importance of
training and development as a fundamental organizational tool. Training programs that originally
were developed in response to national crises had become established corporate activities with
long-term strategies working toward improving employee performance. In the mid1950s gaming
simulations gained popularity. Trainers began giving serious consideration to the efficacy of
their training programs, and interest in the evaluation of training programs grew. The 1960s
witnessed an explosion of training methods as the number of corporations using assessment
centers increased from one to 100 by the end of the decade. Government programs to train
young men for industrial jobs, such as the Job Development Program 1965 and the Job Corps,
were initiated to improve the conditions of the economically disadvantaged. New methods
included training laboratories, sensitivity training, programmed instruction, performance
appraisal and evaluation, needs assessments, management training, and organizational
development.

By the 1970s a new sense of professionalism emerged in the training community. Training
programs grew dramatically, and the ASTD produced the Professional Development Manual for
Trainers. Government programs were aimed increasingly at minorities as a group and required
corporations to increase their efforts to recruit minorities. With the rise of organizational
development, the focus of training shifted away from the individual and toward the organization
as a whole. Technological advances in training programs included the use of videotapes,
satellites, and computers.

The 1980s and early 1990s saw important social, economic, and political changes that have had a
profound effect on the way corporations do business, resulting in an ever increasing need for
effective training. In a time of economic constraints coupled with increasing international
competition, training and development programs needed to respond more quickly and effectively
to technological change. Increasing governmental regulations also require a greater breadth of
training programs to reflect the greater diversity of employees.

Furthermore, computers became an integral part of business and industry in the 1980s and 1990s,
making knowledge of computer use essential for many workers. As a consequence, companies
launched computer training and development programs to ensure that their employees possessed
the needed computer skills. In addition, companies used computers as a training method known
as computer-based training, relying on specially designed computer programs to impart
knowledge and skills needed for a host of tasks.

CONTEMPORARY TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES

While new instructional methods are under continuous development, several training methods
have proven highly effective and are widely used to acclimate new employee, impart new skills,
and improve existing skills. They include structured on-the-job training, role playing, self-
instruction, team building games and simulations, computer-based training, mentoring, and job
rotation.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING.

One of the most common and least expensive methods of training and development is on-the-job
training (OJT). OJT refers to the process of learning skills while working where workers—
especially new workers—obtain the knowledge and skills they need to complete their tasks
through a systematic training program. Research indicates that employees acquire approximately
80 percent of their work-related knowledge and skills on the job, making consideration and
implementation of successful OJT programs indispensable for employers. While OJT dates back
to ancient apprenticeship programs, much 20th-century OJT remained uncodified and
unstructured until the 1980s and 1990s.

The structured forms of OJT that emerged promised to remedy problems associated with
unstructured OJT by relying on a planned process designed and proven to impart the necessary
skills by the end of the OJT period. Nevertheless, like unstructured OJT, structured OJT involves
having an experienced employee train a new employee at the work site and having the new
employee receive feedback, advice, and suggestions from coworkers and trainers. Structured
OJT generally assumes that new employees lack certain skills and the goal of the OJT program is
to instill these skills. Therefore, employers design the training programs so that new employees
do not initially perform these new tasks in order to learn. Instead, they gain knowledge and
experience that will facilitate the performance of these tasks at the appropriate time and
gradually work toward performing these tasks. Moreover, trainers assist and intervene at
structured intervals, rather than intervening at random points in the training program as can occur
with unstructured OJT.

Implementing a structured OJT program involves five basic steps: (1) analyzing the tasks and
skills to be learned; (2) selecting, training, and supervising trainers; (3) preparing training
materials; (4) conducting an OJT program; and (5) evaluating the program and making any
necessary improvements or modifications.

ROLE PLAYING.

In role playing, trainees assume various roles and play out that role within a group to learn and
practice ways of handling different situations. A facilitator creates a scenario that is to be acted
out by the participants and guided by the facilitator. While the situation might be contrived, the
interpersonal relations are genuine. Furthermore, participants receive immediate feedback from
the facilitator and the scenario itself allowing better understanding of their own behavior.

SELF-INSTRUCTION.

Self-instruction refers an instructional method that emphasizes individual learning. In self-

instruction programs, the employees take primary responsibility for their own learning. Unlike
instructor- or facilitator-led instruction, trainees have a greater degree of control over topics, the
sequence of learning, and the pace of learning. Depending on the structure of the instructional
materials, trainees can achieve a higher degree of customized learning. Forms of self-instruction
include programmed learning, individualized instruction, personalized systems of instruction,
learner-controlled instruction, and correspondence study. For self-instruction programs to be
successful, employers must not only make learning opportunities available, but also must
promote interest in these learning opportunities. Self-instruction allows trainees to learn at their
own pace and receive immediate feedback. This method also benefits companies that have to
train only a few people at a time.

TEAM BUILDING.

Team building is the active creation and maintenance of effective work groups with similar goals
and objectives. Not to be confused with the informal, ad-hoc formation and use of teams in the
workplace, team building is a formal and methodological process of building work teams with
objectives and goals, facilitated by a third-party consultant. Team building is commonly initiated
to combat ineffectual group functioning that negatively affects group dynamics, labor-
management relations, quality, or productivity. By recognizing the problems and difficulties
associated with the creation and development of work teams, team building provides a
structured, guided process whose benefits include a greater ability to manage complex projects
and processes, flexibility to respond to changing situations, and greater motivation among team
members.

GAMES AND SIMULATIONS.

Games and simulations are structured competitions and operational models used as training
situations to emulate real-life scenarios. The benefits of games and simulations include the
improvement of problem-solving and decision-making skills, a greater understanding of the
organizational whole, the ability to study actual problems, and the power to capture the student's
interest.
COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING.

In computer-based training (CBT), computers and computer-based instructional materials are the
primary medium of instruction. Computer-based training programs are designed to structure and
present instructional materials and to facilitate the learning process for the student. Primary uses
of CBT include instruction in computer hardware, software, and operational equipment. The last
is of particular importance because CBT can provide the student with a simulated experience of
operating a particular piece of equipment or machinery while eliminating the risk of damage to
costly equipment by a trainee or even a novice user. At the same time, the actual equipment's
operational use is maximized because it need not be utilized as a training tool. The use of
computer-based training enables a training organization to reduce training costs, while improving
the effectiveness of the training. Costs are reduced through a reduction in travel, training time,
amount of operational hardware, equipment damage, and instructors. Effectiveness is improved
through standardization and individualization. In recent years, videodisc and CD-ROM have
been successfully integrated into PC platforms allowing low-cost personal computers to serve as
multimedia machines, increasing the flexibility and possibilities of CBT.

MENTORING.

Mentoring refers to programs in which companies select mentors—also called advisers,

counselors, and role models—for trainees or let trainees choose their own. When trainees have
questions or need help, they turn to their mentors, who are experienced workers or managers
with strong communication skills. Mentors offer advice not only on how to perform specific
tasks, but also on how to succeed in the company, how the company's corporate culture and
politics work, and how to handle to delicate or sensitive situations. Furthermore, mentors provide
feedback and suggestions to assist trainees in improving inadequate work.

JOB ROTATION.

Through job rotation, companies can create a flexible workforce capable of performing a variety
of tasks and working for multiple departments or teams if needed. Furthermore, employees can
cultivate a holistic understanding of a company through job rotation and can learn and appreciate
how each department operates. Effective job rotation programs entail more than a couple of
visits to different departments to observe them. Rather, they involve actual participation and
completion of actual duties performed by these departments. In addition, job rotation duties
encompass typical work performed under the same conditions as the employees of the
departments experience. Because of the value some companies place on job rotation, they
establish permanent training slots in major departments, ensuring ongoing exposure of
employees to new tasks and responsibilities.

TYPES OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMS

Companies can apply these different methods of training and development to any number of
subjects to ensure the skills needed for various positions are instilled. Companies gear training
and development programs towards both specific and general skills, including technical training,
sales training, clerical training, computer training, communications training, organizational
development, career development, supervisory development, and management development. The
goal of these programs is for trainees to acquire new knowledge or skills in fields such as sales or
computers or to enhance their knowledge and skills in these areas.

TECHNICAL TRAINING.

Technical training seeks to impart technical knowledge and skills using common training
methods for instruction of technical concepts, factual information, and procedures, as well as
technical processes and principles. Likewise, sales training concentrates on the education and
training of individuals to communicate with customers in a persuasive manner and inculcate
other skills useful for sales positions.

COMMUNICATIONS TRAINING.

Communications training concentrates on the improvement of interpersonal communication

skills, including writing, oral presentation, listening, and reading. In order to be successful, any
form of communications training should be focused on the basic improvement of skills and not
just on stylistic considerations. Furthermore, the training should serve to build on present skills
rather than rebuilding from the ground up. Communications training can be taught separately or
can be effectively integrated into other types of training, since it is fundamentally related to
others disciplines.

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

Organizational development (OD) refers to the use of knowledge and techniques from the
behavioral sciences to analyze existing organizational structure and implement changes in order
to improve organizational effectiveness. OD is useful in such varied areas as the alignment of
employee goals with those of the organization, communications, team functioning, and decision
making. In short, it is a development process with an organizational focus to achieve the same
goals as other training and development activities aimed at individuals. OD practitioners
commonly practice what has been termed "action research" to effect an orderly change that has
been carefully planned to minimize the occurrence of unpredicted or unforeseen events. Action
research refers to a systematic analysis of an organization to acquire a better understanding of the
nature of problems and forces within an organization.

CAREER DEVELOPMENT.

Career development of employees covers the formal development of an employee's position

within an organization by providing a long-term development strategy and training programs to
implement this strategy and achieve individual goals. Career development represents a growing
concern for employee welfare and the long-term needs of employees. For the individual, it
involves stating and describing career goals, the assessment of necessary action, and the choice
and implementation of necessary actions. For the organization, career development represents
the systematic development and improvement of employees. To remain effective, career
development programs must allow individuals to articulate their desires. At the same time, the
organization strives to meet those stated needs as much as possible by consistently following
through on commitments and meeting the expectations of the employees raised by the program.

MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISORY DEVELOPMENT.

Management and supervisory development involves the training of managers and supervisors in
basic leadership skills enabling them to function effectively in their positions. For managers this
typically involves the development of the ability to focus on the effective management of their
employee resources, while striving to understand and achieve the strategies and goals of the
organization. Management training typically involves individuals above the first two levels of
supervision and below senior executive management. Managers learn to effectively develop their
employees by helping employees learn and change, as well as by identifying and preparing them
for future responsibilities. Management development may also include programs that teach
decision-making skills, creating and managing successful work teams, allocating resources
effectively, budgeting, communication skills, business planning, and goal setting.

Supervisory development addresses the unique situation of the supervisor as a link between the
organization's management and workforce. It must focus on enabling supervisors to deal with
their responsibilities to both labor and management, as well as coworkers, and staff departments.
Important considerations include the development of personal and interpersonal skills,
understanding the management process, and productivity and quality improvement.

DESIGNING TRAINING PROGRAMS

The design of training programs covers the planning and creation of training and development
programs. Like the training programs themselves, the development of training programs has
evolved into a profession that utilizes systematic models, methods, and processes of instructional
systems design (ISD). Instructional systems design includes the systematic design and
development of instructional methods and materials to facilitate the process of training and
development and ensure that training programs are necessary, valid, and effective. Although the
instructional design process can take on variety of sequences, the process must include the
collection of data on the tasks or skills to be learned or improved, the analysis of these skills and
tasks, the development of methods and materials, delivery of the program, and finally the
evaluation of the training's effectiveness. Table I describes the process in greater detail.

Training and development programs often rely on the principles and theories of various
behavioral sciences such as psychology and sociology. The behavioral sciences provide useful
theories on individual behavior, motivations, organizational dynamics, and interpersonal
relationships, which the developers of training programs can draw on when creating their
programs. Similarly, the development of a distinctive
Table 1
A Typical Instructional Systems Design Model
STEP DESCRIPTION
Needs analysis Measuring the disparity between current and desired skill levels
Collection of data on job tasks and the subsequent identification of
Task assessment
learning requirements and possible difficulties
Creation of concise statement of objectives and purpose as a
Stating objectives
benchmark
Development of testing materials designed to measure the
Assessment/testing
performance of the objectives
Development of Selection of effective instructional strategies followed by the
matenals development of materials based on the chosen strategies
Piloting the program to gauge the effectiveness of the materials as
Plot programs
well as identify potential weaknesses through subsequent evaluation
Evaluation Evaluation of the efficacy of the methods and materials

adult educational model has influenced the development of training programs, giving them an
exclusive focus on adults. According to this model, adults learn best through goal-oriented
instruction, unlike children, who learn best through instruction based on the subject matter itself.
Hence, given the goal-oriented needs of adult education, the design and development of training
materials have taken on a much higher level of structure and methodology than traditional
methods for instructional development.

EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAMS

Once a company implements a training program, it must evaluate the program's success, even if
it has produced desired results for other companies and even if similar programs have produced
desires for it. Companies first must determine if trainees are acquiring the desired skills and
knowledge. If not, then they must ascertain why not and they must figure out if the trainees are
failing to acquire these skills because of their own inability or because of ineffective training
programs.

In order to evaluate training programs, companies must collect relevant data. The data should
include easily measurable and quantifiable information such as costs, output, quality, and time,
according to Jack J. Phillips in Recruiting, Training, and Retraining New Employees.

1. Costs: budget changes, unit costs, project cost variations, and sales expenses.
2. Output: Units produced, units assembled, productivity per hour, and applications
reviewed.
3. Quality: Error rates, waste, defective products, customer complaints, and shortages.
4. Time: On-time shipments, production or processing time, overtime, training time,
efficiency, and meeting deadlines.

Companies also can use qualitative data such as work habits, attitudes, development,
adaptability, and initiative to evaluate training programs. Most companies, however, prefer to
place more weight on the quantitative data previously outlined.

Furthermore, according to Phillips, companies tend to evaluate training and development

programs on four levels: behavior, learning, reaction, and results. Businesses examine employee
behavior after training programs in order to determine if the programs helped employees adjust
to their environment; also, companies can obtain evidence on employee behavior via observation
and interviews. Throughout the training process, employers monitor how well trainees are
learning about the company, the atmosphere, and their jobs.

To evaluate training and development programs effectively, employers also gauge employee
reactions to the programs. This feedback from trainees provides companies with crucial
information on how employees perceive their programs. Using questionnaires and interviews,
companies can identify employee attitudes toward various aspects of the training programs.
Finally, employers attempt to determine the results of their training programs by studying the
quantifiable data addressed earlier as well as by considering the employee turnover rate and job
performance of workers who recently completed a training and development program.

kirkpatrick's learning and training evaluation theory

kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation model

The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure:

• reaction of student - what they thought and felt about the training
• learning - the resulting increase in knowledge or capability
 • behaviour - extent of behaviour and capability improvement and
implementation/application
• results - the effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainee's
performance

All these measures are recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of learning in
organizations, although their application broadly increases in complexity, and usually cost,
through the levels from level 1-4.

Quick Training Evaluation and Feedback Form, based on Kirkpatrick's Learning

Evaluation Model - (Excel file)

kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation

This grid illustrates the basic Kirkpatrick structure at a glance. The second grid, beneath this one,
is the same thing with more detail.

level evaluation evaluation examples of relevance and

type (what description and evaluation tools and practicability
is characteristics methods
measured)

1 Reaction Reaction evaluation 'Happy sheets', Quick and very easy to

is how the delegates feedback forms. obtain.
felt about the training
or learning Verbal reaction, post- Not expensive to gather or
experience. training surveys or to analyse.
questionnaires.
2 Learning Learning evaluation Typically assessments Relatively simple to set up;
is the measurement of or tests before and clear-cut for quantifiable
the increase in after the training. skills.
knowledge - before
and after. Interview or Less easy for complex
observation can also be learning.
used.
3 Behaviour Behaviour evaluation Observation and Measurement of behaviour
is the extent of interview over time are change typically requires
applied learning back required to assess cooperation and skill of
on the job - change, relevance of line-managers.
implementation. change, and
sustainability of
 change.
4 Results Results evaluation is Measures are already Individually not difficult;
the effect on the in place via normal unlike whole organisation.
business or management systems
environment by the and reporting - the Process must attribute clear
trainee. challenge is to relate to accountabilities.
the trainee.

kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation in detail

This grid illustrates the Kirkpatrick's structure detail, and particularly the modern-day
interpretation of the Kirkpatrick learning evaluation model, usage, implications, and examples of
tools and methods. This diagram is the same format as the one above but with more detail and
explanation:

evaluation evaluation description examples of evaluation relevance and

level and and characteristics tools and methods practicability
type

1. Reaction Reaction evaluation is Typically 'happy sheets'. Can be done immediately

how the delegates felt, the training ends.
and their personal Feedback forms based on
reactions to the training subjective personal reaction Very easy to obtain
or learning experience, to the training experience. reaction feedback
for example:
Verbal reaction which can be Feedback is not
Did the trainees like and noted and analysed. expensive to gather or to
enjoy the training? analyse for groups.
Post-training surveys or
Did they consider the questionnaires. Important to know that
training relevant? people were not upset or
Online evaluation or grading disappointed.
Was it a good use of their by delegates.
time? Important that people
Subsequent verbal or written give a positive impression
Did they like the venue, reports given by delegates to when relating their
the style, timing, managers back at their jobs. experience to others who
domestics, etc? might be deciding
whether to experience
Level of participation. same.
 Ease and comfort of
experience.

Level of effort required to

make the most of the
learning.

Perceived practicability
and potential for applying
the learning.
2. Learning evaluation is Typically assessments or Relatively simple to set
Learning the measurement of the tests before and after the up, but more investment
increase in knowledge training. and thought required than
or intellectual capability reaction evaluation.
from before to after the Interview or observation can
learning experience: be used before and after Highly relevant and clear-
although this is time- cut for certain training
Did the trainees learn consuming and can be such as quantifiable or
what what intended to be inconsistent. technical skills.
taught?
Methods of assessment need Less easy for more
Did the trainee to be closely related to the complex learning such as
experience what was aims of the learning. attitudinal development,
intended for them to which is famously
experience? Measurement and analysis is difficult to assess.
possible and easy on a group
What is the extent of scale. Cost escalates if systems
advancement or change in are poorly designed,
the trainees after the Reliable, clear scoring and which increases work
training, in the direction measurements need to be required to measure and
or area that was intended? established, so as to limit the analyse.
risk of inconsistent
assessment.

Hard-copy, electronic, online

3. Behaviour evaluation is
Behaviour the extent to which the
trainees applied the
learning and changed
their behaviour, and this
can be immediately and
or interview style
assessments are all possible.
Observation and interview
over time are required to
assess change, relevance of
change, and sustainability of
change.
Measurement of
behaviour change is less
easy to quantify and
interpret than reaction
and learning evaluation.
several months after the
training, depending on Arbitrary snapshot Simple quick response
the situation: assessments are not reliable systems unlikely to be
because people change in adequate.
Did the trainees put their different ways at different
learning into effect when times. Cooperation and skill of
back on the job? observers, typically line-
Assessments need to be managers, are important
Were the relevant skills subtle and ongoing, and then factors, and difficult to
and knowledge used transferred to a suitable control.
analysis tool.
Was there noticeable and Management and analysis
measurable change in the Assessments need to be of ongoing subtle
activity and performance designed to reduce assessments are difficult,
of the trainees when back subjective judgement of the and virtually impossible
in their roles? observer or interviewer, without a well-designed
which is a variable factor system from the
Was the change in that can affect reliability and beginning.
behaviour and new level consistency of
of knowledge sustained? measurements. Evaluation of
implementation and
Would the trainee be able The opinion of the trainee, application is an
to transfer their learning which is a relevant indicator, extremely important
to another person? is also subjective and assessment - there is little
unreliable, and so needs to point in a good reaction
Is the trainee aware of be measured in a consistent and good increase in
their change in behaviour, defined way. capability if nothing
knowledge, skill level? changes back in the job,
360-degree feedback is therefore evaluation in
useful method and need not this area is vital, albeit
be used before training, challenging.
because respondents can
make a judgement as to Behaviour change
change after training, and evaluation is possible
this can be analysed for given good support and
groups of respondents and involvement from line
trainees. managers or trainees, so it
is helpful to involve them
Assessments can be from the start, and to
designed around relevant identify benefits for them,
performance scenarios, and which links to the level 4
specific key performance evaluation below.
indicators or criteria.

Online and electronic

 assessments are more
difficult to incorporate -
assessments tend to be more
successful when integrated
within existing management
and coaching protocols.

Self-assessment can be
useful, using carefully
designed criteria and
measurements.
4. Results Results evaluation is the It is possible that many of
Individually, results
effect on the business or these measures are already in
evaluation is not
environment resulting place via normal particularly difficult;
from the improved management systems and across an entire
performance of the reporting. organisation it becomes
trainee - it is the acid test. very much more
The challenge is to identify challenging, not least
Measures would typically which and how relate to to because of the reliance on
be business or the trainee's input and line-management, and the
organisational key influence. frequency and scale of
performance indicators, changing structures,
such as: Therefore it is important to responsibilities and roles,
identify and agree which complicates the
Volumes, values, accountability and relevance process of attributing
percentages, timescales, with the trainee at the start of clear accountability.
return on investment, and the training, so they
other quantifiable aspects understand what is to be Also, external factors
of organisational measured. greatly affect
performance, for organisational and
instance; numbers of This process overlays business performance,
complaints, staff normal good management which cloud the true
turnover, attrition, practice - it simply needs cause of good or poor
failures, wastage, non- linking to the training input. results.
compliance, quality
ratings, achievement of Failure to link to training
standards and input type and timing will
accreditations, growth, greatly reduce the ease by
retention, etc. which results can be
attributed to the training.

For senior people

particularly, annual
appraisals and ongoing
 agreement of key business
objectives are integral to
measuring business results
derived from training.

Since Kirkpatrick established his original model, other theorists (for example Jack Phillips), and
indeed Kirkpatrick himself, have referred to a possible fifth level, namely ROI (Return On
Investment). In my view ROI can easily be included in Kirkpatrick's original fourth level
'Results'. The inclusion and relevance of a fifth level is therefore arguably only relevant if the
assessment of Return On Investment might otherwise be ignored or forgotten when referring
simply to the 'Results' level.

Learning evaluation is a widely researched area. This is understandable since the subject is
fundamental to the existence and performance of education around the world, not least
universities, which of course contain most of the researchers and writers.

While Kirkpatrick's model is not the only one of its type, for most industrial and commercial
applications it suffices; indeed most organisations would be absolutely thrilled if their training
and learning evaluation, and thereby their ongoing people-development, were planned and
managed according to Kirkpatrick's model.