Titanium - Discovery And Naming

Titanium was discovered in 1791 by the English clergyman William Gregor (1761-
1817). Gregor was not a professional scientist, but studies minerals as a hobby. On
one occasion, he attempted a chemical analysis of the mineral ilmenite and found
a portion that he was unable to classify as one of the existing elements. He wrote
a report on his work, suggesting that the unidentified material was a new
element. But he went no further with his own research. It was not until four years
later that German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth returned to an investigation of
ilmenite and isolated the new element. He suggested the name of titanium for the
element in honor of the Titans, mythical giants who ruled the Earth until they
were overthrown by the Greek gods. Titanium is corrosion resistant, very strong
and has a high melting point. It has a relatively low density (about 60% that of
iron). It is also the tenth most commonly occurring element in the Earth's crust.
That all means that titanium should be a really important metal for all sorts of
engineering applications. In fact, it is very expensive and only used for rather
specialized purposes.
 Titanium-Occurrence

Titanium is in the earth's crust with an abundance estimated at about 0.63%. The
most common sources of titanium are ilmenite, rutile, and titanite. The metal is
often obtained commercially as a byproduct of the refining of iron ore. It can be
produced from its ores by electrolyzing molten titanium chloride (TiCl4): TiCl4 —
electric current → Ti + 2Cl2, or by treating hot titanium chloride with magnesium
metal: 2Mg + TiCl4 → Ti + 2MgCl2.

Titanium-Properties
Titanium exists in two allotropic forms, one of which is a dark gray, shiny metal.
The other allotrope is a dark gray amorphous powder. The metal has a melting
point of 3,051°F (1,677°C), a boiling point of 5,931°F (3,277°C), and a density of
4.6 g/cm3. At room temperature, titanium tends to be brittle, although it becomes
malleable and ductile at higher temperatures. Chemically, titanium is relatively
inactive. At moderate temperatures, it resists attack by oxygen, most acids,
chlorine, and other corrosive agents. Titanium is known as a transition metal on
the periodic table of elements denoted by the symbol Ti. It is a lightweight, silver-
gray material with an atomic number of 22 and an atomic weight of 47.90. It has a
density of 4510 kg/m3, which is somewhere between the densities of aluminum
and stainless steel. It has a melting point of roughly 3,032°F (1,667°C) and a
boiling point of 5,948°F (3,287 C). It behaves chemically similar to zirconium and
silicon. It has excellent corrosion resistance and a high strength to weight ratio.
While titanium is relatively abundant, it continues to be expensive because it is
difficult to isolate. The leading producers of titanium concentrates include
Australia, Canada, China, India, Norway, South Africa, and Ukraine.

silvery grey-white metallic

 Why is titanium so expensive?

• Titanium is very expensive because it is awkward to extract from its ores -

for example, from rutile, TiO2.

• You can't use carbon reduction

 Titanium can't be extracted by reducing the ore using carbon as a cheap

reducing agent.

 The problem is that titanium forms carbide, TiC, if it is heated with carbon,
so you don't get the pure metal that you need. The presence of carbide
makes the metal brittle.

 That means we have to use an alternate reducing agent.

 In case of titanium either sodium or magnesium acts as reducing agents

which first have to be extracted from their ores by expensive processes.

• Other problems

 The titanium is produced by reacting titanium (IV) chloride, TiCl4 - NOT the
oxide - with either sodium or magnesium. That means that you first have to
convert the oxide into the chloride. That in turn means that you have the
expense of the chlorine as well as the energy costs of the conversion.

 Titanium (IV) chloride reacts violently with water. Handling it therefore

needs care.

 Traces of oxygen or nitrogen in the titanium tend to make the metal brittle.
The reduction has to be carried out in an inert argon atmosphere rather than
in air. That also adds to costs.

 Titanium is made by a batch process. With titanium, we make it one batch

at a time. Titanium (IV) chloride is heated with sodium or magnesium to
produce titanium. The titanium is then separated from the waste products, and
an entirely new reaction is set up in the same reactor. This is a slow and
inefficient way of doing things

RUTILE:
Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of Titanium dioxide,TiO2.

Rutile is the most common natural form of TiO2 .Three rarer polymorphs of
TiO2 are known:
  anatase (sometimes known by the obsolete name 'octahedrite'), a tetragonal
mineral of pseudo-octahedral habit;
 brookite, an orthorhombic mineral and;
 eclogites.
Rutile has among the highest refractive indices of any known mineral and
also exhibits high dispersion.
Natural rutile may contain up to 10% iron and significant

amounts of niobium and tantalum. Rutile derives its name from the Latin rutilus,
red, in reference to the deep red color observed in some specimens when viewed
by transmitted light. This picture is acicular crystals of rutile protruding from a
quartz crystal.

Occurrence: Rutile is a common accessory mineral in high temperature

metamorphous rocks and igneous rocks. Rutile is the preferred polymorph of TiO2
in such environments because it has the lowest molecular volume of the three
polymorphs; it is thus the primary titanium bearing phase in most high pressure
metamorphic rocks, chiefly eclogites. Brookite and anatase are typical polymorphs
of rutile formed by retrogression of metamorphic rutile. Anatase and brookite are
found in the igneous environment particularly as products of autogenic alteration
during the cooling of plutonic rocks; anatase is also found formed within placer

deposits sourced from primary rutile

The occurrence of large specimen crystals is most common in pegmatites skarns

and particularly granite greisens.

, Rutile in quartz
Crystal structure: The unit cell of rutile. Ti atoms are grey;

O atoms are red

Rutile has a body centered tetragonal unit cell, with unit cell parameters
a=4.584Å, and c=2.953Å. It therefore has a density of 4240 kg/m3. The titanium
cations have a co- ordination number of 6 meaning they are surrounded by an
octahedron of 6 oxygen atoms.

The oxygen anions have a co-ordination number of 3 resulting in a trigonal planar

co-ordination.

Synthetic rutile: Synthetic rutile was first produced in 1948 and was sold under a
variety of names. Very pure synthetic rutile is transparent and almost colorless
(slightly yellow) in large pieces. Synthetic rutile can be made in a variety of colors
by doping, although the purest material is almost colorless. The high refractive
index gives an adamantine lusture and strong refraction that leads to a diamond-
like appearance. The near-colorless diamond substitute is sold under the name
Titania, which is the old-fashioned chemical name for this oxide. However, rutile
is seldom used in Jewellery because it is not very hard (scratch-resistant),
measuring only about 6 on the mohs hardness scale. It has a high refractive index
(2.62-2.90)and a dispersion 6.5 times that of diamond which gives it an
exceptional display of fire, and far too much to be diamond. Unlike diamond,
Synthetic Rutile exhibits doubling of the back facets. Even with a bluish film
added to the stone, some yellow body colour always remains.

EXTRACTION OF TITANIUM FROM RUTILE:

Conversion of titanium(IV) oxide, TiO2, into titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4

The ore rutile (impure titanium (IV) oxide) is heated with chlorine and coke at a
temperature of about 900°C.

Reaction:TiO2+2Cl2+2C→TiCl4+2CO

Other metal chlorides are formed as well because of other metal compounds in
the ore. Very pure liquid titanium(IV) chloride can be separated from the other
chlorides by fractional distillation under an argon or nitrogen atmosphere, and is
stored in totally dry tanks. Titanium(IV) chloride is a typical covalent chloride. It is
a colorless liquid which fumes in moist air due to reaction with water to give
titanium (IV) oxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride. Everything has to be kept very
dry to prevent this happening.

Fractionation: Titanium tetrachloride is purified by distillation (BP 136.4) to

remove iron chloride.

Reduction of the titanium (IV) chloride

1. Reduction by sodium

The titanium(IV) chloride is added to a reactor in which very pure sodium has been
heated to about 550°C - everything being under an inert argon atmosphere. During
the reaction, the temperature increases to about 1000°C.The product formed is
called titanium sponge.

Reaction: TiCl4+4Na→Ti+4NaCl

After the reaction is complete, and everything has cooled (several days in total -
an obvious inefficiency of the batch process), the mixture is crushed and washed
with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the sodium chloride.

2. Reduction by magnesium

The method is similar to using sodium, but this time the reaction is:

TiCl4+ 2Mg→Ti+2MgCl2

The magnesium chloride is removed from the titanium by distillation under very
low pressure at a high temperature

Melting:
Titanium sponge is melted under argon to produce ingots.

C Fractionation
TiO2 +Cl2 TiCl4 + CO2
(with FeCl3 impurity) TiCl4
Red Heat molten Mg or Na 800
Under Ar
 Fused Ti sponge heat Spongy metallic Ti
Ti ingots (free of Mg) (impurity of Mg and
MgCl2
Under Ar 1000⁰C

Kroll Process
Company Technology Route Grade Installed Cap.,TPA
Travancore NL/Trioxide(Sulpha Anatase 24,500
Titanium Products te)
Ltd.
Kolmak Chemicals Indigenous(Sulphat Anatase 2,400
Ltd. e)
Kerala Minerals & KMML(Chloride) Rutile 22,000
Metals Ltd.
Kilburn Chemicals (Sulphate) Anatase 3,960
Ltd.
Total Capacity 52,800

Titanium Dioxide Producers in India

Comparison of Consumption Patterns of Titanium Dioxide (%):

Region→ USA Western Rest of World India

Europe
Industry
Paintings & 51 62 75 68
Coatings
Paper 24 9 4 6
Plastics 14 18 8 10
Others 11 11 13 16

Analysis of Indian Rutiles

Constituents Chavara grade Manavalakurichi
grade
(per cent)
(per cent)

Tio2 91.8 96.2

SiO2 1.9 1.2

Fe2O3 0.6 0.6

Al2O3 2.9

ZrO2 2.4 1.4

The ilmenite ores can be magnetically concentrated to produce almost pure

mineral (90-95% ilmenite). The left-overs yield valuable raw material for
extraction of zirconium, thorium and rare earths.
 ILMENITE:

Ilmenite is a weakly magnetite titanium-iron oxide mineral which is iron-black or

steel-gray. It is a crystalline iron titanium oxide (FeTiO3). It crystallizes in the
trigonal system, and it has the same crystal structure as hematite.

Features: Ilmenite is commonly recognized in altered igneous rocks by the

presence of a white alteration product, the pseudo-mineral-leucoxene. Often
ilmenites are rimmed with leucoxene, which allows ilmenite to be distinguished
from magnetite and other iron-titanium oxides. In reflected light it may be
distinguished from magnetite by more pronounced reflection pleochroism and a
brown-pink tinge. Ilmenite is weakly magnetic, with a weak response to a hand
magnet.

Mineral chemistry: Ilmenite most often contains appreciable

quantities of magnesium and manganese and the full chemical formula can be
expressed as (Fe, Mg, Mn, Ti) O3. Ilmenite forms a solid solution with geikilite
(MgTiO3) and pyrophanite (MnTiO3) which are magnesium and manganiferous end-
members of the solid solution series.

Although there appears evidence of the complete range of mineral chemistries in

the (Fe,Mg,Mn,Ti)O3 system naturally occurring on Earth, the vast bulk of ilmenites
are restricted to close to the ideal FeTiO3 composition, with minor mole
percentages of Mn and Mg. A key exception is in the ilmenites of kimberlites where
the mineral usually contains major amounts of geikielite molecules, and in some
highly differentiated felsic rocks ilmenites may contain significant amounts of
pyrophanite molecules.

At higher temperatures it has been demonstrated there is a complete solid

solution between ilmenite and hematite. There is a miscibility gap at lower
temperatures, resulting in a coexistence of these two minerals in rocks but no
solid solution. This coexistence may result in exsolution lamellae in cooled
ilmenites with more iron in the system than can be homogeneously accommodated
in the crystal lattice.

Altered ilmenite forms the mineral leucoxene an important source of titanium in

heavy mineral sands ore deposits. Leucoxene is a typical component of altered
gabbro and diorite and is generally indicative of ilmenite in the unaltered rock.

Tellnes opencast ilmenite mine, Sokndal, Norway

Paragenesis: Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral found in metamorphic and

igneous rocks. It is found in large concentrations in layered intrusion where it
forms as part of a cumulate layer within the silicate stratigraphy of the intrusion.
Ilmenite generally occurs within the pyroxenitic portion of such intrusions (the
'pyroxene-in' level). Magnesian ilmenite is indicative of kimberlitic paragenesis and
forms part of the MARID association of minerals (mica-amphibole-rutile-ilmenite-
diopside) assemblage of glimmerite xenoliths. Managaniferous ilmenite is found in
granitic rocks and also in carbonatite intrusions where it may also contain
anomalous niobium. Ilmenite also occurs as discrete grains, typically with some
hematite in solid solution, and complete solid solution exists between the two
minerals at temperatures above about 950°C. Titanium was identified for the first
time by William Gregor in 1791 in Ilmenite from the Manaccan valley. Ilmenite is
named after the locality of its discovery in the Il'menski Mountains, near Miass,
Russia.
Lunar ilmenite:
Ilmenite has been found in Moon rocks, and is typically highly enriched in
magnesium similar to the kimberlitic association. In 2005NASA used the Hubble
Space Telescope to locate potentially ilmenite-rich locations. This mineral could
be essential to an eventual Moon base, as ilmenite would provide a source of iron
and titanium for the building of structures and essential oxygen extraction.

Decomposition of ilmenite by concentrated KOH solution under atmospheric

pressure
A new process was provided for decomposition of ilmenite by concentrated
KOH solution under atmospheric pressure. Approximately 80–85% of the
titanium could be leached from the ilmenite ore under the optimal
conditions.
 Introduction
It is well known that China owns the huge reserves of titanic minerals. However,
most of these titanium-bearing minerals belong to the low-grade minerals such as
ilmenite, and there are many difficulties in utilizing them due to the high content
of impurities. As sources of high-grade titanic minerals decrease worldwide, many
studies have been performed on upgrading of ilmenite in recent years, which can
be summarized into two categories: pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical
methods

In the pyrometallurgical route, ilmenite is partially reduced by anthracite at

elevated temperature to obtain a cast and a slag with high titanium.

In the hydrometallurgical process, sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid is used as the

leachant for upgrading ilmenite into synthetic rutile.

The upgrading reaction can be carried out both under atmospheric or pressure
leaching conditions. However, all of these methods mentioned above have the
disadvantages of high energy consumption and corrosive effect due to the use of
high temperature and high concentrated acid in the upgrading process. Therefore,
it is imperative to develop a new and cleaner production process for upgrading of
ilmenite.
In the present study, a new process for the decomposition of ilmenite has been
proposed. In this process, ilmenite is decomposed in fluid medium of concentrated
KOH solution under atmospheric pressure and an intermediate with high in
titanium and low in iron is obtained by separation, which can be converted into
pigment grade titanium dioxide after further treatment. In comparison with the
conventional process of upgrading of ilmenite, this process requires relatively mild
reaction conditions and high decomposition rate of ilmenite can be fulfilled at
relatively low temperature under atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the energy
consumption of the new technology is lower than the existing those and may have
strong potential applications.

Experimental
 Materials
The solid KOH was reagent grade and the deionized water was used in the
experiment. The ilmenite used as raw material to produce pigment grade titanium
dioxide through the sulfate method was supplied by the Yuxing Chemical and
Industrial Company (Shan Dong province, China). The ilmenite was dried, and
screened into four particle size fractions to examine the effect of particle size on
titanium extraction. The mineralogical analysis of the sample was carried out by
XRD and the result indicated that no other phases were identified except the
ilmenite phase.

 Equipment
The batch reactor used in this study was a 300 ml SUS316 stainless steel container,
whose inner diameter is 60 mm, and equipped with a thermometer, a mechanical
stirrer and a reflux condenser. The reactor was heated by a heating furnace to
reach and maintain the desired temperature within ± 1 °C.

 Procedure
All the experiments were conducted in batch. For each run, 160 g solid KOH and
the required amount of deionized water were first charged into the reactor. After
that, the reactor was heated under continuous stirring. When the temperature
reached the preset value and kept stable, a certain amount of ilmenite was added
to the reactor. Then, the mixture of the reactants was stirred at specific stirring
speed under atmospheric pressure.
The reaction of ilmenite with concentrated KOH solution led to the formation of
potassium titanate (K4Ti3O8) and iron oxide, and this could be described as follows:

3FeTiO3 + 4KOH → K4Ti3O8 + 3FeO + 2H2O (1)

The titanium extraction was calculated by dissolving the sample in HCl, and the
dissolution took place according to the following reaction:

K4Ti3O8 + FeO + 12HCl → 3TiOCl2 + FeCl2 + 4KCl + 6H2O (2)

After the complete dissolution of the sample, the chloride solution was filtered off
and analyzed for its titanium content, and then the extent of titanium extraction
was calculated

Microwave reduction of oxidised ilmenite concentrates:

Microwave energy has potential for the speedy and efficient heating of minerals
and in a commercial context may provide savings in both time and energy. The
oxidation and reduction of iron in ilmenite concentrates between the ferrous and
ferric states has been found to greatly enhance its chemical activity. When
reduced to the correct extent, iron can be preferentially extracted to yield a
titanium rich beneficiate suitable for use as a feed for the production of titanium
dioxide (TiO2) pigments via the Chloride Process. Two ilmenite concentrates were
first oxidised in a conventional muffle furnace at 1000°C. The ferric iron was then
reduced back to ferrous iron by heating with a fine carbon powder under an inert
nitrogen atmosphere. The reduction process was carried out in a variable power (0
to 1500 kW), 2.45 GHz microwave oven. Duplicate control samples were reduced
at temperatures over the range 700 to 1000°C in a conventional muffle furnace.
The mineral phase changes occurring during the oxidation and reduction stages
were detected by X-ray diffraction techniques. Changes in the surface morphology
of the concentrate particles were detected by scanning electron microscopy and
quantitatively described through changes in the specific surface area. Samples
were leached with 25% hydrochloric acid to detect changes in the activity of both
iron and titanium components.
 . Analysis of Indian Ilmenites
Constituents Chavara grade Manavalakurichi

(%) grade (%)

TiO2 60.60 54.20

Fe2O3 24.18 14.20

FeO 09.25 26.60

Al2O3 00.96 01.25

MnO 00.39 00.40

Cr2O3 00.12 00.07

V2O5 00.15 00.16

MgO 00.89 01.03

P2O5 00.21 00.12

ZrO2 00.90 00.80

Rare earths Traces 00.12

APPLICATIONS:
Pigment:

• Titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because of its
brightness and very high refractive index (n = 2.7).

• In ceramic glazes titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal

formation.

• In almost every sunscreen with a physical blocker, titanium dioxide is found

because of its high refractive index, its strong UV light absorbing capabilities
and its resistance to discolouration under ultraviolet light. This advantage
enhances its stability and ability to protect the skin from ultraviolet light

• Titanium dioxide is used to mark the white lines on the tennis courts of the
All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, best known as the venue for the
annual grand slam tennis tournament The Championships, Wimbledon.

As a photocatalyst:
• Titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, is a photocatalyst under
ultraviolet light. Recently it has been found that titanium dioxide, when
spiked with nitrogen ions, or doped with metal oxide like tungsten trioxide,
is also a photocatalyst under visible and UV light.

• It is also used in the Graetzel cell, a type of chemical solar cell.

• The photocatalytic properties of titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira

Fujishima in 1967and published in 1972

For wastewater remediation:

TiO2 offers great potential as an industrial technology for detoxification or
remediation of wastewater due to several factors.

• The process occurs under ambient conditions very slowly, direct UV light
exposure increases the rate of reaction.
• The formation of photocyclized intermediate products, unlike direct
photolysis techniques, is avoided.
• Oxidation of the substrates to CO2 is complete.
• The photocatalyst is inexpensive and has a high turnover.
Other application:
It is also used by film and television companies as a substitute for snow when
filming scenes which require a winter setting.
Aerospace and marine:
• Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio high corrosion resistance
and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping,
titanium alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft,
and missiles. For these applications titanium alloyed with aluminium,
vanadium, and other elements is used for a variety of components including
critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters),
and hydraulic systems.

• The SR-71 "Blackbird" was one of the first aircraft to make extensive use of
titanium within its structure, paving the way for its use in modern military
and commercial aircraft.To name a few the Boeing 777, the Boeing 747, the
Boeing 737, the Airbus A340, Airbus A330, and Airbus A320.

Industrial:
• Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks,
process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical
industries primarily for corrosion resistance.

• Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is important as an

intermediate in the process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the
Ziegler-Natta catalyst, and is used to iridize glass and because it fumes
strongly in moist air it is also used to make smoke screens.

Architectural:

• Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m

(120 foot) memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in
Moscow, is made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association
with rocketry.

• The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were
the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed
in titanium panels.
 • Other construction uses of titanium sheathing include the Frederic C.

Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado and the 1 07 m

(350 foot) Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow .

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is sheathed in titanium panels

. INTRODUCTION:

TITANIUM:

• Titanium is playing an increasingly important role in this age of special

alloys. The strength-to-weight ratio of titanium is very high, almost twice
that of steel and its corrosion resistance is better than even stainless steel.
Titanium alloys retain their strength even at higher temperatures. The
current usage of titanium on a world-wide basis is as follows:

• Jet engine component

• Air frames

• Missiles and spacecraft

• Chemical process industries

In the aerospace industry, titanium is mainly used in the form of the following
alloy compositions:

1. Al: 6%; V: 4%; Ti: balance.

2. Al: 4%; Mn: 4%; Ti: balance.

3. Mn: 8%; Ti: balance.

Pure titanium is used in the form of sheets, tubes, rods, and bars.

Minor additions are sometimes made to enhance the corrosion resistance of

stainless steels and reduce thermal stresses by lowering the thermal expansion.
MEDICAL:

. Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not rejected

by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of medical applications including

surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint
replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 years. This picture shows a
fracture of the eye socket was repaired by stabilizing the fractured bones with
small titanium plates and screws
.

Precautions:

• It does, however, have a tendency to bio-accumulate in tissues that

contain silica. An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to
stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This
may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of
titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain
up to 80 ppm.

• Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact
with liquid oxygen. Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is
struck with a hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes the
emergence of a crack. This poses the possible limitation for its use in liquid
oxygen systems, such as those found in the aerospace industry.

CONCLUSION: Future advances in titanium manufacture are likely to be found

in the area of improved ingot production, the development of new alloys,
the reduction in production costs, and the application to new industries.
Currently, there is a need for larger ingots than can be produced by the
available furnaces. Research is ongoing to develop larger furnaces that can
meet these needs. Work is also being done on finding the optimal
composition of various titanium alloys. Ultimately, researchers hope that
specialized materials with controlled microstructures will be readily
produced. Finally, researchers have been investigating different methods
for titanium purification. Recently, scientists at Cambridge University
announced a method for producing pure titanium directly from titanium
 dioxide. This could substantially reduce production costs and increase
availability

.
What are "ores"?

An ore is any naturally-occurring source of a metal that you can economically

extract the metal from.

Ores are commonly oxides - for example:

bauxite Al2O3
haematit
Fe2O3
e
rutile TiO2

. . . Or sulphides - for example:

pyrite FeS2
chalcopyrit CuFeS
e 2

Concentrating the ore: This simply means getting rid of as much of the unwanted
rocky material as possible before the ore is converted into the metal. A common
example of this involves froth flotation.

Titanium Ore: Any mineral from which titanium is extracted, principally ilmenite
(FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2). Brazil, India, and Canada are major producers. Both
these ore minerals are found either in rock formations or concentrated in heavy
mineral sands.