Corus Construction & Industrial

The design of steel footbridges

Steel bridges
the gap
Below:
River Aire footbridge, Leeds, 1993
Right:
Lowry Footbridge, Manchester
Contents This guide has been prepared for Corus by:
1. Introduction D C Iles MSc ACGI DIC CEng MICE Manager – Bridges,
2. Features and forms of construction The Steel Construction Institute.
for footbridges
3. Conceptual design and detailing The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions
3.1 General arrangement made by Mr W Ramsay, Corus and Mr A C G Hayward,
3.2 Selection of type of construction Cass Hayward and Partners, during the original
3.3 Trusses and vierendeel girder bridges preparation of the publication.
3.4 Steel beam bridges
3.5 Composite beam bridges
3.6 Cable stayed bridges
3.7 Access ramps and stairs
3.8 Bearings and expansion joints
4. Design codes, standards and guidance
4.1 British Standards
4.2 Departmental standards
4.3 Railway standards
4.4 Design of hollow section joints
4.5 Design of cable stayed and suspension bridges
4.6 Design of steel and composite bridge beams
4.7 Dynamic response
4.8 Protective treatment
4.9 Steel materials
5. Flow charts
6. References

The design of steel footbridges 3

Introduction

1. Introduction
Footbridges are needed where a separate pathway has Longer span bridges and those which form part of a
to be provided for people to cross traffic flows or some larger scheme are likely to be designed in detail by a
physical obstacle, such as a river. The loads they carry consultant or local authority. Within such an
are, in relation to highway or railway bridges, quite organisation the engineer carrying out the design needs
modest, and in most circumstances a fairly light to be familiar with the particular requirements for
structure is required. They are, however, frequently footbridges, their features and construction details.
required to give a long clear span, and stiffness then
becomes an important consideration. The bridges are For the engineer in either of these situations, this
often very clearly on view to the public and therefore the publication presents guidance on the conceptual design
appearance merits careful attention. of steel and composite footbridges, to aid the selection
of an outline design.
Steel offers economic and attractive forms of
construction which suit all the requirements demanded Typical key features are illustrated in section 3,
of a footbridge. references to codes and sources of further guidance are
given in section 4. Simple flow charts showing the
A fully detailed design can be prepared with other design steps are presented in section 5.
contract documents for pricing by tenderers. However, it
is common practice, particularly for smaller bridges, for
the detailed design of a footbridge to be included as
part of a design and construct package. Many
fabricators are able to provide such a package, using
methods and details of construction developed to suit
their particular fabrication facilities and expertise.
However, the engineer supervising the work still needs
to be acquainted with the different forms of construction
which might be used and to be aware of their
advantages and limitations.

4 The design of steel footbridges


2. Features and forms of construction for footbridges
Basic requirements
Footbridges, like any other bridge, must be long enough to
clear the obstacle which is to be crossed and high enough
not to interfere with whatever passes beneath the bridge.
However, the access route onto the footbridge is often
much different from what is familiar to the designer of a
highway bridge: there is no necessity for a gentle horizontal
alignment (indeed the preferred route may be sharply at
right angles to the span). Structural continuity is therefore
less common. The principle span is often a simply
supported one.
Provision of suitable access for wheelchairs and cyclists is
often specified for footbridges. Access ramps must be
provided and restricted to a maximum gradient. The
consequent length of ramps where access is from the level
of the road or rail track over which the bridge spans is
generally much longer than the bridge itself. The form of
construction suitable for the ramps may have a dominant
influence on the final form of the bridge.
The width of a footbridge is usually quite modest, just
sufficient to permit free passage in both directions for
pedestrians. Occasionally the bridge will have segregated
provision for pedestrians and cyclists, in which case it will
need to be wider.
Parapets are provided for the safety of both the pedestrians
and traffic flow. Footbridges over railway lines are required
to have higher parapets and be provided with solid panels
directly over the rail tracks.
Left:
Bell’s Bridge, Glasgow
Right:
Whatman’s Field Bridge, Maidstone
Features and forms of construction for footbridges
Truss and vierendeel girder beams
Trusses offer a light and economical form of construction,
particularly when the span is large. The members of the
truss can be quite slender and this naturally leads to the
use of structural hollow sections. Hollow sections have
been used for footbridges for over 30 years and some
fabricators have specialised in this form of construction,
developing techniques and details which utilise them to the
best advantage.
Vierendeel girders using hollow section members offer an
alternative but complementary structural form of similar
proportion by substituting a rectangular form for the
triangular arrangement used in trusses.
Trusses and vierendeel girders are arranged with either
half-through or through construction. Half-through
construction is used for smaller spans, where the depth
needed is relatively shallow. For larger spans, or where the
truss is clad to provide a complete enclosure for the
pedestrians, through trusses are used; the top chords are
then braced together above head level.
Steel beam bridges
The simplest method of employing structural steel as the
prime structural element of a footbridge is to use a pair of
girders (fabricated or rolled sections), braced together for
stability and acting as beams in bending, with a non-
participating walkway surface on top. A typical small
bridge deck might for example be formed by timbers
placed transversely across the top of the beams. Precast
slabs might also be used, without being shear connected
to the steel and therefore not participating in global
structural action.
The design of steel footbridges 5
Alternatively the floor might be formed by steel plate,
suitably stiffened to carry the pedestrian loads, in which
case the plate could also be made to act structurally as the
top flange of the steel beams.
Steel box girder bridges
Another alternative is to use a small steel box girder. The
top flange acts as the floor of the bridge, and there are
usually short cantilevers either side of the box. This form
has the benefits of good torsional stiffness which can
simplify support arrangements and clean surfaces which
minimise maintenance.
Composite beam bridges
Composite beams, steel girders with a concrete slab
acting as both a walkway floor and participating as a
top flange, are a practical solution for medium span
footbridges. They are a lighter version of the form of
composite construction frequently employed in
highway bridges. Slabs may be cast insitu, though the
lesser requirements for the shear connection and the
lighter design loads on the slab allow greater
opportunity to employ pre-cast slabs. The slab can also
be cast on the beams in the works or other convenient
site, since the weight and dimensions are often
sufficiently modest to permit transport and erection of
the complete superstructure.
6 The design of steel footbridges
Although composite construction is usually associated
with I section girders, a concrete slab can also be used
with a steel box girder.
Cable stayed bridges
In seeking to provide a bridge of light appearance, the
use of cable stays is found to be very successful. It
often affords scope to create a visually striking structure
which provides a landmark or a focus for the area in
which it is located. Almost any form of construction can
be used with stays, though when a cable stayed form is
chosen, the structural requirements are often found to
be of secondary consideration to the achievement of a
pleasing appearance.
Enclosed bridges
Enclosure of the sides of a footbridge is often called for
to discourage the throwing of objects from the bridge.
This is a particular requirement for bridges over railway
lines. Full enclosure, to the sides and the roof of the
walkway, is called for in situations where the users are
to be protected from the environment and where greater
protection is required over railway lines. Such enclosure
justifies the use of through truss or vierendeel
construction. The form of construction will probably be
dictated by consideration of appearance of the bridge
and its relationship to adjacent structures. Whilst the
general principles discussed in this guide are
applicable, fully enclosed bridges are not specifically
dealt with in detail in this guide.
 Features and forms of construction for footbridges

Left:
Swansea Sail Bridge
Below:
Halfpenny Bridge, Sheffield
Right:
Millennium Bridge, Gateshead

Decorative features The use of curved arch-type members is currently quite

In addition to the basic impression made by the form of
construction, the appearance can be greatly influenced
by non-structural decorative features, such as parapets
and handrails. Where particular effects are sought, the
availability of different patterns for posts, rails, etc,
should be investigated. Non-structural embellishments
of supports can also contribute – for example a cable
stayed pylon can be extended to a spike or other feature
above the level of the topmost stay connection.
popular, as is the use of cable stays. Some recent
examples are illustrated on this page.
Since these landmark structures are generally innovative,
it is inappropriate to try to include design guidance here,
but the general requirements and design principles given
in the following sections are largely still applicable.

Landmark structures
It is an increasingly common requirement for footbridges
in prominent or key locations to be ‘landmark
structures’. Particular attention is given to the
appearance of the structure and this may result in
somewhat unusual forms of construction. Such
structures can be allowed to be marginally less efficient
(in terms of complexity of fabrication), but if the design
is well executed the penalties should be small.

There is more scope for innovative design when the

structure is not over a road or railway, because the
requirements for parapet details need not be so
stringent. Parapets are often the most noticeable feature
of a footbridge, and the freedom to use more attractive
forms and more open post and rail arrangements can
lead to a very pleasing appearance.

The design of steel footbridges 7

Conceptual design and detailing

3. Conceptual design and detailing

3.1 General arrangement Minimum footway
As a first step, the basic requirements for access and
safety should be determined. The width and form of 2.0m
access needed depends on the expected pedestrian
traffic flow, though minimum dimensions are adequate in
most cases.

1.15m
For a simple footway, a minimum clear width of 2.0m is
required by the highways authorities. Railway station
footbridges can be less wide. To the sides of this
footway, parapets are required, which should be 1.15m
high over roads or 1.5m high over railways, the height
measured from the footway surface in both cases. In
areas prone to vandalism, a height of 1.8m may be
required over railways. The resulting minimum cross Footway + cycleway

section to be provided is shown in Figure 1. An

2.0m
increased parapet height of 1.3m may be needed in
areas of high prevailing wind and for bridges where the
headroom under the bridge is more than 10m.

Where pedestrians and cyclists share the pathway, the

1.4m
minimum width of 2.0m may be used for low traffic
flows but a wider segregated pathway (1.5m + 1.5m
minimum) may be required for higher traffic flows.
Segregation can be achieved by a white line, colour
contrast or difference in surface texture. At the same
time the minimum parapet height is increased to 1.4m.
The cross section for a combined pathway is also
shown in Figure 1.

Marked segregation
Dimensional requirements for footbridges are given in
Departmental Standard BD 29/03. That document refers 1.5m 1.5m

to BS 7818 for minimum dimensions of parapets.

The drainage requirements also affect the cross section,

since kerbs will be needed to prevent run-off where the
bridge is above a carriageway, a footpath or rail tracks.
1.4m

Typically an upstand of 50mm should be provided. This Footway Cycleway

upstand can be provided by an edge beam, by the lower
chord of a truss or by a flat welded to the floor plate.

Figure 1: Basic sectional dimensions for bridges over highways

8 The design of steel footbridges


5.7m
4.5m
Figure 2: Governing dimensions in elevation
Span
Since there is usually no need to align the approaches
to a footbridge, the span should normally be arranged
square to the obstacle it has to cross.
The minimum span required is that simply needed to
clear the width of obstacle, carriageway or railway.
However, the span may be increased in order that the
supports are positioned far enough from a carriageway
or rail track to avoid the risk of impact from an errant
vehicle or derailed train. The supports of light structures
such as footbridges are particularly prone to the effects
of impact.
For footbridges over highways, the span is determined
by the dimensions of the carriageways, as given in the
Departmental Standard TD 27/96.
To avoid the imposition of impact loads the supports
need to be set back 4.5m from the edge of the
carriageway (see Figure 2). Where this can be arranged,
perhaps additionally spanning a footway beside the
road, the consequent savings in the cost of the
substructure should be considered. Supports between
carriageways should also be avoided if possible.
The space needed for approach ramps and stairs will be
significant in arranging the layout of a footbridge. This
may influence the positioning of the bridge and its
supports, and thus its span.
Footbridges over railways are mostly required to cross
two or four tracks, with resulting span of between 10
and 25m. Where intermediate supports are placed
closer than 4.5m to the nearest rail, Network Rail require
Conceptual design and detailing
the superstructure to be capable of supporting itself if
one support were to be demolished in an accident.
Clearance
Over a highway, the clearance under new footbridges is
required to be at least 5.7m (TD 27/96). With this
clearance the superstructure need not be designed for
impact loads (see Figure 2). If any relaxation on
clearance were permitted in special cases it is likely that
impact loads would have to be considered. This would
be very onerous on the structural design. Clearance over
railways is specified by Network Rail with a minimum of
4.640m from rail level. The minimum clearance over
electrified lines and over lines that might be electrified in
the future is 4.780m. Greater clearances are required
near level crossings and where there is ‘free running’
(where the wires are not attached to the bridge).
Clearly, where access to the bridge has to come from
carriageway or track level, the rise needed for the stairs
or ramps is the sum of the clearance plus the
superstructure construction depth (walkway surface to
structure soffit). This means that ramps will be long
(about 120m at each end of the bridge over a road, for a
1 in 20 grade). It also means that the depth of
construction (for example the depth of a plate girder)
can add significantly to the length of ramp, and thus to
the cost of the whole structure. For this reason, half-
through construction, with a very shallow construction
depth, is usually preferred.
Sufficient vertical camber is needed to ensure drainage
of the footbridge to the ends, where the run-off can be
carried to drains or a soakaway.
The design of steel footbridges 9
Conceptual design and detailing

Spiral ramp, Myton Footbridge, Hull Stairs and ramps, Christchurch

Stairs and ramps
Where access is required from a lower level, stairs and
ramps must be provided. Stairs are only suitable for able
pedestrians and it is general policy to provide ramps
where possible. Such ramps should ideally be no steeper
than 1 in 20, though gradients of up to 1 in 12 may be
used for straight ramps where space is limited.
Stairs are usually arranged in two or three flights with
intermediate landings, depending on particular
arrangements, to comply with normal safety
requirements. They usually have semi-open risers, for
lighter appearance. Handrails are provided on the inside
faces of the parapets on stairs and ramps. Minimum
widths must be maintained between these handrails.

A ramp can be either a series of straight sections or a Services

spiral, depending on circumstances and space available
(see Figure 3). The space occupied by a ramp is quite
significant and may well influence the position of the
bridge.
A single straight ramp can be used where space and the
desired access route permit. If the gradient is steeper
than 1 in 20, the ramp should have intermediate landings
(i.e. it should be a series of ramps with horizontal
sections between). Ramps are often arranged in scissor
fashion (i.e. with a 180º change of direction at an
intermediate landing).
Occasionally the bridge may have to carry a service –
water pipes or electric cables, for example. It should
normally be arranged that such pipes are supported out
of sight, on brackets or cross-members between main
beams for example. If a service is positioned inside a box
girder, it is better to put it in a duct, so that any
maintenance to the service does not require entry into the
box girder. Gas or water pipes should not be sited inside
a box girder, for safety reasons, unless placed in a steel
sleeve which runs the length of the bridge.

Spiral ramps must have a minimum inside radius of

5.5m (gradient measured 900mm from the inside edge).
The same limits on gradient apply (i.e. a maximum of 1
in 20 is desirable, up to 1 in 12 may be acceptable in
some cases). Spiral ramps are unsuitable for a full 6m
rise to a footbridge over a highway unless a large radius
can be accommodated.

Stepped ramps are sometimes used which, with a

125mm step and a 1 in 12 slope between, can effectively
achieve a 1 in 6 gradient. For spiral ramps this gives a
rise of 6m in under 360º turn.

10 The design of steel footbridges

River Exe Suspension Bridge

3.2 Selection of type of construction
As mentioned previously, the depth of construction is
very important to the overall extent of the footbridge
where access is from the level of the road or railway
being crossed. In those circumstances it is usually
preferable to use a half-through form of construction.
This usually leads to a selection of a truss or vierendeel
girder bridge, though half-through plate girder forms such
as that developed by Network Rail may also be used.
often appropriate, both visually and structurally. Beyond
about 100m twin pylons should be considered.
Suspension bridges are very rarely considered these
days, but may still be chosen for appearance reasons
when the span exceeds about 70m.
A summary of approximate span ranges suitable for the
various types is given in Table 1.

However, not all bridges are subject to such constraints. Table 1

Some simply cross, for example, a small river, or span Span ranges for different types of construction
across a deep cutting. In such cases the depth of Construction type Span range (m)
construction is not so important and steel girders or steel Truss 15 to 60
composite construction may be employed. When the span Vierendeel girder 15 to 45
is long, the dynamic response of the bridge becomes a
Twin steel girders 10 to 25
significant consideration, particularly for the lighter all-
Steel girders + steel floor plate 10 to 30
steel bridge. The greater stiffness afforded by truss
Steel box girder 20 to 60
construction may well be advantageous. Alternatively,
cable stayed construction can be employed. Composite beams 10 to 50

Arches 25 upwards
Cable stayed forms of construction can rarely be Cable stayed bridge 40 upwards
justified visually below about 40m. For spans up to Suspension bridge 70 upwards
100m a single pylon on one side of the main span is

1:20 ≥ 2m

13 risers max
1:20

Figure 3: Arrangement of typical stairs and ramp

The design of steel footbridges 11

Conceptual design and detailing

3.3 Trusses and vierendeel girder

bridges
Although trusses and vierendeel girders have a different
structural action, there are many similar features when
they are constructed of structural hollow section
members, as used in footbridges. This section deals with
both types of construction.

Through and half-through construction

Trusses and vierendeel girders for footbridges are
normally arranged with the deck at the level of the
bottom chord, in either through or half-through
construction. Half-through construction is used for
smaller spans, where the depth needed is less than the
clearance height for people to walk through. For large
spans, or where the bridge is clad to provide a
complete enclosure for the pedestrians, through
construction is used.

The top chords can then be braced together above

head level.

Stability of the top compression chord in half-through

construction is provided by the U-frame action of the
side members and the cross-members of the deck. In
through construction, lateral bracing between the two top
chords offers a more direct means of stabilising them.

Below and right:

Through truss footbridge

12 The design of steel footbridges

 Conceptual design and detailing

Configuration
The type of truss usually employed is either a Warren
truss or a modified Warren truss. Occasionally a Pratt
truss may be used. The different types are illustrated in
Figure 4.
Warren truss

Warren trusses are the simplest form of truss, with all

loads being carried principally as axial loads in the
members and with the minimum of members meeting at
joints. However, the loads which are carried to the
bottom chords from the walkway floor can lead to
significant bending in these members when the panels Modified Warren truss
are large. A modified warren truss reduces the span of
these chord members, though the additional vertical
members add complexity to the fabrication. Pratt trusses
are used where it is preferred that some members are
vertical, for example to facilitate the fixing of cladding or
decorative panels.
Pratt truss
Vierendeel girders have no diagonal members and rely
on a combination of axial loading and bending to carry
loads. The stiffness of the girder depends crucially on
the bending stiffness of vertical and horizontal members
and on the stiffness of the joints between the two. As a
consequence they are much heavier, for a given span,
than a Warren truss. However the appearance, which Vierendeel girder

only shows vertical and horizontal lines, in harmony with

the normal form of parapet (horizontal rails, vertical
posts and infill), is often considered more pleasing. Figure 4: Types of truss and vierendeel girder

For the largest spans, the vierendeel girder will probably

be too flexible, though they have been used successfully
up to 45m span.

Below: Below:
Half-through truss footbridge Rutherglen station footbridge

The design of steel footbridges 13

Proportions and appearance
The familiar image of a truss is probably of a heavy-
looking structure, relatively deep in proportion to span.
Such trusses were often used for railway bridges.
However, a truss footbridge can generally be of light
appearance and of shallow depth/span proportion.
With half-through construction, the minimum overall
depth is determined by the parapet height; for a
crossing over a highway the minimum is about 1.25m.
For spans over about 30 metres the depth will need to
be slightly greater, though span/depth ratios in excess
of 30 can give a pleasing appearance.
For spans over 50m full through construction will
probably be necessary. Then the depth is determined by
internal clearance, which is usually specified as 2.3m
minimum. To reduce the tunnel effect and to keep the
top bracing away from casual abuse a depth of about
3m is needed. Such spans will have a deeper
span/depth ratio, though the slender members will still
give an impression of lightness.
The arrangement of the bracing and the line of the
parapets are the dominant features which are seen
14 The design of steel footbridges
by road users. They therefore require careful attention
and treatment.
Where the depth of the vierendeel girder is determined
by parapet height, the top chord can often be used as
the parapet rail, with suitable infill bars fixed between
the vertical members. For longer span vierendeel
girders, where the depth is more than the parapet
height, parapet panels complete with top rail can be
fixed inside the rectangular panels of the girder. Where a
truss is used, the parapet is usually fixed to the inner
face of the diagonal members. The parapets are less
conspicuous to road users than the truss members,
though they are still evident in silhouette.
Construction depth, from footway surface to underside
of the truss or girder, is normally quite shallow, not more
than the depth of the chord members. This contributes
greatly to the light appearance.
The top and bottom chords of a truss are usually made
parallel, but for larger spans a less dominating
appearance can be achieved by a hog-back
configuration, with a gentle curve to the top chord
reducing the depth at the ends of the span.
Above:
Large-span truss footbridge
Left:
Vierendeel footbridge
Right:
Lower chord connection detail
Far right:
Large-span vierendeel footbridge, A27 Broadmarsh

Members and connections – trusses
Both circular and rectangular structural hollow sections
are commonly used in trusses. The bottom chord is
generally rectangular, to facilitate connection with deck
and cross-members. Rolled sections or flats are
sometimes used as cross-members or as stiffeners to
steel floor plates. Chords and diagonals are usually
arranged with centrelines intersecting where possible.
Standard welding details have been developed for
hollow section connections.
For half-through trusses the connection with
cross-members at the lower chord requires particular
attention, since its stiffness and strength are
fundamental to U-frame action.
Where the bottom chords are of rectangular section,
some designers specify plates slotted diagonally across
the section at the position of the cross-members (Figure
5) to prevent the chord lozenging or distorting.
However, cutting slots in the hollow section and welding
stiffeners adds to the fabrication cost. Research by the
Steel Construction Institute for Corus (30) showed an
un-stiffened connection designed to BS 5400: Part 3 to
Conceptual design and detailing
have a higher buckling resistance than that calculated
even when a lower flexibility value is used.
The failure loads calculated were relatively insensitive to
the actual value of connection stiffness. This showed
the use of diagonal stiffeners does not significantly add
to the global strength of tubular U-frame footbridges.
Where a steel floor plate is used it normally acts as the
“bracing” to the bottom chords, to carry the lateral
shear (mainly wind forces) back to the supports. If a
non-participating form of floor is used, cross bracing in
the plane of the bottom chord, to resist lateral forces,
must be considered.
Through trusses, used in longer spans, give lateral
stability to the top compression chord by means
of bracing in the plane of the top chord. Such bracing
will also share in the carrying of any lateral forces,
especially where the truss is clad on its sides and thus
subject to significant wind loads. At the ends of the span
these lateral forces have to be carried down to bearing
level through portal action or through a braced frame.
The design of steel footbridges 15
Conceptual design and detailing

Members and connections – Vierendeel girders
In footbridges, Vierendeel girders normally use
rectangular hollow sections for greater stiffness
and strength at the connections between verticals
and chords.
The nature of vierendeel action is that vertical shear is
carried by shear/bending action of each length of chord,
and the vertical members are subject to complementary
horizontal shear and bending. Since shear is highest at
the ends of the span, the “fixed end moments” are
Stability of the compression chord again requires
U-frame action of the cross section and this again
requires adequate stiffness and strength of the
cross-member to vertical connection at the bottom
chord. Even with the heavier sections usually required
for a vierendeel girder, it may be necessary to insert
diagonal plates, as mentioned previously.
100 x 100 10 RHS

highest there also. The vertical members therefore need

to be strongest at the ends of the span. 10 thick
insert plate
slotted into
On the other hand the central portions of the chords chord

sustain predominantly axial load, whilst the ends sustain

predominantly bending load. There is less need to vary
the size of the chord members, and usually only
thickness is varied, if at all.
Weld
ground
flush
The consequences are that the vertical members are
often wider (in the plane of the girder) at the ends of the
span and are sometimes closer together, variations Figure 5: Detail of diagonal plate through bottom chord
which are clearly visible in silhouette.

The strength of the joint between chord and vertical

members must be adequate to transmit the fixed end
moments. To do this both should have the same width
(normal to the plane of the girder). Under the higher
moments on the joints toward the ends of the span a
simple square joint may have inadequate strength, and
either triangular fillets (cut from the same section as the
vertical) or reinforcing plates may need to be added to
increase stiffness and strength (see Figure 6). The
appearance of these additions may not always be
acceptable and heavier sections may be preferred.

Figure 6: Detail of a haunched joint in a vierendeel girder

Right:
Stiffened plate floor construction
Far right:
Typical floor construction

16 The design of steel footbridges

 Conceptual design and detailing

Floor construction
The floor of a truss or vierendeel girder footbridge will
usually be of steel plate, though precast planks have
been used with trusses. The lighter steel deck is now
generally preferred.
The plate, typically 6mm or 8mm thick, is supported on
and welded to steel cross-members between the
chords. These cross-members form part of the U-frames
which stabilise the top chord and are themselves usually
hollow sections. The plate panels between chords
and cross-members are divided transversely and
sometimes longitudinally by stiffeners (usually flats) to
give added support.
Where rainwater can be allowed to run off the side of the
bridge (for example over a river), the floor may be slightly
cambered transversely to facilitate drainage. With
stiffened thin steel plate decks, care also needs to be
exercised that panels do not dish between stiffeners and
allow ponding of water – the spacing of stiffeners is
usually limited for this reason. Weld sizes should be kept
to a minimum, to reduce distortion from welding.
(see GN 2.10 (31))

On top of this plate a waterproof layer is required for

corrosion protection, and to give a non-slip surface for
safety. This is usually achieved with a thin membrane
(which acts both as waterproofing and as a binder) and a
surface dressing of fine aggregate. The total thickness is
about 4mm. This surface is often applied in the works
and does not add significantly to erection weights.

When precast planks are used it is necessary to provide

a shelf angle on the inner face of the chords on which
the planks can sit. It is very important that the joint
between concrete and steel is properly sealed or it could
become a moisture and corrosion trap.

Where drainage over the edges of the bridge is not

permitted, arrangements must be made to carry
rainwater to the ends of the bridge and then to drains or
a soakaway. A vertical curve or longitudinal camber
should be provided on a bridge which otherwise would
be level.

The design of steel footbridges 17

Conceptual design and detailing
Parapets
Parapets are normally designed to comply with a
DMRB standard (see section 4.2). The parapet may be
either a separate item or may be combined with
structural members.
For trusses, the parapet is provided as separate units
fixed to the inside faces of the truss diagonals. The
diagonals must then be designed to carry lateral loads
from the parapet, and the parapet rails must be
designed to span between the diagonals which support
them. Parapet posts can alternatively be fixed to the
footway deck, though the attachment would need to be
strong enough to withstand the overturning moment
arising from lateral forces on the top rail.
Where vierendeel girders are used it is convenient to fix
parapet panels in the rectangular panels of the girders,
effectively using the vertical members as parapet posts.
This achieves an integrated appearance and produces a
slightly lesser overall width of bridge than with separate
parapets on the inner faces of the girder. The top chord
of the girder may also function as the top parapet rail, or,
if it is higher than the required parapet height, a separate
rail can be provided in addition to the top chord.
18 The design of steel footbridges
Cladding
Over rail tracks, the highway and rail authorities require
that solid non-climbable cladding be provided on the
inside face of the truss or vierendeel girder. This is
usually achieved by profiled steel sheeting, rigidised
aluminium, GRP panels or even flat sheets. Fine mesh
(maximum 50mm apertures) may be used over non-
electrified lines. Although the cladding is only required
over the tracks, a better appearance is often achieved
by providing the cladding over the full length of the
span. Great care needs to be exercised in detailing the
cladding, to avoid the creation of small inaccessible
sheltered ledges on the top of the lower chord where
moss and debris can accumulate or which may be used
for handholds or footholds.
Left:
Parapets in vierendeel girder, Horam
Right:
In-line splice detail
Far right:
Erection of Christchurch footpath
 Conceptual design and detailing

Supports
Trusses and vierendeel girders are supported either on
bearings (if they span between concrete abutments, for
example) or directly on top of a simple steel
substructure without any bearings.
At abutments the point of support is normally directly
below the end vertical or diagonal members and thus
does not give rise to local bending of the chord section.
Other supports should also preferably be arranged
similarly. Where it is not convenient to do so, for
instance when a top landing cantilevers a short distance
beyond the support columns and the support is midway
between bracing connections, the bottom chord is
subjected to bending. It is then common to use a
heavier chord section over the last one or two panels of
the truss (see photograph below right).
Erection
Fortunately, most footbridges can be fabricated as a
complete length of the span and then transported, with
spans up to about 45m. Although fabrications over 27m
in length require special permission to travel on the public
highway, most fabricators prefer to complete fabrication
in the works wherever possible and are familiar with
arrangements for the movement of long lengths.
Bolted hollow section flanged joint details can be used
for site splices, though it may be felt that flange plate
end connections are somewhat cumbersome in
appearance. In-line splice details are much less
obtrusive, but require more effort in design and
fabrication (see photograph below left). In most cases,
spans must be complete before lifting, because closure
or possession periods will be very short.

Fabrication of trusses
Fabricators who specialise in hollow section fabrication
are familiar with all the types of detail needed for truss
footbridges and have appropriate equipment, such as
profile cutting equipment for tubulars etc.

A wide range of sizes of hollow sections is available

from the rolling mills, but it must be remembered that
the fabricator has to purchase material for each job,
either from the mill or from a stockist, and his orders
may be subject to minimum quantities and premiums for
small quantities. The designer should therefore try as far
as possible to standardise his choice of section size and
material grade.

The design of steel footbridges 19

Conceptual design and detailing
3.4 Steel beam bridges
Types of construction
Four types of construction are considered in this
section:
• a pair of steel beams with a non-structural floor on top
(e.g. timber)
• a pair of steel beams with a structurally participating
steel floor plate
• a steel box girder
• a half-through plate girder bridge as developed by
British Rail
The first three are appropriate where depth of
construction is not important. The fourth is appropriate
where minimum construction depth is critical.
Proportions and appearance
For the relatively light loading on a footbridge, the depth
of beam in all cases can be arranged to be about 1/30
of the span. A typical bridge over a river or canal might
then have a span of 30m and a beam depth of 1m.
A simple I-beam bridge with non-structural floor might
comprise two girders about 1.5m apart on which is fixed
a floor of, in some instances, timber planks. Parapet
posts would be fixed to the top flange or the outer face
of the steel beams.
Steel girders with a structural participating steel floor
plate would be of similar overall proportions. Parapets
would be fixed on top of the floor plate.
With both forms, the girders can have a clean web over
their full length, as web stiffeners are needed only at
supports and on the inner faces for attachment of
bracing. The structural element therefore looks clean
and simple. The appearance will be influenced strongly
20 The design of steel footbridges
Left:
Footbridge using rolled sections, Swale
Right:
Footbridge with timber deck and parapets
Far right:
Box girder footbridge and cycleway, Gablecross
by the treatment of the parapet rails, posts and any
other feature added to the bridge. The use of simple
parapet details will contribute to a good non-fussy
overall appearance.
In some circumstances a distinct curvature in elevation
(more than would suffice just to aid drainage to the
ends) will add character to the appearance.
The use of a steel box girder extends the clean lines to
the soffit of the bridge. It can be complemented by a
simple basic parapet or can be contrasted by
embellishment with ornate fixtures and fittings. Typically
the box would be about 1.0m wide, with short steel
cantilevers either side to provide the necessary width.
Half-through plate girder bridges will usually have their
U-frame stiffeners on the outside faces and generally
look more heavy. Nevertheless, the half-through plate
girder bridge developed by British Rail (see page 22)
achieves a pleasing appearance.
Members and connections – I-beams/girders
For economical design, the pair of beams need to be
braced together to stabilise them against lateral
torsional buckling. Bracing at several positions in the
span will be necessary, roughly at 15 to 20 times the top
flange width to achieve reasonable limiting stress levels.
Bracing can simply be an X brace with single tie at each
position, bolted to stiffeners on the inside faces of the
webs. For the main girders, fabricated I-sections are
likely to be lighter and more economic than Universal
Beams. Castellated beams can provide a weight saving
in some circumstances whilst offering an interesting and
different appearance.
 Conceptual design and detailing

A non-structural deck, such as timber planking, can be To improve appearance it is common to use slightly
simply bolted down to the top flange of the I-beams. sloping webs, creating a trapezoidal cross section.
Particular attention should be paid to detailing, to
minimise crevices where dirt and moisture can The use of steel box girders has the advantage of
accumulate. torsional strength and stiffness. They can be used in
continuous construction to simplify supports or to curve
In many instances steel plate is used for the floor of the the bridge in plan when desired for appearance. In a
bridge. The plate, typically about 6mm or 8mm thick, is straight bridge, torsional restraint (usually by means of
usually welded to the main girders and can therefore be twin bearings) is needed only at the ends: a single
assumed to act structurally with them. Cross-members bearing will suffice at intermediate supports, thus
will be required to carry the floor loading to the main allowing the use of a single slender column.
beams and these are sometimes extended by short steel
cantilevers outside the beam web, in which case an
edge beam is provided to give a neat face and to give
support to the parapet. A thin waterproof wearing
surface is normally specified, dressed with fine
aggregate for grip and durability. The surface is often
applied in the works.

Members and connections – box girders

Box girders are essentially similar to the paired plate
girders with steel deck, as described above, except that
the bottom flange joins the two webs and encloses the
space between. They are usually considered only for
spans over about 30m. The thickness of the top flange
which also forms the floor plate will be determined by
overall bending strength rather than local floor loading.
The plate is typically supported by transverse stiffeners
which cantilever to edge beams. Two or three
Figure 7: Cross section through a typical box girder footbridge
longitudinal stiffeners may be provided to stiffen the floor
plate when acting as the compression flange of the box.

Diaphragms are needed at supports and are often

provided at several positions along the length of the
girder (typically the third points) to control distortion.
Large holes will be required in the diaphragms if access
is required during fabrication or maintenance.

The design of steel footbridges 21

Conceptual design and detailing
Members and connections – half through girders
Half through plate girder footbridges are often used over
railways. The solid web provides the required screening
without the need for any non-structural additions. This
form has developed from the half-through plate girder
concept often seen in railway bridges. A particular form
developed by the former Midland Region of British Rail
is illustrated in photographs shown above. Two features
to note are: the use of a hollow section as top flange,
turned through 45° it forms a steeple cope, which
discourages walking along the flange; the absence of
any projection of the bottom flange prevents climbing
along the outer face.
U-frame action is provided by the flat intermediate
stiffeners to web and bottom flange. Typically they are
provided about every 1.5m.
Parapets
Where there are no cantilevers the parapet can either be
fixed to the top flange of the box or to the web of the
girder. The attachment positions should coincide with
bracing or cross-members, to provide restraint against
rotation under lateral loads on the parapet rail.
Where there are cantilevers, either the posts should
coincide with the cantilever positions or they should be
mounted on a torsionally stiff hollow section edge beam.
22 The design of steel footbridges
Fabrication
Whether using rolled I-beams or fabricated I-section
girders, the processes of drilling holes, adding stiffeners
etc. poses no difficulty to the fabricator. The fabricated
I-section can either be made using jigs and semi-
automatic welding or by a T and I automatic welding
machine. Curvature in elevation is easily achieved with
fabricated girders, and universal beams can readily be
curved by specialist bending companies prior to
fabrication. Fabrication of box sections requires more
traditional methods, and the completion of the closed
box makes it almost essential for manual work internally.
Details should be arranged for ease of access for work
and inspection.
Splices
For spans up to around 40m, it is quite likely that the
beams would be transported full length and splices
would not be needed. Over 40m they would be split
into at least two lengths; site connections would
normally be bolted.
Bolted splices are quite conventional, with few problems.
If a completely clean face is sought,it will be necessary
to have a site welded joint.
3.5 Composite beam bridges
Types of construction
Composite construction is seen in footbridges in two
forms – a concrete slab on top of two I-girders or a
concrete slab on top of a closed steel box girder. The
open steel box form with slab which is sometimes used
in highway bridges is not normally seen in footbridges
Slabs may be cast insitu, though the relatively modest
extent of the shear connection and lighter design loads
on the slab allow greater opportunity to employ pre-cast
slabs. Such slabs are provided with open pockets to fit
over the shear connectors. The pockets and the joints
between slab sections are filled with concrete to create
the necessary structural continuity.
Proportions and appearance
Composite footbridges typically have a span/depth ratio
of about 20 (depth measured from top of slab to
underside of girder).
Short cantilevers outside the lines of the webs will give
a better appearance, in the same way as they do for
highway bridges. A small upstand is needed at the
edges to provide a mounting for the parapets and to act
as a drainage upstand. A thick edge beam would create
a rather heavy appearance.
Opposite page:
Half through plate girder footbridge, Network Rail
Above:
Composite curved ‘I’ beam footbridge, Washington
Members and connections
Composite construction produces a much heavier
structure than an all-steel footbridge; the dead
load accounts for over half of the total load in most
cases. The extra weight and consequent stiffness of this
form of construction has the advantage of being less
responsive to dynamic excitation.
Where transverse joints between precast units are not
designed to carry transverse shear, plan bracing will
also be needed.
Floor construction
Reinforced concrete slabs for footbridges are typically
about 150mm thick. They can be constructed insitu on
falsework or by using precast slabs.
Sometimes they can be cast in the fabrication yard, and
the complete composite structure transported to site
and erected.
A waterproofing membrane is required, plus some form
of durable wearing surface. A combined membrane and
wearing course with aggregate dressing, similar to that
used on steel decks, can be used.
Parapets
As for other forms of construction, parapets must
comply with DMRB or Network Rail requirements.
The parapet posts are fixed to the concrete slab or edge
beam with conventional holding down bolts.
The design of steel footbridges 23
Conceptual design and detailing

3.6 Cable stayed bridges
Footbridges carry only relatively light loading. However,
when the main span is long, the requirements of
supporting its own dead load and of providing a
sufficiently stiff structure lead toward a much more
substantial structure than would seem appropriate for a
“mere” footbridge. As a result, an increasingly popular
solution for longer spans is the use of a cable stayed
arrangement. This effectively divides the span into shorter
lengths, for which lighter beams can be used. The pylons
for these bridges also add a strong visual feature which is
often welcomed.
A single backstay is usually sufficient, anchored to the
girder at the abutment which supports the end of the
backspan. Further backstays are only needed if the
backspan is long and requires intermediate support. The
stays are normally anchored at floor level to longitudinal
beams. The beams need to be stiff and strong enough to
span between anchor points and they may need to be
fairly deep. A lighter appearance, with shallow beam/floor
depth, might be achieved by using a vierendeel girder and
half-through construction. Footbridge pylons are usually
steel box or circular sections, for slender appearance,
ease of construction and economy.

Types of construction Members and connections

Cable stays can be used with any of the forms of The cable stays will normally be made from wire rope or
construction previously described, though to complement spiral strand. Strands are made by winding together, or
the light appearance, a slim form of deck construction is laying up, a number of galvanised steel wires. Ropes are
likely to be more appropriate for all except the largest made up of a number of small strands wound together.
spans. Supports can be provided to the main beams at Ropes and spiral strands have a lower effective modulus
about 10m to 15m spacing, which facilitates the use of a than solid steel. Parallel wire strands are also available.
slender deck. Advice should be sought from specialist manufacturers on
the selection of strands.
For most footbridges, twin planes of cable stays will
normally be used, one to each side of the bridge deck. A
pylon at one end of the main span will suffice up to about
100m span. Very long spans may require the use of pylons
at both ends. 'A' frame pylons are popular, with the two
stay planes inclined. Alternatively, individual pylon legs for
each cable plane can be arranged, or a “goal-post”
arrangement can be used; the stays can then lie in a
vertical plane.

Usually, at least two forestays should be provided in each

plane – a single stay is hard to justify on economic or
appearance grounds. The minimum span for a cable
stayed bridge with two forestays is thus around 35m.

24 The design of steel footbridges


In the dead load condition the stays are effectively
prestressed. It is important to calculate accurately the
stretch of the stays in the dead load condition, so that
the correct geometry of the structure is achieved.
Provision should be made for length adjustment in the
stays, to accommodate tolerances and errors.
Stays must obviously be sufficiently strong to support
the beams, but often more significant for small bridges
is the need to provide sufficiently stiff supports to the
beams and to avoid slack stays which will be easily
vibrated.
With twin planes of stays, the natural arrangement for
the deck structure is with main beams at either edge, to
which the stays are attached. The floor then spans
transversely between the beams. A single plane of stays
can only be used where a torsionally stiff box girder is
provided; the stays would be attached on the centreline
of the bridge. This is not normally convenient for a
single footway.
As well as provision for adjustment in length during
installation, attachment details should also be arranged
such that any stay can be replaced if need be. It is good
practice to make sure that the anchorages are as strong
at ULS as the breaking load of the stays.
Under the action of live load the stays provide stiff
support to the main beams and they thus behave
essentially as continuous beams. Axial load is also
transmitted to the beams by the stays, so the beams
must be designed for the combined load effects.
Far left:
Cable stayed ‘I’ beam footbridge, Cumbernauld
Left:
Royal Victoria Dock Bridge, London
Right:
Cable stay anchorage
Conceptual design and detailing
For very long spans, the deflection under load changes
the geometry of the structure. If the sag of the stays is
significant they will act as non-linear springs. Both these
effects should be taken into account in the analysis.
Computer programs are available which automatically
take account of the non-linear effects of varying
geometry under load.
Whilst ropes and strand can last the life of the bridge,
experience has shown that they should be
inspected from time to time to check for corrosion and
fatigue, particularly at the lower ends. The stay
anchorages should be accessible for such inspection
and maintenance. The design should also be such that
any one stay can be removed and replaced.
Dynamic response
Cable stayed bridges are relatively flexible and are more
prone to oscillation under wind or under deliberate
excitation by users. An all-steel construction results in a
very low level of structural damping, which can allow the
oscillations to grow significantly. The dynamic response
of the bridge should therefore be checked carefully.
Artificial damping, such as tuned mass dampers, can be
provided if necessary.
Floor construction
Deck construction is usually of stiffened steel plate,
though timber or reinforced concrete are sometimes
used instead.
The design of steel footbridges 25
Conceptual design and detailing

3.7 Access ramps and stairs Handrails must be provided on the inside faces of
Where approach ramps or stairs are needed they are parapets on stairs and ramps, for safety reasons. A
usually structurally independent, except for the need to clear gap of at least 40mm is desirable between the rails
be supported at the top end either on the footbridge and any adjacent members.
superstructure or on a common substructure support.
They can therefore be of a structurally different form. Stairs normally have semi-open risers. Fully open risers
However, it is generally preferable to achieve harmony are not permitted by BD 29/03.
of appearance between the two and to use a similar
construction form. At the bottom of flights of stairs, details should be
chosen which avoid acute corners, since they can trap
Stairs usually require, at most, one intermediate support debris. To avoid this, stairs can be supported just above
beneath the landing at mid-flight. Ramps require more the bottom of the flight, so that there is a clear gap
supports and indeed are small bridges themselves. Even between the underside of the stringers and ground level.
for ramps, the number of intermediate supports should
be kept as small as possible, with spans of at least 10m.
Supports should also be as simple as possible – a
T-shaped column and crosshead should be sufficient
in most cases (provided that resistance to impact is
not necessary).

Where supports may be subject to impact loads, they

will need to be significantly more substantial. The
foundations will also have to be larger. In these
circumstances the designer can choose either
reinforced concrete columns or a robust steel structure.

Since landings are nominally level, care needs to be

exercised to avoid ponding of water and accumulation
of debris. Extra drain holes in these areas together with
a small fall will suffice.

Below:
Stairs showing open treads and handrails
Right:
Scissor ramp

26 The design of steel footbridges

 Conceptual design and detailing

3.8 Bearings and expansion joints
The provisions for restraint or the accommodation of
movement due to expansion or other reasons depends
very much on the general arrangement of the bridge,
ramps and stairs.
When the bridge spans between bankseats or
abutments, expansion joints are needed, and the
structure will sit on bearings. At one end the bearings
may be fixed longitudinally, but if laminated bearings are
used, both ends can be 'free', as long as the bearings
can transmit any longitudinal forces.
Expansion joints need to accommodate movement
ranges of about 20mm, depending on span. Even at
ends which are longitudinally restrained there has to be
some provision for movement at deck level, owing to
rotational movements under live load.
Consideration should be given to fixing long ramps at
the bottom end. Maximum longitudinal movement at the
far end therefore occurs where the columns are tallest
and most able to accommodate it.
Stairs should preferably be fixed at the bottom and
bolted to column supports. This effectively provides a
restraint for any ramp or bridge connected to the top of
a straight flight.
For light all-steel bridges, all support details, bearings or
direct connections to columns, should be designed to
resist at least a nominal uplift.

For footbridge expansion joints, a simple detail should

be chosen, one which does not collect dirt or debris and
which can be dismantled for maintenance if required. A
simple leaf plate fixed to the bridge on one side and
sliding on a second plate on the fixed side can usually
be arranged in most circumstances. Particular attention
should always be given to the avoidance of steps facing
uphill, even as little as 5mm, since they always tend to
accumulate material washed down by run-off.

Where the bridge spans between steel column supports,

no bearings are needed. The bridge is simply bolted
down to the tops of the columns. Expansion is
accommodated by flexing of the columns and no
expansion joints are needed.

Below:
Expansion joint leaf plate
Right:
End bearing box girder

The design of steel footbridges 27

Design codes, standards and guidance
4. Design codes, standards and guidance
4.1 British Standards
In most circumstances, the British Standard BS 5400 (1)
will apply to the design and construction of footbridges.
In some cases, possibly where the bridge is connected
to a building, BS 5950 (2) might be called for.
For design of steel and composite structures, the
following Parts of BS 5400 are applicable
Part 2 Specification for loads
Part 3 Code of practice for design of steel bridges
Part 4 Code of practice for design of concrete bridges
Part 5 Code of practice for design of composite bridges
Part 6 Specification for materials and workmanship, steel
These codes cover all aspects of design for footbridges
of beam and truss construction. Design of tubular joints
is not covered in detail within Part 3 – see section 4.4
for further guidance. Similarly, the design of cable stays,
the strands and their anchorages, are not covered by
these codes – refer to section 4.5 for guidance.
Dimensional and safety requirements for stairs are given
in BS 5395 (3). These requirements are amended slightly by
the departmental standard for footbridges.
4.2 Departmental standards
The requirements of the four UK highways authority (the
Highways Agency, the Scottish Executive, the Welsh
Assembly Government and the Department for Regional
Development Northern Ireland) are set out in the Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB). This manual is a
collection of individual standards (BD documents) and
advice notes (BA documents).
Each of the design code parts of BS 5400 is
implemented by a BD standard (4), and some of
these standards vary certain aspects of the part that
they implement (notably BD 37 for Part 2 and BD 16 for
Part 5). For footbridges, a particular point to note is that
the requirements in relation to loads resulting from
collision of vehicles with the structure have been
significantly modified. The impact loads and the
circumstances in which they should be applied are
specified in BD 60 & BD 37 (the DMRB version of BS
5400 Part 2) and an amendment to it. The provisions
relate to the impact loads on supports located within
28 The design of steel footbridges
4.5m of the edge of the carriageway and to
superstructures which have less than 5.7m clearance
above the surface of the carriageway.
Other standards and advice notes also relate to the
design of footbridges. Design criteria for footbridges are
given in BD 29 (5). Highway cross sections and headroom
are given in TD 27 (6). Selected information from these
two documents is included in section 3. Standard TD 27
specifies a minimum clearance for footbridges of 5.7m.
This avoids the necessity of applying the impact
requirements of BD 37 on the superstructure, which
would be particularly onerous on a light structure such
as a footbridge.
Where supports need to be close to the edge of the
carriageway, they are required to be provided with
protective plinths and designed for impact loads. Where
they can be kept back from the carriageway, perhaps to
span a footway beside the road, the consequent savings
in the cost of the substructure should be considered.
Supports between carriageways should also be avoided
(unless they can be located more than 4.5m from the
road, which is not usually feasible).
The design of parapets on footbridges is referred by
BD 29 to the Interim Rules for Road Restraint Systems
IRRRS). The IRRRS (7) is a Highways Agency document,
not currently part of the DMRB, although it does state
that it supersedes a number of DMRB documents, such
as the earlier BD 52/93. The IRRRS refers to BS 7818 (8),
which gives dimensional requirements, design
requirements and a specification for construction of
metal parapets, and it specifies the design loading
classes for rails, posts and infill.
4.3 Railway standards
Network Rail are particularly concerned with prevention
of unauthorised access and are legally obliged to fence
its boundaries. Network Rail and the Railway Safety and
Standards Board also have more stringent requirements
in relation to collision loads. Reference should be made
to GC/RC5510: Recommendations for the Design of
Bridges (27). The following comments are based on advice
given in recent projects.

In considering the prevention of unauthorised access,
not only must the pedestrian face of the bridge be
designed to be non-climbable, it must also be
impossible to climb along the outer face from the ends
of the bridge – this usually means that trusses are clad
either side of the diagonals at the ends. The top flanges,
chords or parapets must be arranged so that they are
impossible to walk along.
The zone within 4.5m of the outermost running rail is
considered a danger zone; if any support is located
within that zone, collision effects must be considered.
Any substructure column must be able to withstand an
impact load, and the superstructure must be able to
continue to carry some live load without support from
the column. Design recommendations are given in
GC/RC5510.
4.4 Design of hollow section joints
The design of hollow section joints is not fully covered
by the requirements of BS 5400: Part 3. There is
however extensive background research into the
behaviour of tubular joints and various documents have
been published which provide guidance.
For triangulated structures, where the joints transmit
essentially axial loads from one member to another, the
design of the joint involves checks on (a) the adequacy
of the welds at the end of the member and (b) the
bending of the walls of the hollow sections (which are
subjected to out of plane forces).
Guidance literature is available both for circular sections
and for rectangular sections. General guidance is given
in CIDECT publications (9), (10) & (11) and guidance in relation
to BS 5950: Part 1 is given in a Corus publication. (12)
Design rules in both of these documents may be applied
using partial factors appropriate to BS 5400. Similar
rules will be included in EN 1993-1-8 (13).
The extent of guidance on the design of joints for the
moments associated with vierendeel action (or with
U-frame action) is more limited, though there has also
been research on this topic. A stiffer and more efficient
joint is achieved when the bracing member is the same
width (normal to the moment plane) as the chord
member. Design guidance for this type of joint can also
Design codes, standards and guidance
be found in a Corus publication (12). Adequacy of both
the bracing member and the chord member must be
checked. If necessary, reinforcement of the joint can
be designed.
4.5 Design of cable stayed and
suspension bridges
For general guidance on the design of cable stayed
bridges, reference should be made to standard texts,
such as Walther (14) or Troitsky (15). These are
comprehensive books, but they do include specific
comment on footbridges with illustrated examples.
The provisions of BS 5400 do not cover in detail the
design of wire ropes or similar elements, nor is there any
other appropriate national code. The designer therefore
needs to base his detailed design on an empirical
approach, based on load effects calculated in the usual
manner according to BS 5400 and adopting the general
objectives of the code.
Details of the specification of wire ropes and strands
can be found by reference to BS 302 (16), and of the
sockets by reference to BS 463 (17). The cold drawn wire
used for ropes and strands does not have a linear
stress/strain relationship, with a definite yield plateau,
as does structural steel. The relationship is generally
smooth, with decreasing tangent modulus as load
increases. Design of stays has therefore been based
traditionally on permissible stresses calculated by
dividing the ultimate or breaking strength by a suitably
large factor (i.e. a working stress philosophy). In the
absence of formal codes on a limit state basis, division
of this strength by a partial factor γm of about 2.0 at
ULS, in conjunction with normal values of γƒ1 and γƒ3
gives results consistent with the traditional approach.
Guidance on the design of suspension bridges can be
found in texts such as Pugsley (18). The tensile elements
may be wire rope or strand, as for cable stayed bridges,
though high tensile steel rods may be used for the main
tension members.
The design of steel footbridges 29
Design codes, Standards and Guidance

4.6 Design of steel and composite
bridge beams
Guidance on the design of composite highway bridges
is given in a series of publications by The Steel
Construction Institute (19). These can be used as general
guidance in the design of footbridges in accordance
with BS 5400, both for composite beam and all-steel
beam designs.
Guidance on a wide range of practical aspects related to
steel bridge construction is given in a series of Guidance
Notes produced by the Steel Bridge Group (31).
4.7 Dynamic response
Limitations on the dynamic response of footbridges are
given in HA standard BD 37. The vertical natural
frequency of many footbridges will be below 5Hz and
the response must be checked. If the horizontal natural
frequency is less than 1.5Hz, checks must be made for
possible lateral excitation.
For Network Rail owned bridges, the protective
treatment and walkway surfacing must comply with
Network Rail line standard RT/CE/S/039 (28). Advice is
given in RT/CE/C/002 (29).
For other bridges, the HA specifications, or alternatives,
may be used, with the clients agreement.
In some circumstances, Weather Resistant Steels might
be used, provided that environmental constraints can be
met. (23), (24)
4.9 Steel materials
Steel material for plates, rolled sections and structural
hollow sections is covered by British Standards
EN 10025, EN 10210 (25). Information about the products
available from Corus (26) can be obtained from the Corus
Construction Centre. Contact details are on the back of
this brochure.

The susceptibility of a footbridge to aerodynamic

excitation has to be checked in accordance with
BD 49 (20). Bridges under 30m span are unlikely to be
susceptible. Detailed rules are given in BD 49 for
bridges that are susceptible.

4.8 Protective treatment

For bridges subject to highways authority requirements,
the protective treatment specifications should be
selected from those listed in the guidance notes to the
Specifications for Highway Works (SHW) (21), (22). When
using those notes, access conditions should normally
be taken as “difficult”, which will result in use of metal
spray for the first coat. Galvanising may be suitable for
small components, such as parapets.

30 The design of steel footbridges

 Flow charts

5. Flow charts
Figure 5.1: Flow diagram for the design of footbridges

DMRB Standards
Scheme- for highway DMRB Standards
specific details cross section for footbridges
and headroom

Determine geometric
constraints

Choose
structural form

Trusses and
Steel beams Composite beams Cable stayed bridges Ramps and stairs
vierendeel girders

(Figure 5.2) (Figure 5.3) (Figure 5.4) (Figure 5.5)

Far left:
Renaissance Bridge, Bedford
Left:
Smithkline Beecham, Marlow

The design of steel footbridges 31

Flow charts

Global analysis Figure 5.2: Flow chart for trusses and vierendeel girders

Global analysis

12.3

Longitudinal effects Lateral effects

Yes No

Triangulated
truss?

Check combined
Check as Check adequacy
bending and axial
a ‘truss’ of lateral bracing
effects

12.1 12.6

Tension Compression Tension Compression

members members members members

Check adequacy Determine effective Check adequacy Determine effective

Check U-Frame action
at ULS lengths at ULS lengths

12.2 12.4 11.5.2 I=a* 12.5

11.5.1 12.5 9.9 12.5.1

Check adequacy Check adequacy

Strength at ULS Strength at ULS Strength
adequate? adequate? adequate?

Yes 10.6.1 Yes 10.6.2 Yes

10.6.3
9.9

Slender or
compact? Strength
adequate?
Yes 12.2.3
No
Yes
Check adequacy
at SLS

12.2.3
10.6.2
10.6.3

Strength
adequate?

Yes

Satisfactory

* For in-plane buckling, use the length between intersections (a); for out of plane buckling use (a) if there are effective lateral restraints or use 12.5.1
otherwise.

32 The design of steel footbridges

 Flow charts

Figure 5.3: Flow chart for steel beams

Global analysis

No Yes
Box
girder?

Determine limiting Determine effective

stresses for LTB section

9.6 9.4
9.7
9.8

Determine limiting
Check ULS moment
stresses and check
and shear capacities
capacities

9.9 9.10
9.11

Unsymmetric Check diaphragms

compact and crossframes
section?
No Yes 9.16
9.17

Check adequacy
at SLS

9.9.8

Check bearing
stiffeners

9.14

All strengths All strengths

adequate? adequate?

Yes Yes

Satisfactory

The design of steel footbridges 33

Flow charts

Figure 5.4: Flow chart for composite beams Figure 5.5: Flow chart for cable stayed bridges

Non-linear analysis if
Global analysis Global analysis deflections or DL sag
of stays are significant

Check beam Check adequacy

adequacy at ULS of members as
trusses or beams

9.9
Include effects
during replacement
of each stay

Check slab
adequacy at ULS
Check adequacy
of cable stays
5/6.1.2
4/4.8.3

Check local
Yes effects at cable
Unsymmetric anchorages
compact
I-beam?

No

Check beam
adequacy at SLS Check adequacy
of pylon

9.9.8
9.9.5.2

Check slab
adequacy at ULS Determine dead load
prestress in stays
5/5.2.4.2
5/5.2.6
4/4.1.1.1

Check
bearing stiffeners
All strengths
adequate?
9.14

Yes

All strengths
adequate?

Yes

Satisfactory Satisfactory

34 The design of steel footbridges

 References

6 References
1. British Standards Institution 20. Highways Agency
BS 5400: Steel, concrete and composite bridges – Parts 1 to 10, Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume 1, Section 3, BD 49,
BSI, London (various dates) Design rules for aerodynamic effects on bridges, The Stationery
Office
2. British Standards Institution
BS 5950, Structural use of steelwork in building, BSI, London 21. Highways Agency
Manual of contract documents for highway works, The Stationery
3. British Standards Institution Office; Volume 1: Specifications for highway works series 1900,
BS 5395, Stairs, ladders and walkways, BSI, London Protection of steel against corrosion
Volume 2: Notes for guidance on the specification for highway
4. Highways Agency works,
Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume 1 Section 3: Series NG1900, Protection of steelwork against corrosion
BD 13, Design of steel bridges: use of BS 5400 Part 3;
BD 16, Design of composite bridges:use of BS 5400: Part 5; 22. Corus
BD 37; Loads for highway bridges, Corrosion Protection of Steel Bridges, 2002
BD 60; The design of highway bridges for vehicle collision loads,
The Stationery Office 23. Highways Agency
Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume 2, Section 3, BD 7,
5. Highways Agency Weathering steel for highway structures, The Stationery Office
Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume 2, Section 2, BD 29
Design criteria for footbridges, The Stationery Office 24. Corus
Weathering Steel Bridges, 2002
6. Highways Agency
Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume 6 Section 1, TD 27 25. British Standards Institution
Cross-sections and headroom, The Stationery Office BS EN 10025: 2004, Hot rolled products of structural steels.
BS EN 10210, Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy
7. Highways Agency and fine grain structural steels, Part 1: 1994 Technical delivery
Interim Requirements for Road Restraint Systems (IRRRS), The requirements.
Highways Agency, 2002 (contact the Highways Agency for copies)
26. Corus
8. British Standards Institution Product & Technical brochures
BS 7818:1995 Specification for pedestrian restraint systems in Structural sections
metal Structural plates
Structural hollow sections
9. CIDECT
Design guide for circular hollow sections (RHS) under 27. Railway Safety and Standards Board
predominantly static loading, Verlag TÜV, Cologne, 1991 Group Standard
GC/RC5510: Recommendations for the Design of Bridges
10. CIDECT
Design guide for rectangular hollow sections (RHS) joints under 28. Network Rail
predominantly static loading, TÜV, Cologne, 1992 Line Standard
RT/CE/S/039; Specification RT98 - Protective Treatment for
11. CIDECT Railtrack Infrastructure
Structural stability of hollow sections, Verlag TÜV, Cologne, 1992
29. Network Rail
12. Corus Tubes Line Standard
Design of SHS welded joints, CT16, Corus Tubes, Corby 2001 RT/CE/C/002: Application and Reapplication of protective
treatment to Railtrack Infrastructure
13. British Standards Institution
prEN 1993-1-8, Design of Steel Structures, Design of Joints, 30. Corus Tubes
December 2003 Connection flexibility in tubular U frame footbridges RT 451,
December 1994
14. Walther, R. et al,
Cable stayed bridges, Thomas Telford, London, 1988 31. Evans, J. E. and Iles, D. C.
Steel Bridge Group: Guidance notes on best practice in steel bridge
15. Troitsky, M. S., construction (P185), The Steel Construction Institute, 2002
Cable-stayed bridges, BSP, Oxford, 1988

16. British Standards Institution

BS 302, Stranded steel wire ropes, BSI, London

17. British Standards Institution

BS 463: Part 2:1970 Specification for sockets for wire ropes
(metric units), BSI, London

18. Pugsley, A.
The theory of suspension bridges, Edward Arnold, London, 1957

19. Iles, D. C.
Design guide for composite highway bridges (P289)
Design guide for composite highway bridges: Worked examples
(P290)
The Steel Construction Institute, 2001

The design of steel footbridges 35

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