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Albert Einstein
14 March 1879(1879-
03-14)
Born Ulm, Kingdom of
Württemberg, German
Empire
18 April 1955(1955-
04-18) (aged 76)
Died
Princeton, New
Jersey, USA
Ethnicit
Jewish
y
• Württemberg/
Germany (unt
il 1896)
• Stateless (189
6–1901)
• Switzerland (f
Citizens rom 1901)
hip • Austria (1911
–12)
• Germany (19
14–33)
• United
States (from
1940)[1]
• ETH Zurich
Alma
• University of
mater
Zurich
Known • General
for relativity
• Special
relativity
• Photoelectric
effect
• Brownian
motion
• Mass-energy
equivalence
• Einstein field
equations
• Unified Field
Theory
• Bose–
Einstein
statistics
• Mileva
Marić (1903–
1919)
Spouse • Elsa
Löwenthal,
née Einstein,
(1919–1936)
• Nobel Prize
in Physics
(1921)
• Copley
Medal (1925)
Awards
• Max Planck
Medal (1929)
• Time Person
of the
Century
Signature
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Biography
○ 1.1 Early life and education
○ 1.2 Marriages and children
○ 1.3 Patent office
○ 1.4 Academic career
○ 1.5 Travels abroad
○ 1.6 Emigration from Germany
1.6.1 World War II and the Manhattan Project
1.6.2 U.S. citizenship
○ 1.7 Death
• 2 Scientific career
○ 2.1 Physics in 1900
○ 2.2 Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
○ 2.3 Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles
○ 2.4 Special relativity
○ 2.5 Photons
○ 2.6 Quantized atomic vibrations
○ 2.7 Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
○ 2.8 Wave-particle duality
○ 2.9 Theory of critical opalescence
○ 2.10 Zero-point energy
○ 2.11 Principle of equivalence
○ 2.12 Hole argument and Entwurf theory
○ 2.13 General relativity
○ 2.14 Cosmology
○ 2.15 Modern quantum theory
○ 2.16 Bose–Einstein statistics
○ 2.17 Energy momentum pseudotensor
○ 2.18 Unified field theory
○ 2.19 Wormholes
○ 2.20 Einstein–Cartan theory
○ 2.21 Equations of motion
○ 2.22 Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics
○ 2.23 Collaboration with other scientists
2.23.1 Einstein-de Haas experiment
2.23.2 Schrödinger gas model
2.23.3 Einstein refrigerator
○ 2.24 Bohr versus Einstein
○ 2.25 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
• 3 Political views
• 4 Religious views
• 5 Non-scientific legacy
• 6 In popular culture
• 7 Awards and honors
○ 7.1 Awards named after him
• 8 See also
• 9 Publications
• 10 Notes
• 11 Further reading
• 12 External links
Biography
Early life and education
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia
Academy
Einstein's home in Bern
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a
former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual
Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He evaluated patent applications for
electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became
permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine
technology".[29]
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals
and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up
conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions
about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[30]
With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly
named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their
readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced
his scientific and philosophical outlook.
Academic career
In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious
Annalen der Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor
of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the
University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular
Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle
year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion,
special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the
notice of the academic world.
By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the
University of Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the
position of physics docent[33] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-
Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed
director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[34] and a professor at the
Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from
most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916,
Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[35][36]
In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another
star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations
made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29,
1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the
leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in
Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later,
questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's
theory.)
In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered
somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.
Travels abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his
scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an
examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations
that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories
with visualizable results.(Einstein 1954)[38]
In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and
speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of
lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met
the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later
gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[39]:307
Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent,
considerate, and have a feel for art.[39]:308
On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his only
visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather
than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at
the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given
to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the
audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:
I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to
regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have
been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and
to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40]:308
Emigration from Germany
Being protected in England after escaping Nazi Germany in 1933
In 1933, Einstein was compelled to immigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the
Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in
April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from
holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book
burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda
minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[40] Einstein also learned
that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One
German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not
yet hanged".[40][42]
Among other German scientists forced to flee were fourteen Nobel laureates and twenty-six of
the sixty professors of theoretical physics in the country. Among the other scientists who left
Germany, or the other countries it came to dominate, were Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico
Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of whom made
certain that the Allies would develop nuclear weapons first, before the Nazis.[40] With so many
other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by
side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few
fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he
writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[40]
He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, [43] an
affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified
field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics. He and Kurt Gödel,
another Institute member, became close friends. They would take long walks together discussing
their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist.
World War II and the Manhattan Project
In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was
persuaded to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him that Nazi Germany
might be developing an atomic bomb. The letter, written with the help of Hungarian emigre
physicist Leo Szilard, gave the letter more prestige , with Einstein also recommending that the
U.S. begin uranium enrichment and nuclear research. According to F.G. Gosling of the U.S.
Department of Energy, Einstein, Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene
Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German
scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more
than willing to resort to such a weapon."[44]
British columnist Ambrose Evans-Pritchard notes, however, that Washington at first "brushed off
with disbelief" the fears they expressed. He then describes how quickly Roosevelt changed his
mind:
"Albert Einstein interceded through the Belgian queen mother, eventually getting a
personal envoy into the Oval Office. Roosevelt initially fobbed him off. He listened more
closely at a second meeting over breakfast the next day, then made up his mind within
minutes. 'This needs action,' he told his military aide. It was the birth of the Manhattan
Project."[45]
Gosling adds that "the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a
direction," and believed that the U.S. "could not take the risk of allowing Hitler" to possess
nuclear bombs.[44] Other weapons historians agree that the letter was "arguably the key stimulus
for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry
into World War II". As a result of Einstein's letter, and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S.
entered the "race" to develop the bomb first, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and
scientific resources". It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War
II as a result of its Manhattan Project.[46] Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, in 1954,
the last year of his life: "I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to
President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some
justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[47]
Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed Einstein's theory that light "bends".
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed
to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while
photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe, a
west African island.[74] Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of
human thinking about nature";[80] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably
the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[81] The international media guaranteed Einstein's
global renown.
There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington
expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude as the
effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded
that the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was
confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[82] Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably
among some German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics)
movement.[83][84]
Cosmology
Main article: Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as
a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not
consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new
notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be
an eternal static sphere[85]
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey
Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain
extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not
work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would
hold.
Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.
arrives at as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle.
This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to
Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a
way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for
example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression for
the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass
predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905
paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally
obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing different theories...
we must proceed very cautiously." [90]
• Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague
idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and
today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low temperature
superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of
modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well
understood, and alternative theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for
high-temperature superconductors.[citation needed]
• After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently
entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published
a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to
an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While
this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to
a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein
and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted
this position a short time later.[citation needed]
• Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper
that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of
light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black
hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be
wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning
objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse.
But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that
collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined.
Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity
correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the
central singularity implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to
conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still not been successful.[citation
needed]
• Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of
singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force
solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever been found.
[citation needed]
• In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty
principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.[citation needed]
• In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic
and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality",
and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's concept of realism is too
restrictive.[citation needed]
• Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper
founding cosmology as a "blunder".[91] The theory of general relativity predicted an
expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an
unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four
dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's
principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological
constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as
a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary
within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a
nonzero value today.
• Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional
formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the
basis for his theory of gravitation.[citation needed]
• Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was
incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the
formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-particle
duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]
Collaboration with other scientists
In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others,
Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein-de Haas experiment
Main article: Einstein-de Haas effect
Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons,
nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron
bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because
the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed
to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it
definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.
Schrödinger gas model
Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a
Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a
box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will
have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics.
Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal
gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the
invitation.[92]
Einstein refrigerator
Main article: Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the
Einstein refrigerator. This Absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving
parts and using only heat as an input.[93] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was
awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not
immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly
bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from
competition.[94]
Bohr versus Einstein
See also: Bohr–Einstein debates
Einstein and Niels Bohr
In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy
with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner
Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific
realist. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite
states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein
and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences).
Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all
rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that
He [God] does not throw dice." [95]
Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete
description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris
Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this
is known as the EPR paradox.[96] The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results
confirming quantum theory's predictions.[97] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have
found their way into philosophical discourse.
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article: EPR paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a
measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his
collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of
position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without
disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties
already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the
answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the
particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical
principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.
Political views
Main article: Albert Einstein's political views
Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future
President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and
Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.
Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a voice of moderation in the
tumultuous formation of the State of Israel.[98] Fred Jerome in his Einstein on Israel and Zionism:
His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East argues that Einstein was a Cultural Zionist who
supported the idea of a Jewish homeland but opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in
Palestine “with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power.” Instead, he preferred a bi-
national state with “continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social
organizations.”.[99][100] However Ami Isseroff in his article Was Einstein a Zionist, argues that
Einstein supported the recognition of the State of Israel and declared it "the fulfillment of our
dream" when President Harry Truman recognize Israel in May 1948 and in presidential election
1948 Einstein supported Henry A. Wallace’s Progressive Party which advocate pro-Soviet and
pro-Israel foreign policy.[101][102]
Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation
of a nationwide liberal and democratic party,[103][104] which was published in the Berliner
Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[105] and became a member of the German Democratic Party.[106]
In his article Why Socialism?,[107] published in 1949 in the Monthly Review, Einstein described a
chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human
development". He came to the following conclusion:
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely through
the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be
oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society
itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the
needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and
would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual,
in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of
responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present
society.[107]
He braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United
States. On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin of Mississippi
of being a "foreign-born agitator" who sought "to further the spread of Communism throughout
the world".[108] He also participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in
Brussels.[109]
After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote,
"I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in
the Fourth – rocks!"[110] (Einstein 1949) With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein
lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the
Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World
Affairs.[111]
Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the
NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein
volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's
friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade
to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[112]
Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity."[113] He declined the
presidency of Israel in 1952.[114]
Religious views
Main article: Albert Einstein's religious views
The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on
theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. He once said:
You may call me an agnostic... I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist
whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious
indoctrination received in youth. I prefer an attitude of humility corresponding to the weakness
of our intellectual understanding of nature and of our own being.[115]
Non-scientific legacy
While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and
Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot
Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not
be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[116]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew
University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private
correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[117]
Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated
imagery, as agent for the university.[118][119]
In popular culture
Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture
In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be
stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a
way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am
mistaken for Professor Einstein."[120]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.
[121]
He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his
expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time
magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[122]
Awards and honors
See also: List of things named after Albert Einstein
In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[123] "for his services to
Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This
refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental
evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity
[which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical
implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)
It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in
compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public
in 2006[124] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out
in the Great Depression.
In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical
Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[125]
In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on
relativity and the photo-electric effect.[125]
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics"
in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[126]
The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany.
The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at
the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of
Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[127]
The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue
depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is
located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of
Sciences on Constitution Avenue.
The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after
Einstein's death.[128][129] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.
[130]
In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[122][131] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi
and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate
and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[132] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of
100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[133] A Gallup poll recorded
him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[134]
In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",
[135]
which is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[136]
The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–
1978) 8¢ postage stamp.
Awards named after him
The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is
accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high
achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial
Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a
prize money of $ 15,000,[137][138] which was later reduced to $ 5,000.[139][140] The winner is selected
by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and
Weyl[141]) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[138]
The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern,
Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered
outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[142]
The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein
Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[143]
See also
Book:Albert Einstein
Notes
1. ^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein, einstein-website.de,
http://www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html, retrieved 18 July 2009
2. ^ Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology, Carus
Publishing Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X, http://books.google.com/?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC ,
Chapter 2, p. 41
3. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Nobel Foundation, archived from the original on 5 October
2008, http://www.webcitation.org/5bLXMl1V0, retrieved 6 March 2007
4. ^ a b "Einstein Biography" Nobelprize.org
5. ^ a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New
York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746 His non-
scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein
(1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out
of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics
(1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
6. ^ WordNet for Einstein
7. ^ a b c d e f Albert Einstein – Biography, Nobel Foundation,
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html, retrieved 7 March
2007
8. ^ Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald William Clark
9. ^ Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert Einstein – Derrière l'image, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, p. 29,
ISBN 3-03823-182-7
10.^ Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Basic Books,
pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-465-08140-1
11.^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing
Company, pp. 8–9
12.^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: Max
Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.
13.^ www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual growth was
strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the children's musical
education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob
challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with "a deep feeling of
happiness". Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, "for
whom the Jewish community had obtained free meals with the Einstein family". Talmud came on
Thursday nights for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that
engaged [Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read and discuss many books with him. These
included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced Albert "a lot in the Bible stories
could not be true", and a textbook of plane geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of
mathematics, years ahead of the school curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result
Einstein began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness"
14.^ Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined with his family
once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to take in a needy religious scholar to share the Sabbath
meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting instead a medical student on Thursdays. His
name was Max Talmud, and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10.
15.^ Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper" (PDF), The Golden Age of Physics,
World Scientific, ISBN 9810249853,
http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf, retrieved 4 March 2007
16.^ Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein, London: Faber and
Faber, p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2
17.^ Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)
18.^ Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67.
19.^ Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics",
Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 415-432, 1990.
20.^ E. H. Walker, E. H., "Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?", Physics Today, Feb. 1989.
http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf
21.^ Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29.
22.^ Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177-
193.
23.^ Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-55.
http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf
24.^ Martinez, A. A., “Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein’s Wife.” School Science
Review, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49-56.
http://www.ase.org.uk/htm/members_area/journals/ssr/ssr_march_05pdf/eins_wife-pg49.pdf
25.^ This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a
letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of
Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).
26.^ Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN 0140237194; see
section I, II,
27.^ Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216
28.^ Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm,
retrieved 16 October 2006 . See also their FAQ about Einstein and the Institute,
http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1094.shtm
29.^ Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter
2000): 355–389.
30.^ Gallison, Question of Time.
31.^ Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W.
Norton, ISBN 0393020010
32.^ (Einstein 1905b)
33.^ Universität Zürich: Geschichte
34.^ Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin". in Renn,
Jürgen. "Albert Einstein – Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein."
Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747
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Timeline, p. xix
36.^ Heilbron, 2000, p. 84.
37.^ a b Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in science", EMBO reports 4 (3): 236,
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39.^ a b c d Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007)
40.^ a b c d e f Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) pp. 407-
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47.^ Einstein: The Life and Times by Ronald Clark. page 752
48.^ Fred Jerome, Rodger Taylor (2006) Einstein on Race and Racism Rutgers University Press,
2006.
49.^ Calaprice, Alice (2005) The new quotable Einstein. pp.148-149 Princeton University Press,
2005. See also Odyssey in Climate Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising Five Presidents
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59.^ This did not become possible until the development of alpha particle scintillation detectors
early in the twentieth century. Rutherford invited Mach to take a look at the scintillation screen in
a dark room, where the impact of individual alpha particles (Helium nuclei) are directly visible to
the dark adapted eye.
60.^ an account may be found here
61.^ The charge of a mole of electrons was known and measured as Faraday's constant. Dividing by
the charge of a single electron, measured by Millikan, gives Avogadro's number.
62.^ (Einstein 1905d)
63.^ Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in short, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-55-380202-X
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450588-3
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66.^ For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different
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efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21 September 2008), Einstein fridge design can help
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Further reading
• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st ed.
2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein.
Oxford University Press. The definitive biography to date.
• Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's
career and accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674028289.
External links
Find more about Albert Einstein on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Josiah Willard Gibbs (1901) · Joseph Lister (1902) · Eduard Suess (1903) · William Crookes
(1904) · Dmitri Mendeleev (1905) · Élie Metchnikoff (1906) · Albert Abraham Michelson
(1907) · Alfred Russel Wallace (1908) · George William Hill (1909) · Francis Galton (1910) ·
George Darwin (1911) · Felix Klein (1912) · Ray Lankester (1913) · J. J. Thomson (1914) · Ivan
Pavlov (1915) · James Dewar (1916) · Pierre Paul Émile Roux (1917) · Hendrik Lorentz (1918) ·
William Bayliss (1919) · Horace Tabberer Brown (1920) · Joseph Larmor (1921) · Ernest
Rutherford (1922) · Horace Lamb (1923) · Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer (1924) · Albert
Einstein (1925) · Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1926) · Charles Scott Sherrington (1927) ·
Charles Algernon Parsons (1928) · Max Planck (1929) · William Henry Bragg (1930) · Arthur
Schuster (1931) · George Ellery Hale (1932) · Theobald Smith (1933) · John Scott Haldane
(1934) · Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1935) · Arthur Evans (1936) · Henry Hallett Dale
(1937) · Niels Bohr (1938) · Thomas Hunt Morgan (1939) · Paul Langevin (1940) · Thomas
Lewis (1941) · Robert Robinson (1942) · Joseph Barcroft (1943) · Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
(1944) · Oswald Avery (1945) · Edgar Douglas Adrian (1946) · G. H. Hardy (1947) · Archibald
Hill (1948) · George de Hevesy (1949) · James Chadwick (1950)
[show]
v•d•e
Nobel Laureates in Physics
1
9
2 Perrin (1926) · Compton / C. Wilson (1927) · O. Richardson (1928) · De Broglie (1929) ·
6 Raman (1930) · Heisenberg (1932) · Schrödinger / Dirac (1933) · Chadwick (1935) · Hess /
– C. D. Anderson (1936) · Davisson / Thomson (1937) · Fermi (1938) · Lawrence (1939) ·
1 Stern (1943) · Rabi (1944) · Pauli (1945) · Bridgman (1946) · Appleton (1947) · Blackett
9 (1948) · Yukawa (1949) · Powell (1950)
5
0
1
Cockcroft / Walton (1951) · Bloch / Purcell (1952) · Zernike (1953) · Born / Bothe (1954) ·
9
Lamb / Kusch (1955) · Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain (1956) · Yang / T. D. Lee (1957) ·
5
Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm (1958) · Segrè / Chamberlain (1959) · Glaser (1960) ·
1
Hofstadter / Mössbauer (1961) · Landau (1962) · Wigner / Goeppert-Mayer / Jensen
–
(1963) · Townes / Basov / Prokhorov (1964) · Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman (1965) ·
1
Kastler (1966) · Bethe (1967) · Alvarez (1968) · Gell-Mann (1969) · Alfvén / Néel (1970) ·
9
Gabor (1971) · Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer (1972) · Esaki / Giaever / Josephson (1973) ·
7
Ryle / Hewish (1974) · A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater (1975)
5
Richter / Ting (1976) · P. W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck (1977) · Kapitsa / Penzias / R.
1
Wilson (1978) · Glashow / Salam / Weinberg (1979) · Cronin / Fitch (1980) ·
9
Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn (1981) · K. Wilson (1982) · Chandrasekhar /
7
Fowler (1983) · Rubbia / van der Meer (1984) · von Klitzing (1985) · Ruska / Binnig /
6
Rohrer (1986) · Bednorz / Müller (1987) · Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger (1988) ·
–
Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul (1989) · Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor (1990) · de Gennes
2
(1991) · Charpak (1992) · Hulse / J. Taylor (1993) · Brockhouse / Shull (1994) · Perl /
0
Reines (1995) · D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson (1996) · Chu / Cohen-Tannoudji /
0
Phillips (1997) · Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui (1998) · 't Hooft / Veltman (1999) · Alferov /
0
Kroemer / Kilby (2000)
[show]
v•d•e
Philosophy of science
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o Analysis · Analytic-synthetic distinction · A priori and a posteriori · Artificial intelligence ·
n Causality · Commensurability · Construct · Demarcation problem · Explanatory power ·
c Fact · Falsifiability · Ignoramus et ignorabimus · Inductive reasoning · Ingenuity · Inquiry ·
e Models of scientific inquiry · Nature · Objectivity · Observation · Paradigm · Problem of
p induction · Scientific explanation · Scientific law · Scientific method · Scientific
t revolution · Scientific theory · Testability · Theory choice ·
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h Albert Einstein · Alfred North Whitehead · Aristotle · Auguste Comte · Averroes · Berlin
i Circle · Carl Gustav Hempel · C. D. Broad · Charles Sanders Peirce · Dominicus
l Gundissalinus · Daniel Dennett · Epicurians · Francis Bacon · Friedrich Schelling · Galileo
o Galilei · Henri Poincaré · Herbert Spencer · Hugh of Saint Victor · Immanuel Kant · Imre
s Lakatos · Isaac Newton · John Dewey · John Stuart Mill · Jürgen Habermas · Karl Pearson ·
o Karl Popper · Karl Theodor Jaspers · Larry Laudan · Otto Neurath · Paul Haeberlin · Paul
p Feyerabend · Pierre Duhem · Pierre Gassendi · Plato · R.B. Braithwaite · René Descartes ·
h Robert Kilwardby · Roger Bacon · Rudolf Carnap · Stephen Toulmin · Stoics · Thomas
e Hobbes · Thomas Samuel Kuhn · Vienna Circle · W.V.O. Quine · Wilhelm Windelband ·
r Wilhelm Wundt · William of Ockham · William Whewell · more...
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Albert Einstein's family
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