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Stress (MPa)
100
For a typical material, the table and the graph above show the relationship between the
magnitudes of range stress (Sr in psi) and the number of stress reversals (N) before failure of the
part. For example, if the part were subjected to Sr= 81,000 psi, then it would fail after N=1000
stress reversals. If the same part is subjected to Sr = 61,024 psi, then it can survive up to
Most commonly the fatigue failure occurs due to reversing bending stress in rotating
machineries, less commonly due to reversing torsional shear stress and rarely from reversing
axial stress. As the most highly stressed points are on the outer surface for both bending and
torsion, crack originates on the outer surface and progresses inwa rdly. As a consequence of
this, a weak decarburized layer on the outer surface of heat-treated parts often produce low
endurance limit.
Since fatigue cracks are due to tensile stress, a residual tensile stress on the surface of the part
constitutes a fatigue hazard. Suc h a residual tensile stress, for example may arise from a cold
working operation on the part without stress relieving. Parts that are finished by grinding
frequently have a thin surface layer with high residual stress in tension. Such residual stress
comb ined with the tensile stress from loading, may give a resultant stress sufficiently great to
cause a fatigue crack to start.
Any residual tensile stress on the surface should be removed, or better still, converted into a layer
of compression. Shot blasting, or shot peening operations can induce residual compressive
residual stress on surface. Also nitrided and carburised parts have residual compressive
stress on the surface. Residual compressive stress on the surface will reduce the tensile stress
from the load, and thus helps to improve fatigue characteristics of the part. Sand blasting of the
part should be avoided since the scratches serve as stress risers.
The fundamental measure of fatigue performance for a material is the endurance limit from a
plain polished specimen. Because the brittle nature of the failure, the endurance limit of a
Typically for wrought steels when the surface is ground and polished Se = 0.5 Su, for machined
surface, Se = 0.35 to 0.4 Su and for as-forged or as-rolled surface Se = 0.2 Su. Corrosion of
surface from water or acid may reduce the endurance strength to further lower value.
S max + S min
Steady stress = S avg =
2
S max − S min
Range stress = S r =
2
If a part only contains the steady part of
the stress S avg , then to prevent failure:
Usually parts subjected to fatigue loading are made of ductile material, and in this case the
geometric stress concentration factor K=1.
Thus for one extreme combination of stress, when there is only the steady part of the load,
for safe design:
(i) Savg < Syp/N fs & Sr = 0
Which means that Savg can go up to Syp/N fs when Sr = 0
Similarly, for the other extreme combination of stresses, when the stress is purely cyclic,
then for safe design:
(ii) Sr < Se /(Nfs *Kf) & Savg =0
Which means Sr can go up to Se /(Nfs *Kf), when Savg =0
(Kf = fatigue stress concentration factor, Se= endurance strength of the material, Nfs=
factor of safety)
S Su
S avg + S r K f u ≤ .........( 2)
Se N fs
S S
S avg + S r K f u ≤ u .........(3)
S e N fs
S yp
S avg + S r K f ≤ .................( 4)
N fs
All of the above design equations, the upper limit of the cyclic stress is kept below the endurance
strength Se, of the part material. Theoretically Se is the max range stress Sr at N = 106 . We have
seen that the S-N curve becomes horizontal after N = 106 , which means that if a part survives 106
stress alterations, it will survive for ever (indefinitely).
In some design situations
however, the number of stress
reversals a part is designed
undergo is limited by the life of
the part. For example, the
rotating parts in a booster rocket
may be designed to perform for
merely several thousands of
rotations, because the booster
will be discarded after few hours
of the flight. Obviously, in such
a situation, we can use a higher
Sr value to support the desired
number of rotations, and don’t
have to design for indefinite life.
Thus, when number of stress
reversals is less than 106 , we can work with a higher Sr value and save some material. For
example, from the above S-N curve, if the design has to survive up to 100,000 stress reversals,
then, the part can be loaded up to a range stress level of Sr ≈ 50,000 psi. For indefinite life, Sr is
limited to Se= 40,00 psi.
S r = AN B , where Sr is a reversing stress, which is more than Se and which will give a
fatigue life of N cycles.
A & B are two material constants obtainable by the method described below.
Taking log :
log( S r ) = log A + B log( N )........(5)
For a small number of stress reversals, N = 1000, the range stress, Sr can be increased to 90% of
the ultimate tensile strength of the material, or, Sr = 0.9Su for N = 1000.
Putting this pair of values in (5), we get
log( 0.9S u ) = log A + B log( 1000)
or , log( 0.9S u ) = log A + 3B...........................( 6)
We also know that for N= 106 , Sr can go up to Se, that is, Sr = Se, for N = 106 . Putting values in
(5) we get
Also, when the constants A & B are known, then for a given completely reversing stress Sr
greater than Se, we can determine the number of stress reversals (N) after which fatigue failure
1
S B
will occur : N = r .
A
5. Design for finite life with combined steady (Savg ) and range stress (Sr)
Basquin’s equation is applicable for a completely reversing range stress. For a combined
steady (Savg) and range (Sr) stress, if we want to apply Basquin’s equation, we first need to
determine the equivalent range stress (SR) from the combined stress situation. Once the
equivalent range stress (SR) is determined, then Basquin’s equation can be used to obtain the
number of reversals N for this equivalent SR.
We know that a combined stress denoted by a point below the Goodman line (in blue shaded
area), will provide indefinite life. For finite life situation, the applied stress point M (Savg, KfSr)
must be above the Goodman line. To obtain the equivalent range stress, we draw a line from Su
on x axis to the point M and extend the line to y axis. The point SR is the intersection of this line
to y axis, which denotes the equivalent range stress. The magnitude of SR can be easily obtained
S K f Sr
from the two similar triangles ∆OSuSR and ∆SavgMSu : R =
S u S u − S avg
K f S r Su
or , S R =
S u − S avg
Thus, for designing with finite life of a part (N<106 ), the applied Savg & Sr can be converted
to an equivalent SR and then Basquin’s equation can be applied. Also note that, the
ultimate tensile strength (Su ) for the material is needed to find this equivalent range stress.
Let fatigue life for stress SR1 , if applied alone is “N1 ” reversals, and let “n1 ” be the actual number
of reversals at stress level SR1 . Then stress SR1 has consumed “n1 /N 1 ” portion of the life of the
part. Similarly, let “N2 ” be the fatigue life at stress SR2 , and let “n2 ” be the actual reversals
occurred at this stress and thus consumed “n2 /N 2 ” portion of life. Sum of these proportions
constitutes the entire life, or unity:
n1 n n
+ 2 + 3 + ..... = 1
N1 N 2 N3
The above equation is called Miner’s Equation. Using this equation we can determine the
amount of life remaining in a part at any stress level, if we know the past history of its service.
2. Failure with fluctuating stresses that are high enough to cause failure in a few thousand
cycles or less is called low-cycle fatigue . Plastic yielding at localized areas may be
involved. The theory is beyond the scope of this course.