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2:5 Design for Cyclic Loading

1. Completely reversing cyclic stress and endurance strength


Cyclic loading has already been introduced in the context of stress concentration. A purely
reversing or cyclic stress means when the stress alternates between equal positive and
negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. Cyclic stress over time can be
represented by a sinusoidal curve as shown.
In this diagram the stress varies with time Pure cyclic stress
between +250 MPa to -250MPa. In pure
cyclic stress the average stress is zero. As 300
has been stated earlier, this kind of stress can 200
arise in rotating members under bending.

Stress (MPa)
100

When a part is subjected to cyclic 0


stress, also known as range stress (Sr), it -100
has been observed that the failure of the part -200
occurs after a number of stress reversals
-300
(N) even it the magnitude of the range stress
time
is below the material’s yield strength.
Generally, higher the range stress, lesser
number of reversals is needed for failure.

No. of Max cyclic


stress stress (Sr)
reversals psi
(N)
1000 81000
2000 75465
4000 70307
8000 65501
16000 61024
32000 56853
64000 52967
96000 50818
144000 48757
216000 46779
324000 44881
486000 43060
729000 41313
1000000 40000

For a typical material, the table and the graph above show the relationship between the
magnitudes of range stress (Sr in psi) and the number of stress reversals (N) before failure of the
part. For example, if the part were subjected to Sr= 81,000 psi, then it would fail after N=1000
stress reversals. If the same part is subjected to Sr = 61,024 psi, then it can survive up to

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N=16,000 reversals. Thus, as we increase the number of stress reversals, the maximum
cyclic stress a part can take gradually decreases.
It has been observed that for most of engineering materials, the rate of reduction of Sr
becomes negligible near the vicinity of N = 106 and the slope of the S-N curve becomes more
or less horizontal. For the curve shown above, at N= 106 , the slope of the curve has become
horizontal at Sr=40,000 psi. Because the slope of the above S-N curve is horizontal at N=106
reversals, that means if we keep the cyclic stress value less than Sr = 40,000 psi, then the part
will survive indefinitely (infinite number of stress reversals). The maximum completely
reversing cyclic stress that a material can withstand for indefinite (or infinite) number of
stress reversals is known as the fatigue strength or endurance strength (Se) of the part
material. This is essentially the max completely reversing cyclic stress that a material can
withstand for N=106 , as the curve is horizontal after this point. For the example S-N curve shown
above, Se = 40,000 psi.

2. Factors affecting fatigue strength


The failure caused by cyclic stress is called fatigue failure . The fatigue failure originates from
a micro-crack (brittle failure) due to stress concentration effect at surface irregularities. Minute
irregularities such as grinding scratches, tool marks, inspection stamping, stamped part
numbers or surface scales may produce a high value for the stress due to stress
concentration and serve as the starting point for the micro crack, which progressively
increases until the part breaks into two pieces similar to a brittle fracture. No plastic
deformation is observed in the failure surface.

Most commonly the fatigue failure occurs due to reversing bending stress in rotating
machineries, less commonly due to reversing torsional shear stress and rarely from reversing
axial stress. As the most highly stressed points are on the outer surface for both bending and
torsion, crack originates on the outer surface and progresses inwa rdly. As a consequence of
this, a weak decarburized layer on the outer surface of heat-treated parts often produce low
endurance limit.

Since fatigue cracks are due to tensile stress, a residual tensile stress on the surface of the part
constitutes a fatigue hazard. Suc h a residual tensile stress, for example may arise from a cold
working operation on the part without stress relieving. Parts that are finished by grinding
frequently have a thin surface layer with high residual stress in tension. Such residual stress
comb ined with the tensile stress from loading, may give a resultant stress sufficiently great to
cause a fatigue crack to start.

Any residual tensile stress on the surface should be removed, or better still, converted into a layer
of compression. Shot blasting, or shot peening operations can induce residual compressive
residual stress on surface. Also nitrided and carburised parts have residual compressive
stress on the surface. Residual compressive stress on the surface will reduce the tensile stress
from the load, and thus helps to improve fatigue characteristics of the part. Sand blasting of the
part should be avoided since the scratches serve as stress risers.

The fundamental measure of fatigue performance for a material is the endurance limit from a
plain polished specimen. Because the brittle nature of the failure, the endurance limit of a

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material is closely related to the ultimate tensile strength (Su ) rather than yield strength (Syp ). See
Figure 2-26 in textbook, which provides the relationships between the endurance limits and
the ultimate tensile strengths of steel specimens with different surface finishes.

Typically for wrought steels when the surface is ground and polished Se = 0.5 Su, for machined
surface, Se = 0.35 to 0.4 Su and for as-forged or as-rolled surface Se = 0.2 Su. Corrosion of
surface from water or acid may reduce the endurance strength to further lower value.

3. Design for fatigue stress


Unlike a pure range stress (Sr) discussed above, a machine part may be subjected to a combined
steady and range stress. Following design procedure handles such combined stress situation. A
generalized one dimensional stress condition, can be defined as combine purely reversing
stress or range stress (Sr) superimposed on a
steady stress (Savg). The following stress-
time graph shows this combined range and
steady stress condition. If the stress is
varying between Smax & Smin, then the

S max + S min
Steady stress = S avg =
2
S max − S min
Range stress = S r =
2
If a part only contains the steady part of
the stress S avg , then to prevent failure:

K*Savg < Syp/Nfs , when the range


part of stress Sr = 0

Here, K= geometric stress concentration factor


Syp = yield strength of the material
Nfs= factor of safety

Usually parts subjected to fatigue loading are made of ductile material, and in this case the
geometric stress concentration factor K=1.

Thus for one extreme combination of stress, when there is only the steady part of the load,
for safe design:
(i) Savg < Syp/N fs & Sr = 0
Which means that Savg can go up to Syp/N fs when Sr = 0

Similarly, for the other extreme combination of stresses, when the stress is purely cyclic,
then for safe design:
(ii) Sr < Se /(Nfs *Kf) & Savg =0
Which means Sr can go up to Se /(Nfs *Kf), when Savg =0
(Kf = fatigue stress concentration factor, Se= endurance strength of the material, Nfs=
factor of safety)

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If we plot steady stress (Savg) along x axis and the range stress (Sr) along y axis, then the two
extreme stress conditions (i) & (ii) described above, constitute two point on x and y axis.
Soderberg Line is obtained by joining these two points.
When in a machine part, both types of stress are present simultaneously, if the stress
combination (Savg & Sr) is contained in the blue area defined by the Soderberg line, then the part
should be safe. Any stress combination falling above the Soderberg line can be considered
unsafe.

Using intercept form of the equation of straight


line, ie., x/a+y/b=1, the safe design area (blue
area) can be defined by:
S avg Sr
+ ≤1
S yp Se
N fs K f N fs
S yp
Multiplyin g both side by
N fs
 S yp  S yp
S avg + S r K f  ≤
 N .....................(1)
 e 
S fs

Equation (1) is called Soderberg Equation for


design of a part with combined steady and range stress.
S
Note that, the right hand side of the equation yp , which is the design limit for normal
N fs
S 
steady stress Savg . Because of the presence of the range stress Sr, the factor Sr K f  yp  is
 Se 
added, which is the static equivalent of the range stress Sr. This information will be used later
in the design of shaft in Chapter 3 in the textbook.

Goodman proposed that the Soderberg


design limits are conservative, and he
extended the safe design stress for steady
stress from Syp /N fs to Su/N fs. This is also
due to the assumption that fatigue failure
occurs in brittle failure mode. This resulted
in the safe design space as shown and the
resulted in Goodman Design equation:

S  Su
S avg + S r K f  u  ≤ .........( 2)
 Se  N fs

Goodman Equation can be obtained


from Soderberg equation by replacing Syp by Su .

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However, in the safe area defined by Goodman line, when the magnitude of steady stress Savg
becomes more than Syp /Nfs, the part may fail from yielding from plastic deformation. The area is
shown as unsafe region. To eliminate this shortcoming, modified Goodman equation proposed
the shaded area as the safe design space. This space is obtained by drawing a line with 45o angle
from the Syp /N fs point on the x axis.
Mathematically this Modified
Goodman space is equivalent to satisfying
the following two equations (3) & (4),
simultaneously.

S  S
S avg + S r K f  u  ≤ u .........(3)
 S e  N fs
S yp
S avg + S r K f ≤ .................( 4)
N fs

4. Design for finite life

All of the above design equations, the upper limit of the cyclic stress is kept below the endurance
strength Se, of the part material. Theoretically Se is the max range stress Sr at N = 106 . We have
seen that the S-N curve becomes horizontal after N = 106 , which means that if a part survives 106
stress alterations, it will survive for ever (indefinitely).
In some design situations
however, the number of stress
reversals a part is designed
undergo is limited by the life of
the part. For example, the
rotating parts in a booster rocket
may be designed to perform for
merely several thousands of
rotations, because the booster
will be discarded after few hours
of the flight. Obviously, in such
a situation, we can use a higher
Sr value to support the desired
number of rotations, and don’t
have to design for indefinite life.
Thus, when number of stress
reversals is less than 106 , we can work with a higher Sr value and save some material. For
example, from the above S-N curve, if the design has to survive up to 100,000 stress reversals,
then, the part can be loaded up to a range stress level of Sr ≈ 50,000 psi. For indefinite life, Sr is
limited to Se= 40,00 psi.

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Basquin has proposed that the equation for S-N curve which is true for many materials.
The Basquin equation can be given by:

S r = AN B , where Sr is a reversing stress, which is more than Se and which will give a
fatigue life of N cycles.
A & B are two material constants obtainable by the method described below.
Taking log :
log( S r ) = log A + B log( N )........(5)

For a small number of stress reversals, N = 1000, the range stress, Sr can be increased to 90% of
the ultimate tensile strength of the material, or, Sr = 0.9Su for N = 1000.
Putting this pair of values in (5), we get
log( 0.9S u ) = log A + B log( 1000)
or , log( 0.9S u ) = log A + 3B...........................( 6)

We also know that for N= 106 , Sr can go up to Se, that is, Sr = Se, for N = 106 . Putting values in
(5) we get

log( S e ) = log A + B log( 1000,000)


or , log( S e ) = log A + 6 B...........................( 7)

log( S e ) − log( 0.9S u )


Subtracting (7)-(6) and simplifying: B =
3
Se
From (7): A =
10 6B
Thus from the known values of ultimate tensile strength (Su) and the endurance strength (Se) of
the part material, we can determine the material constants A and B of Basquin’s equation. Once
the constants A & B are known, then we can determine the maximum completely reversing range
stress Sr for any value of N less than 106 using Basquin’s equation Sr = AN B

Also, when the constants A & B are known, then for a given completely reversing stress Sr
greater than Se, we can determine the number of stress reversals (N) after which fatigue failure
1
 S B
will occur : N =  r  .
 A

5. Design for finite life with combined steady (Savg ) and range stress (Sr)
Basquin’s equation is applicable for a completely reversing range stress. For a combined
steady (Savg) and range (Sr) stress, if we want to apply Basquin’s equation, we first need to
determine the equivalent range stress (SR) from the combined stress situation. Once the
equivalent range stress (SR) is determined, then Basquin’s equation can be used to obtain the
number of reversals N for this equivalent SR.

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Let us say, calculated steady and range stresses
for a part are Savg & Sr, respectively. The actual
steady and range stress becomes Savg & KfSr,
respectively after considering stress
concentration factor. Kf is the fatigue stress
concentration factor applicable to the range
stress. We know that for ductile material,
geometric stress concentration factor K = 1,
hence the actual steady stress remains unchanged
from the calculated stress. The equivalent range
stress SR from the actual combined stress (Savg &
Kf Sr) is determined from Goodman line shown
(without Nfs).

We know that a combined stress denoted by a point below the Goodman line (in blue shaded
area), will provide indefinite life. For finite life situation, the applied stress point M (Savg, KfSr)
must be above the Goodman line. To obtain the equivalent range stress, we draw a line from Su
on x axis to the point M and extend the line to y axis. The point SR is the intersection of this line
to y axis, which denotes the equivalent range stress. The magnitude of SR can be easily obtained
S K f Sr
from the two similar triangles ∆OSuSR and ∆SavgMSu : R =
S u S u − S avg
K f S r Su
or , S R =
S u − S avg
Thus, for designing with finite life of a part (N<106 ), the applied Savg & Sr can be converted
to an equivalent SR and then Basquin’s equation can be applied. Also note that, the
ultimate tensile strength (Su ) for the material is needed to find this equivalent range stress.

6. Miner’s Equation for Finite Life Design


A machine part may have one stress for a portion of its life, another stress for another portion,
and so on. Each combination of Savg & Sr, can be reduced to equivalent completely reversed
stresses SR1 , SR2 , SR3 and so on.

Let fatigue life for stress SR1 , if applied alone is “N1 ” reversals, and let “n1 ” be the actual number
of reversals at stress level SR1 . Then stress SR1 has consumed “n1 /N 1 ” portion of the life of the
part. Similarly, let “N2 ” be the fatigue life at stress SR2 , and let “n2 ” be the actual reversals
occurred at this stress and thus consumed “n2 /N 2 ” portion of life. Sum of these proportions
constitutes the entire life, or unity:

n1 n n
+ 2 + 3 + ..... = 1
N1 N 2 N3

The above equation is called Miner’s Equation. Using this equation we can determine the
amount of life remaining in a part at any stress level, if we know the past history of its service.

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7. Concluding Remark
1. As you have notices that all the theories about cyclic stress developed here pertain to
uniaxial stress. For biaxial or triaxial stresses, we know the stresses may interact
differently, and prediction of failure is not straight forward. In case of cyclic stress one
more problem arises, that is the cyclic stresses in different axes may have different
frequenc ies. Design procedure for such stresses is beyond the scope of this course.

2. Failure with fluctuating stresses that are high enough to cause failure in a few thousand
cycles or less is called low-cycle fatigue . Plastic yielding at localized areas may be
involved. The theory is beyond the scope of this course.

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