Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In the past, members of the public have used printed information that was outdated by
subsequent improvements in knowledge and technology. We therefore make the following
statement for their future protection.
The information presented here is, to the best of our knowledge, current at time of printing and
is intended for general application. This publication is not a definitive guide to government
regulations or to practices and procedures wholly applicable under every circumstance. The
appropriate regulations and statutes should be consulted. Although the Construction Safety
Association of Ontario cannot guarantee the accuracy of, nor assume liability for, the
information presented here, we are pleased to answer individual requests for counselling and
advice.
The Construction Safety Association of Ontario thanks the following committees for contributing
their knowledge, experience, and time in preparing this manual.
Health
Chapter 5 WHMIS
Chapter 6 First aid
Chapter 7 Occupational health
Chapter 8 Back care and materials handling
Chapter 9 Asbestos: Controls for construction, renovation, and demolition
Chapter 10 Radiation
Chapter 11 Heat stress
Chapter 12 Cold stress
Chapter 13 Moulds
iv
Special Locations
Chapter 32 Confined spaces
Chapter 33 Pulp and paper mills
Chapter 34 Steel mills
Chapter 35 Mineral processing plants
Chapter 36 Oil refineries and petrochemical plants
Chapter 37 Thermal power plants
Trade-Specific Information
Chapter 38 Ironworkers: Structural steel
Chapter 39 Sheet Metal
v
Legal
Responsibilities
and
Emergencies
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1–1
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Accidents and Injuries certified, the workers and constructor must each select
one member of the committee to become certified.
All accidents and injuries, regardless of severity, must
be reported immediately. A certified member who receives a complaint regarding a
dangerous circumstance can investigate the complaint
Procedures for reporting accidents — and the type of under the authority of the Occupational Health and Safety
accidents that must be reported — are spelled out in Act. The member may also ask a supervisor to investigate
the Occupational Health and Safety Act and a situation where the member “has reason to believe” that
Regulations for Construction Projects. a dangerous circumstance may exist.
Further information is available from the Workplace Safety The supervisor must investigate the situation promptly in
and Insurance Board and Ministry of Labour. the presence of the certified member.
The certified member may also request that another
Certified Committee Members certified member representing the other party at the
workplace investigate the situation if the first certified
Where a project regularly employs 50 or more workers,
member “has reason to believe” that the dangerous
the health and safety committee on the project must have
circumstance still exists after the supervisor's investigation
at least one member representing workers and one
and remedial action, if any, has been taken.
member representing the constructor who are certified by
the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board (Figure 2). The second certified member must promptly investigate
the situation in the presence of the first certified member
If no members of a health and safety committee are
Health and Safety Representatives and Committee Requirements Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act
Size and
Duration Representative Who Creates Number of Membership Selection of Powers and Rights
of Project or Committee Committee Members Requirements Members
5 Workers
or Less
6-19 workers One Health Representative • Obtain information from a constructor or
and more and Safety selected by workers employer regarding the testing of
than 3 Representative or union(s) equipment, materials, or chemicals in the
months workplace.
• Inspect the workplace at least once a
or month, with the full cooperation of
constructor, employers, and workers.
6+ workers
• Ask for and obtain information regarding
existing or potential hazards in the
and less than workplace.
3 months
• Make health and safety
recommendations to a constructor or
employer, who must respond in writing
within 21 days, either giving a timetable
for implementation or giving reasons for
disagreeing with the recommendations.
• Where a person has been killed or
critically injured in the workplace,
investigate the circumstances of the
accident and report findings to a director
of the Ministry of Labour.
• Exercise all the powers granted to the
health and safety representative by virtue
of a collective agreement.
20-49 Joint Health and Constructor At least two At least one non- Worker representatives • Identify situations that may be a source
workers and Safety Committee management worker selected from the site by of danger or hazard to workers.
more than 3 at the project and workers or trade union(s) • Make recommendations regarding
months one management represented.
health and safety matters.
representative from Management
representatives selected • Recommend the establishment,
the project if maintenance, and monitoring of
by constructor or
possible. programs.
employer.
50+ workers Joint Health and Constructor At least four Half non-management • Obtain information from constructors or
Worker representatives
workers from the employers regarding testing of
and more Safety Committee selected from the site by
workplace with at least equipment or environments and be
than 3 workers or trade union(s)
one certified. present when testing is initiated.
months represented.
Half management Management
representatives from representatives selected
the workplace if by constructor or
possible with at least employer.
one certified.
Worker Trades Health and At least one One worker Members to be selected Advise the joint health and safety
Committee Safety worker representative from by trade workers or committee of the health and safety
Committee representative each trade. trade union(s) at the site. concerns of the workers in the trades at
from each Members do not have to the workplace.
trade be workers at the site.
Figure 2
1–2
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1–3
LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1–4
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
2 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Emergency Procedures
TAKE COMMAND
1
Assign the following duties to
specific personnel.
PROVIDE PROTECTION
Protect the accident scene from
CALL AN AMBULANCE
Call an ambulance and any other
ADVISE MANAGEMENT
Inform senior management. They can
2–1
COMMUNICATION
3 COMMUNICATION
3–1
COMMUNICATION
• Take the receiver’s ability to receive your message Once a message is formed, the next step is delivery.
into account when choosing your method of There are three modes: verbal, written, and visual.
transmission; be willing to change your choice if you
Verbal communication involves two or more people
discover a problem in communication.
sending messages and expecting feedback. Lots of
• Take the receiver's ability to interpret your message
information can be exchanged in a short time.
into account when formulating your message.
• Check with the receiver to ensure that your message With written communication, the cycle is generally slower.
has been received and understood. It takes time for the sender to compose the message, time
• Check results to ensure that your message has been to deliver it, time to read it, and time for the receiver to
properly acted upon. compose and send a reply. But written communication can
produce results when verbal communication cannot.
Effective communications result when
• a message contains all the important details it should Visual delivery includes such methods as hand signals to
contain to be complete crane operators and signs for traffic control.
• the message is delivered in a way which allows the Receiving modes correspond to each of these delivery
receiver to receive it clearly, and modes. Verbal messages are heard or, better, listened to.
• the receiver understands the message completely and Written messages are read. Visual messages are seen.
acts upon it properly.
All must be finally understood for the communication cycle
To sum up, the three important elements of
to be complete.
communications are
• message
• delivery method
• receiving method.
A message is complete when it contains all the
information the receiver needs to understand and, if
necessary, to act upon the message.
Try to include all the information necessary to answer any
questions likely to arise in the mind of the receiver. One
good way of doing this is to check whether the information
covers
• who
• what
• when
• where
• why
• how.
3–2
HOUSEKEEPING AND FIRE SAFETY
Travel 6i
nc
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t,
ee
6f
restraint
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Arrest
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Figure 11 6f
Figure 9
Good housekeeping means clear traffic and work areas, out-of-the-way
Airborne wood dust can be a respiratory hazard, causing
storage, adequate illumination, and cleanup of debris.
problems ranging from simple irritation of the eyes, nose,
Specific and throat to more serious health effects. Dust collectors
• Gather up and remove debris as often as required to should be installed in shops to remove sawdust from air
keep work and travel areas orderly. and equipment. Wood dust is also very flammable.
• Keep equipment and the areas around equipment In construction, saws and other tools are often operated in
clear of scrap and waste. the open air where dust presents no hazard. However,
• Keep stairways, passageways, and gangways free of dust masks or respirators should be worn whenever
material, supplies, and obstructions at all times. ventilation is inadequate.
• Secure loose or light materials stored on roof or on
open floors to prevent them being blown by the wind.
• Pick up, store, or dispose of tools, material, or debris
which may cause tripping or other hazards.
• Before handling used lumber, remove or bend over
protruding nails and chip away hardened concrete.
• Wear eye protection when there is any risk of eye injury.
• Do not permit rubbish to fall freely from any level of the
project. Lower it by means of a chute or other approved
devices (Figure 10).
• Do not throw materials or tools from one level to
another.
• Do not lower or raise any tool or equipment by its own Figure 12
Secure material against the wind.
cord or supply hose.
After removing material, resecure pile.
4–1
HOUSEKEEPING AND FIRE SAFETY
Storage
Storage areas should be at least 1.8 metres (6 feet) from
roof or floor openings, excavations, or any open edges
where material may fall off (Figure 12).
Near openings, arrange material so that it cannot roll or
slide in the direction of the opening.
Flammable Materials
• Use copper grounding straps
to keep static electricity from Make sure drums
building up in containers, Replace bungs in drums. are grounded. Appropriate
racks, flooring, and other Figure 14
fire extinguisher
should be
surfaces (Figure 13). Storage of Flammable Liquids located
• Store fuel only in containers convenient to
approved by the Canadian storage area.
• To keep them separate for special
Standards Association handling and disposal later, store empty chemical
(CSA) or Underwriters' containers in secure area away from full containers.
Laboratories of Canada
(ULC). Bags and Sacks
• Ensure that electric fixtures • Do not pile bagged material more than 10 bags high
and switches are explosion- unless the face of the pile is supported by the walls of a
proof where flammable Figure 13 storage bin or enclosure.
materials are stored. Dispensing and receiving • Do not move piles more than 10 bags high unless fully
• See Figure 14 for pointers containers should both be banded or wrapped.
grounded.
on safe storage. • Cross-pile bags and sacks for added stability. Pile only to
Hazardous Chemicals a safe and convenient height for loading and unloading.
• Refer to material safety data sheets (MSDSs) for Compressed Gas Cylinders
specific information on each product. • Store and move cylinders in the upright position. Secure
• Follow manufacturer's recommendations for storage.
cylinders upright with chains or rope.
• Observe all restrictions concerning heat, moisture,
• Lock up cylinders to prevent vandalism and theft.
vibration, impact, sparks, and safe working distance.
• Post warning signs where required. • Wherever possible, store cylinders in a secure area
• Have equipment ready to clean up spills quickly. outdoors.
Figure 15
4–2
HOUSEKEEPING AND FIRE SAFETY
4–3
Health
WHMIS
Right to Know
The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
System (WHMIS) gives everyone the right to know
about the hazards of materials they work with and
provides the means to find out that information. It
does this through
– labels
– material safety data sheets
– worker training and education.
Class B: Flammable and If details on the ingredients, health effects, handling, and
Combustible Material acetone other aspects of a hazardous product are not available
from suppliers or employers, call the Construction Safety
Class C: Oxidizing Material chromic acid Association of Ontario at 1-800-781-2726 and provide the
following information.
Class D: Poisonous and
Infectious material
• Product name (for example, Solvex 100)
1. Materials causing immediate ammonia • Manufacturer's name and place of manufacture (for
and serious toxic effects example, ABC Chemical, Montreal, Quebec)
• What is the product being used for? (for example, to
2. Materials causing other asbestos
toxic effects clean parts)
• How is it being used? (for example, sprayed on)
3. Biohazardous Infectious contaminated • Is it being mixed with something else?
Material blood products
• Is it being heated?
Class E: Corrosive Material hydrochloric acid • In what area is it being used? (for example, outdoors
sodium or in a holding tank)
hydroxide • What does the label say?
• How can information be conveyed to you?
Class F: Dangerously
Reactive Material acetylene
Figure 6
5–1
WHMIS
Designated Substances
“Designated substances” are substances that have been
targeted for special regulation by the Ministry of Labour.
Generally these substances are well-known toxic
materials which present serious risk of illness.
Designated substances encountered in construction
include asbestos, lead, coal tar products, and silica. If any
designated substances are present where construction,
maintenance, or renovation is planned, the parties
involved must be notified and informed.
The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires that
owners notify contractors of the presence of any
designated substance. Contractors also have a
responsibility to advise subcontractors. This notification
must take place before binding contracts are arranged.
For more information on designated substances, contact
the Ministry of Labour.
5–2
FIRST AID
Bleeding
Control external bleeding immediately.
• Apply direct pressure to stop blood flow.
• Place casualty in comfortable position and elevate Courtesy St. John Ambulance
affected part.
• Get the casualty to rest to slow circulation.
• Apply direct pressure with hand over dressing.
6–1
FIRST AID
Burns
Heat Exhaustion
Immediately immerse the burned part in ice water or
Symptoms
immediately apply ice or clean cloths soaked in cold water.
• Pulse weak and rapid
Cold will • Breathing rapid and shallow
– reduce the temperature of the burned area and • Vision blurred
prevent further damage • Skin cold and clammy
– reduce swelling and blistering • Nausea and vomiting.
– relieve pain. Treatment
• Move out of the heat.
Medical Alert • Place at rest.
• Loosen tight clothing.
Valuable information about the history of a casualty can
• Keep head low, raise legs and feet slightly.
often be found on a Medical Alert device — a bracelet,
• For cramps, give a glass of slightly salted water
necklace, or pocket card. This warning alerts first aiders
(add 1/4 teaspoon salt). Give as much as the
and medical personnel to the fact that the casualty
casualty will take.
– has a medical condition requiring special treatment, or • Watch breathing; get medical help.
– is allergic to certain substances.
6–2
FIRST AID
Stay Dry Initially the feet are cold, swollen, and waxy, and may be
Avoid wetness due to sweating, rain, or snow. numb. After warming, they may become red, swollen, and
Wetness contributes to heat loss. hot, and blisters may occur.
Stay Safe In advanced stages of immersion foot, gangrene may develop.
• Limit the length of time you spend in extreme cold
conditions. • Remove wet footwear and warm cold areas.
• Have someone check you for signs of frostbite. • Get medical aid.
Avoid Fatigue Embedded Object
Rest periodically in a sheltered location.
Avoid Tobacco Do not attempt to pull out objects embedded in a wound.
Nicotine decreases blood flow and increases the Pulling nails, splinters, or pieces of glass from wounds will
possibility of cold injury. cause more damage and will increase bleeding.
Avoid Alcohol • Cover lightly with dressing without pressure on the object.
Because it dilates the blood vessels, alcohol causes • Apply pressure around the wound and away from the
additional heat loss. embedded object.
• Get medical help as soon as possible.
Frostbite – Skin looks white, waxy, and feels numb.
Freezing causes hardening. Eye Injuries
• Warm frostbitten area gradually with body heat. Do not Do not attempt to remove particles on the pupil or stuck to
rub. the eyeball.
• Do not thaw hands or feet unless medical aid is far
• Remove loose particles with care using the moistened
away and there is no chance of refreezing. Parts are
corner of a tissue.
better thawed in a hospital.
• If that fails, cover the eye lightly with a dressing to
• If there are blisters, apply sterile dressings and
prevent movement and transport casualty to a medical
bandage lightly to prevent breaking. Get medical
facility.
attention.
• Avoid rubbing the injured eye and causing further injury.
Hypothermia Unconsciousness
Caused when body temperature falls below normal Loss of consciousness may threaten life if the casualty is
during prolonged exposure to cold, it can develop face-up and the tongue has dropped to the back of the
quickly and be fatal. throat, blocking the airway.
Danger signs are shivering, slurred speech, • Make certain that the person is breathing before
stumbling, and drowsiness. looking for the cause of unconsciousness.
Condition is severe when shivering stops. • If injuries permit, place the casualty in the recovery
Unconsciousness and stopped breathing may follow. position (Figure 2) with the neck extended.
• Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
First aid for hypothermia must casualty.
– stop further cooling of the body
– provide heat to begin rewarming. Fractures
A fracture is a break or a crack in a bone.
Treatment
• Remove casualty carefully to shelter. Movement or • Steady and support the injury. Do not move the
rough handling can upset heart rhythm. victim.
• Keep the casualty awake. • Dress the wound and control any bleeding.
• Remove wet clothing and wrap casualty in warm covers. • If casualty must be moved for safety, secure the limb
• Rewarm neck, chest, abdomen, and groin — but not with padded splints.
extremities. • Check for pulse. If none, get medical aid immediately.
• Apply direct body heat or safe heating devices. • Reassure and keep casualty warm to prevent shock
• Give warm, sweet drinks if casualty is conscious. until help arrives.
• Monitor breathing, give artificial respiration if needed.
• Call for medical aid or transport carefully to nearest
facility.
6–3
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
7 OCCUPATIONAL Cancer
HEALTH It's not well understood exactly how a chemical produces
cancer. Some carcinogens (cancer-causing substances)
are thought to interact with the genetic material of the cell;
Routes of entry others may interact with the immune system; and still
others are thought to act with other agents, but not initiate
Hazardous materials in the workplace may cause disease cancer themselves. Whatever the mechanism, the effect is
in the body at four main sites: very often delayed, sometimes up to 30 years.
• where they enter the body—entry routes such as the Defining a chemical as carcinogenic usually involves animal
lungs, skin, and intestines studies as a first step. If the substance causes cancer in
• in the blood that carries the hazardous materials animals, particularly those that have biological systems
throughout the body similar to humans, it is classed as a suspected carcinogen.
• in the central nervous system Two examples are silica and refractory ceramic fibres which
• in the organs which have the ability to remove toxic cause lung cancer. Some chemicals have also been shown
agents from the body: to be cancer-causing through industrial experience. These
i.e., the liver, kidneys, and bladder (exit routes). include asbestos (cancer of the larynx, lung, and abdomen),
This section briefly describes four routes of entry— vinyl chloride (liver cancer), coal tar pitch (skin cancer),
inhalation, absorption, ingestion, and injection—and some chromium (lung cancer), and benzidine (bladder cancer). All
of the workplace hazards and diseases commonly chemicals which have been classified as carcinogens
associated with them. should be handled with extra care.
Asbestos
Inhaling asbestos dust has been shown to cause the
following diseases:
• asbestosis
• lung cancer
• mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the chest and/or
abdomen).
Asbestosis is a disease of the lungs caused by scar tissue
forming around very small asbestos fibres deposited deep in
the lungs. As the amount of scar tissue increases, the ability
of the lungs to expand and contract decreases, causing
shortness of breath and a heavier workload on the heart.
Ultimately, asbestosis can be fatal.
Lung cancer appears quite frequently in people exposed to
asbestos dust. While science and medicine have not yet
been able to explain precisely why or how asbestos causes
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
lung cancer to develop, it is clear that exposure to asbestos
Inhalation dust can increase the risk of contracting this disease.
Studies of asbestos workers have shown that the risk is
The body’s respiratory—or breathing—system is one of roughly five times greater than for people who are not
the most common routes of entry for a toxic substance. exposed to asbestos.
The substance may cause damage to the system itself or
it can pass through the lungs to other parts of the body. Cigarette smoking, another cause of lung cancer, multiplies
this risk. Research has shown that the risk of developing
The main function of the respiratory system is to absorb cancer is at least fifty times higher for asbestos workers who
oxygen from the air and pass it on to the blood. It also smoke than for workers who neither smoke nor work with
removes carbon dioxide—the waste gas produced by the asbestos.
body’s processes—from the blood and releases it in
exhaled air. Mesothelioma is a relatively rare cancer of the lining of the
chest and/or abdomen. While this disease is seldom
Air reaches the lungs through a branching system of observed in the general population, it appears frequently in
tubes, starting with the trachea, or windpipe, which groups exposed to asbestos.
divides to form two bronchi, one to each lung. Each
bronchus, in turn, branches into many smaller divisions, Other illnesses—There is also some evidence of an
finally ending in a small cluster of tiny air sacs which are increased risk of cancer of the stomach, rectum, and larynx.
known as alveoli. The oxygen and carbon dioxide However, the link between asbestos exposure and the
exchange takes place through a very thin membrane development of these illnesses is not as clear as with lung
surrounding these air sacs. cancer or mesothelioma.
The lung is covered by a delicate lining known as the The diseases described above do not respond well to
pleura. (Mesothelioma, one of the cancers caused by current medical treatment and, as a result, are often fatal.
asbestos, is a cancer of the pleura.)
7–1
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
How hazardous materials evade the Carbon monoxide is one example of a chemical
asphyxiant. It combines with the oxygen-carrying
lung’s defences compound in the blood and reduces its ability to pick up
The airways of the respiratory system have developed an “new” oxygen. Hydrogen sulphide, on the other hand,
elaborate system of defences which trap all but the interferes with the chemical pathways which transfer the
smallest dust particles. This system consists of hairs in oxygen, while hydrogen cyanide paralyzes the respiratory
the nose and mucus in the trachea or bronchi. The mucus centre of the brain.
is produced continuously by special cells in the walls of
the larger airways. It is moved upward and to the back of Absorption
the throat by the whipping action of cilia—tiny, hair-like Absorption through the skin is another common form of
projections on the cells of the trachea and bronchi. entry for toxic substances (e.g., organic solvents).The skin
Large dust particles are trapped in the mucus and are is the largest organ of the body, with a surface area of
either swallowed or spit out. Particles smaller than 0.5 1 to 2 m2. Some chemicals can penetrate through the
microns (1 inch has 25,400 microns) may remain airborne skin, reach the bloodstream, and get to other parts of the
and are exhaled. The most dangerous size of dust body where they can cause harm. Toluene and Cellosolve
particles is 0.5-7.0 microns. Much too small to be seen are examples of chemicals which are absorbed through
with the naked eye, they can evade the defence system the skin. Mineral spirits and other solvents used in the
and reach the lungs. Once in the lungs, these tiny manufacturing of paint can easily penetrate the skin.
particles of dust may cause extensive scarring of the
delicate air sacs. This scarring starts the disease process The skin
which produces severe shortness of breath.
The skin protects the internal organs of the body from the
Most dust particles are too large to pass through the walls outside environment. Its outer layer is composed of
of the alveoli, but gases, vapours, mists, and fumes can hardened, dead cells which make the skin resistant to
all enter the bloodstream through the lungs. In addition, daily wear and tear. Sweat glands cool the body when the
welding fumes or truck exhausts can stimulate the lung’s environment is hot. Sebaceous glands produce oils which
defences to produce large amounts of phlegm, causing repel water. A network of small blood vessels, or
the condition known as chronic bronchitis. These same capillaries, plays a key role in controlling body
substances can destroy the delicate air sacs of the lungs, temperature. These capillaries open when it is hot,
causing emphysema. radiating heat outward into the air, and constrict when it is
cold, conserving heat in the body. The skin also has a
The lungs are the prime target for occupational
protective layer of oils and proteins which helps to prevent
carcinogens because the lungs
injury or penetration by harmful substances.
• are in intimate contact with workplace air pollutants
A substance may be absorbed and travel to another part
• have such a large surface area (100-140 m2).
of the body, or it may cause damage at the point of entry
Asphyxiants (the skin), and start the disease process. Such
substances are usually identified in an MSDS with a
Chemicals that interfere with the transfer of oxygen to the notation “skin” along with their exposure limits, indicating
tissues are called asphyxiants. The exposed individual that the exposure can occur through the skin, mucous
literally suffocates because the bloodstream cannot supply membranes, or eyes, or may damage the skin itself.
enough oxygen for life.
There are two main classes of asphyxiants—simple and
chemical. Simple asphyxiants displace oxygen in the air,
thereby leaving less or none for
breathing. Chemical asphyxiants
cause the same effect by THE SKIN
interfering with the body’s ability to
take up, transport, or use oxygen.
Simple asphyxiants are a major
hazard in confined spaces, where
breathable air can be displaced by
gas from sewage, for instance.
When the normal oxygen level of
21% drops to 16%, breathing and
other problems begin, such as
lightheadedness, buzzing in the
ears, and rapid heartbeat. Simple
asphyxiants in construction
include argon, propane, and
methane. These chemicals usually
have no other toxic properties.
7–2
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
TABLE 1
MAJOR DERMATITIS HAZARDS IN CONSTRUCTION
Skin irritation Fat and oil solvents: These remove the surface oils of
the skin so that it can no longer hold water efficiently. Dry,
Dermatitis is an inflammation of the skin which can be cracked skin results. Organic solvents such as toluene
caused by hundreds of workplaces substances like and xylene will cause this condition.
solvents (paints), epoxy resins, acids, caustic substances,
and metals. Dermatitis appears as redness, itchiness, or Keratin stimulants: On contact these primary irritants
scaling of the skin. There are two types of dermatitis: cause a change in the skin so that unusual growth
appears, as with exposure to coal tar pitch and arsenic.
• primary irritation dermatitis (contact dermatitis), and
• sensitization dermatitis (allergic dermatitis). Some hazardous materials used in the workplace have
been linked with skin cancer. A number of them are listed
Major dermatitis hazards in construction are listed in Table 1. in Table 2.
Contact dermatitis is caused by friction, heat or cold, TABLE 2
acids, alkalis, irritant gases, and vapours. Skin in contact
with the chemical turns red, becomes itchy, and may Some Suspected Workplace Causes of Skin Cancer
develop eczema (collection of fluid droplets under the
skin’s surface). Typical hazards in construction include Pitch Arsenic Ultraviolet Light
caustics, acids, many chlorinated solvents, wet concrete, Asphalt Tar X-Rays
chromic acid, and calcium hydroxide. Benzo(a)pyrene Creosote Anthracene
Allergic contact dermatitis, on the other hand, is the Shale Oil Cutting Oils Soot
result of an allergic reaction to a given substance.
Sensitization may be the result of prolonged or repeated Ingestion
contact and becomes established usually within 10 to 30
days. The process could also take years. A third major route of entry for toxic substances is through
the mouth and digestive tract. Toxic materials may reach
Once sensitized, even a minute exposure can produce a the stomach when food or drink is consumed, when
severe reaction. Substances like organic solvents (paints), cigarettes are smoked in a dusty work area, when clean
chromic acid, and epoxy resins can produce both primary lunchrooms are not provided, when workers fail to wash
and contact dermatitis. Sensitizers include epoxy their hands before eating or smoking, or when food is left
materials (especially the hardener), nickel, and chromium. unwrapped in a dusty place. Lead dust, for example, is
Certain agents such as coal tar and creosote can have a easily ingested in this way and can have serious health
strong sensitizing effect when combined with exposure to effects. Once swallowed, the substances enter the
sunlight—they are known as photosensitizers. digestive tract and may enter the bloodstream.
7–3
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Table 3
serious effects on the heart and the central nervous system. chemical balance, resulting in further harm to the body.
Many toxic substances attack the blood cells directly. The Just as the lungs are vulnerable to hazardous materials
body forms blood cells continually in the marrow cavity because they are a major route of entry, the kidneys and
inside the bones. Hazardous materials like benzene can bladder are vulnerable because they are a major route of
interfere with this formative process and cause anemia, a exit.
shortage of red blood cells. Table 3 lists some of the
materials which may cause anemia.
The liver
The liver is the chemical factory of the body. The cells
which make up the liver contain enzymes which can
convert certain toxic substances into forms that are more
easily handled by the body. But the liver itself may
be damaged if it is overwhelmed by toxic substances.
The liver may become inflamed, producing the condition
known as hepatitis. This disease may be caused by a
virus or by chemicals like alcohol, carbon tetrachloride,
and other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Repeated bouts of
hepatitis may lead to liver scarring and a disease called
cirrhosis of the liver. Generally speaking, it means that
there are not enough normal liver cells remaining to
detoxify body chemicals.
Overexposure to chemicals like acrylonitrile, benzene,
carbon tetrachloride, DDT, chloroform, phenol, styrene,
tetrachloroethane, and tetrachloroethylene may also
cause liver damage. Vinyl chloride, a substance used in
the production of plastics, has been linked to a rare and
deadly form of liver cancer called angiosarcoma. Table 4
lists some substances that may cause liver damage.
Table 4
Some Substances Suspected of Causing Liver Damage Table 5 shows some of the suspected causes of kidney
Antimony Acrylonitrile Ethylidene Dichloride damage.
Arsine Benzene Hydrazine
Beryllium Carbon Tetrabromide Methyl Alcohol Table 5
Bismuth Carbon Tetrachloride Methyl Chloride
Cadmium Chlorinated Benzenes Methylene Dianiline
Copper Chloroform Naphthalene
Suspected of Causing Kidney Damage
Indium Cresol Phenol
Manganese DDT Pyridine Lead Naphthalene
Nickel Dimethyl Sulfate Styrene Mercury Carbon Tetrachloride
Phosphorus Dioxane Terachloroethylene Cadmium Tetrachloroethane
Selenium Epichlorohydrin Toluene
Ethyl Alcohol Trichloroethane Chromates Carbon Monoxide
Ethylene Chlorohydrin Trichloroethylene Copper Gasoline Vapours
Uranium Turpentine
The kidneys and bladder Beryllium Bismuth
Arsenic Oxalic Acid
The kidneys act as a filter for substances in the blood.
Each kidney contains over a million small filters. These
Arsine Intense Heat
filters clean the blood, removing a number of impurities Sodium Fluoride Vibration
which they deposit in the urine. The urine then passes to Iodine High Voltage Shocks
little tubes which monitor the levels of acid and the Carbon Disulfide Blood Loss
amount of water in the body, and keep them balanced.
From these tubes, the urine moves to the bladder, which
stores it until it is released from the body. The nervous system
Since the kidneys act as filters, they can be seriously
To stay alive, we must breathe continuously, our heart
injured by toxic substances passing through the body.
must pump constantly, and all the other organs must
Kidney disorders may result in high or low blood pressure,
function. We also think and respond to emotions and
which in turn may cause heart strain or heart failure.
sensations. All these functions performed by the mind and
Kidney malfunction may also upset the body’s delicate
body are controlled by the nervous system.
7–5
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Table 6
7–6
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Finally, a workplace free of disease is not necessarily a Vibration Tingling and stiffness in the Arthritis, tendonitis
joints
workplace free of hazards. The diseases of today
generally reflect the working conditions of several Exposure limits have been developed for various
decades ago. Similarly, the workplace hazards of today hazardous materials to protect workers, but they should
may produce the health problems of the future. not be treated as a fine line between safe and unsafe
Acute and chronic effects of workplaces. Not all individuals react in the same manner
to the same amount of a harmful material. The levels of
workplace hazards workers’ exposures should be reduced to the lowest
Workplace hazards may have both immediate and long- practical level achievable. Efforts to reduce workers’
term effects on the body. These are termed acute and exposures should start at half the exposure limit. This is
chronic effects. The sudden collapse of a worker who has known as the “action level.”
been exposed to massive doses of carbon monoxide, or
the headaches of a backhoe operator working in a poorly
ventilated cab, are examples of acute effects. Factors influencing toxic effect
The acute effects of toxic substances occur immediately
or very soon after the worker’s exposure, and are Factors related to
generally caused by high levels of exposure. They may the substance
cause death, but are often treatable if caught quickly.
Sudden and dramatic, they result from the direct a) Chemical composition
action of the hazardous material on the cells
Different chemicals produce different effects, but changes
of the body.
in composition may influence the toxic effect. For example,
Often more serious, however, are the chronic effects of pressure-treated wood presents very little problem when
toxic substances. Chronic effects become apparent only dry. However, when the wood is burned the preservative
after many years. By and large, they are not treatable. decomposes, producing more toxic chemicals.
They often result from the body’s attempts to repair itself
In some instances exposure to more than one chemical
or to compensate for the acute effects of a substance. For
may change the toxic effect. For example, a person who
example, cancer is a chronic effect, as is the lung scarring
works with solvents and then has a drink after work will
caused by silica dust or the hearing damage caused by
get drunk faster and may have an increased risk of liver
excessive noise. Chronic disease becomes evident only
damage than from either factor alone.
after severe damage has occurred.
b) Physical properties
The acute effects of hazardous material are usually very
different from the chronic effects. Table 7 illustrates the With respiratory hazards, the two main concerns are
difference between the acute and chronic effects of some particle size and vapour pressure.
of the hazards discussed earlier. Particles greater than 10 micrometers in diameter are
removed from inhaled air in the nose and upper respiratory
7–7
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
system. As particle size decreases, the system’s ability to Factors related to the individual
remove particles also decreases until it is unable to filter
out the substance. Certain individuals are more susceptible to chemical
exposure than others. These are some factors which may
Vapour pressure measures the potential of a liquid to influence toxic effect.
vaporize. The higher the vapour pressure, the greater the
hazard. If, for example, two solvents of equal toxicity are a) Genetic status
available for use, the one with the lower vapour pressure Individual susceptibility may be explained by genetic
will present less of a vapour hazard and will therefore be make-up. It is suspected that the sites where toxic agents
the safer choice. react is determined by genes that differ from person to
c) Solubility in body fluids person. This theory may help to explain why only some
people exposed to a particular substance develop an
Certain chemicals are more soluble in body fluids than illness while others do not.
others. Chemicals termed lipid soluble are soluble in cell
membranes. They can very easily penetrate the body and b) Allergic status
are more mobile once inside. By being lipid soluble they In people allergic to certain substances, antibodies cause
may also remain longer in the body before being excreted. the body to overproduce its own chemical defences,
Organic solvents such as toluene, xylene, acetone, and leading to symptoms such as asthma and dermatitis.
methanol are considered lipid soluble.
For example, when a person is first exposed to epoxies or
Factors related to isocyanates a number of antibodies are produced. On
subsequent exposure, the reaction is much more severe
exposure situation because of this store of antibodies. With repeated
a) Dose exposure, the allergic reaction can be triggered by smaller
and smaller doses. This process is called “sensitization.”
With most chemicals, the frequency and severity of toxic
effect is directly related to how much of the hazard the c) Presence of predisposing disease
individual is exposed to and for how long. This is Disease may make a person more susceptible to certain
commonly referred to as the dose/effect or dose/response toxic agents as the body is already in a weakened
relationship. With ethyl alcohol, for example, there is no condition.
adverse effect if the dose is within the body’s ability to
control it. However, if the dose exceeds that capacity, the For example, a person with a heart ailment such as
effect increases with the amount consumed. angina may have a heart attack if exposed to levels of
carbon monoxide which would have little effect on normal
By examining the past use of toxic materials in the healthy people. Similarly, people who suffer from a lung
workplace, by conducting animal studies, and by ailment such as emphysema will have a much more
comparison with other substances, it is possible to assign severe reaction to lung irritants than a healthy person.
“safe working levels” of exposure for many materials. The
“threshold” is the level up to which no significant adverse d) Age
effect is likely to occur in most people. Be aware that chemicals may have a greater effect on
With some substances, mainly carcinogens, the safe both older and younger workers.
working levels are difficult to define or may not exist. For
this reason, exposures to known or suspected cancer-
causing substances must be very closely controlled.
b) Co-factors
Most of the standards that are set for “safe working levels”
are based upon exposure to one chemical at a time. In
many cases this does not occur. For example, exposure to
asbestos increases the risk of lung cancer five times, while
smoking increases the risk 10 times. A smoker exposed to
asbestos, however, is 50 times more likely to develop lung
cancer than a person who does not smoke and is not
exposed to asbestos. The concept of multiple exposures has
not been extensively studied. As a result, exposures to
complex mixtures should be kept as low as possible.
7–8
BACK CARE AND MATERIALS HANDLING
Posture
Correct posture is not an erect, military pose. It means
maintaining the naturally occurring curves in your spine. Light work
You have two inward curves — at the neck and low back
— and one outward curve — at the upper back.
Keeping your spine aligned in this manner reduces
everyday stresses on your back and minimizes the effects
of the normal aging process on the spine.
When working in a crouched, bent, or stooping position
for a prolonged period, take regular breaks by standing up Heavy work
Common Posture
1. Plan your move.
• Size up the load and make sure your pathway is
clear.
• Get help as needed.
• Use a dolly or other device if necessary.
2. Use a wide-balanced stance with one foot slightly
ahead of the other.
3. Get as close to the load as possible.
4. Tighten your stomach muscles as the lift begins.
Normal Sway Back Flat Back 5. When lifting, keep your lower back in its normal
Prolonged standing An increased curve Too little curve arched position and use your legs to lift.
often causes an in your lower back (flat back) will 6. Pick up your feet and pivot to turn — don't twist your
increased curve in will jam the vertebrae put extra
back.
your back. Elevating together (sway back). pressure on the
one foot on a stool If held too long, the front of your 7. Lower the load slowly, maintaining the curve in your
or any other object position will cause discs. This may lower back.
(a phone book or lower back muscles contribute to
Your back can manage most lifts — if you lift correctly.
brick will do) will and ligaments to disc problems
take stress off the tighten and lead to and pain. Avoid lifting above shoulder height. This causes the back to
lower spine. lower back pain. arch, placing heavy stress on the small joints of the spine.
8–1
BACK CARE AND MATERIALS HANDLING
Do not catch falling objects. Your muscles may not have Two-Person Lift
time to coordinate properly to protect the spine. Lifters should be of similar
height. Before starting,
Push rather than pull. Pushing allows you to maintain
they should decide on a
the normal curves in your back.
lifting strategy and who
will take charge.
Weight Transfer For a two-person lift of a
Pull the object toward you while transferring your weight to long load, the lifter who
the lift side. takes charge must see
Lift only to the level required. that the load is carried on
the same side, with a clear
Shift your weight to your other leg while pushing the line of vision. Begin by
object into position. lifting the load from ground to waist height. Then
lift the load from waist to shoulder.
Lifting Pipe
Carrying on Stairs
Use your stomach muscles to
help support and protect your
back. If possible, the tallest
and/or strongest person should
Balance on be at the bottom of the load.
shoulder
Rolling frame
scaffolds with
tube-and-clamp
Pipe carts are ideal for transporting components can be
a load of pipe. used to move pipe and
other material.
8–2
BACK CARE AND MATERIALS HANDLING
In addition to the equipment mentioned so far, there are a The exercises should be performed in a slow, controlled
number of inexpensive hand-operated devices which make manner and held in a sustained stretch. Avoid bouncy,
materials handling safer, more efficient, and less of a pain in jerky movements which may tear muscle fibres.
the back.
3. Knees to Chest
Start: Support yourself securely with one hand.
Action: Pull your knee toward your chest and
grasp around your knee with your free
hand. Hold the stretch for 30 seconds.
Lower your leg to the ground and repeat
Chainfall with the other leg. Repeat three times for
Chain Hoist each leg.
4. Hip Stretch
Pipe Cart Start: Stand with one foot in front of the other.
Place hands above the knee of the front
leg.
Action: Gently bend front knee, keeping back
Mechanical Derrick foot flat on the floor. Hold 20-30
seconds. Repeat with other leg.
Lift
Repeat three times for each
leg.
Exercise
Construction work strengthens some muscles while others 5. Thigh Stretch
become shorter and weaker, creating a muscle Start: Support yourself with one hand on
imbalance. A regular exercise program can help to prevent something secure.
this from happening.
Action: Bend your leg back and grasp your
A good exercise program should consist of four basic parts: ankle with your free hand. Gently
• warm-up pull your ankle toward your body,
• main workout keeping your trunk straight. Hold 20 to
• strength and stretch 30 seconds; repeat with other leg.
• cool-down. Repeat three times for each leg.
Warm-Up
This is a general exercise program only. Before starting 6. Calf Stretch
any exercise program, consult your doctor first. Start: Stand slightly away from a solid
If you have any concerns or experience any pain support and lean on it with
while doing the exercises, stop and consult your your outstretched hands.
doctor. Bend the forward leg and place
the other leg straight behind you.
1. March in Place
Action: Slowly move your hips forward,
Start: Stand in position.
keeping the heel of the back leg on
Action: Pump arms and legs in opposite directions. the ground. Hold 30 seconds, relax,
Make sure heels contact ground. Continue and repeat with other leg. Repeat
3 to 5 minutes. three times for each leg.
2. Arm Circles
7. Hamstring Stretch
Start: Stand with arms raised
Start: Place the back of your heel on a platform
horizontally and slightly in
front of shoulders, palms down, at a comfortable height. Bend your
and feet shoulder-width apart. supporting leg slightly.
Action: Rotate arms in forward circular Action: Looking straight ahead, slowly
motion for 15-30 seconds. Relax. bend forward at the hips until
Repeat 3-5 times. you feel a good stretch at the
back of the raised leg. Hold 30
Stretching Program seconds and repeat with other
The following stretching exercises are of greatest value leg. Repeat three times for
before work starts. They may, however, be done at any each leg.
convenient time. Whenever they are done, a brief warm-up
(walking briskly or jogging on the spot) is most beneficial.
8–3
ASBESTOS
3.1.3 Loose fill insulation 6.4 Demolition, alteration, and repair—Owner’s report
3.2 Typical locations – non-friable materials 6.5.1 General asbestos awareness training
requirement
3.2.1 Asbestos cement products
6.5.2 Certification requirements for Type 3
3.2.2 Acoustical plaster operations
3.2.6 Asphalt/asbestos limpet spray 6.6.1 Informing the Ministry of Labour of Type 3
operations and Type 2 glove-bag operations
3.2.7 Drywall joint-filling compound
6.6.2 Discovery of material that may be asbestos
3.2.8 Coatings and mastics
6.7 Enclosures
3.2.9 Gaskets and packings
6.8 Clearance air sampling
3.2.10 Refractory brick
6.9 Asbestos work report
3.3 Summary: Typical locations
6.10 Asbestos work registry
4 IDENTIFYING ASBESTOS-CONTAINING MATERIAL
(ACM) 6.11 Use of equivalent measure or procedure
4.1 The age of the building or equipment 6.12 Enforcement of OHSA and its regulations
4.2 The type of construction 6.12.1 Powers of the Ministry of Labour Inspectors.
4.3 The nature of the equipment
4.4 The appearance of the material
9–1
ASBESTOS
9–2
ASBESTOS
1.2 History
Major use of asbestos products in construction
began in the 1930s and escalated during the
post-war building boom. During the 1950s and
up to 1970 approximately 30 to 80 thousand
tons were used annually in Canada.
Its strength, insulation properties, ability to In the early 1970s, the use of such products in
withstand high temperatures, and resistance to Canada declined sharply because of increasing
many chemicals made asbestos useful in concern over the health effects of asbestos. In
hundreds of applications in the construction the mid-1970s specific prohibition and the
industry. availability of safer substitutes put an end to the
use of many asbestos products. But the early
1.1 Types of asbestos widespread use of asbestos has left a potentially
dangerous legacy. The thousands of tons of
There are two general categories of asbestos:
asbestos installed over the past eighty years can
serpentine (long and flexible fibres) and
pose serious risk to workers in the renovation,
amphibole (brittle and sharp fibres). There are
maintenance, repair, and demolition sectors of
six types of asbestos generally recognized:
the construction industry.
• chrysotile (serpentine)
2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF ASBESTOS
}
• crocidolite
Asbestos fibres don’t break in half across their
• amosite diameter (width), but rather split into thinner
• actinolite amphibole and thinner needle-like fibres along their length.
• anthophyllite
• tremolite
Chrysotile asbestos is characterized by long
wavy fibres that are white or off-white. Amosite
is often called “brown” asbestos and has much
straighter, shorter and sharper fibres than
chrysotile. Crocidolite is referred to as “blue”
asbestos and has long straight fibres much like
amosite.
Asbestos fibres
Chrysotile is by far the most common type of An asbestos fibre can remain airborne for a long
asbestos found in Ontario. Within the amphibole time and can easily become airborne again after
family, only amosite and crocidolite have had it has settled if there is any air movement.
significant commercial use.
9–3
ASBESTOS
Asbestos fibres usually need to be less than 3 development of disease can range from 15 to 55
micrometres in diameter before they can be years. This is known as the latency period.
inhaled deep into the lungs. (A micrometre is The asbestos-related diseases workers get today
one millionth of a metre, which is one are the result of exposures during the 1960s,
thousandth of a millimetre, and its abbreviation 1970s, and 1980s.
is µm.) The fibres can remain in the lungs for
Mesothelioma is a rare and fatal cancer of the
many years—even decades.
lining of the chest and/or abdomen. While this
The average diameter of an airborne asbestos disease is seldom observed in the general
fibre ranges from 0.11 to 0.24 µm, depending on population, it appears frequently in workers
the type of asbestos and are invisible to the eye. exposed to asbestos.
You can see fibres that are greater than 100 µm
Because of past exposures, mesothelioma is
in diameter. Human hair is approximately
the #1 cause of occupation-related death in
100 µm in diameter—more than 300 times
thicker than asbestos fibre. construction.
Inhalation of the airborne asbestos fibres that Lung cancer appears quite frequently in
you cannot see is what causes asbestos-related people exposed to asbestos dust. While science
diseases. and medicine have not yet been able to explain
precisely why or how asbestos causes lung
Inhaling asbestos fibres has been shown to cancer, it is clear that exposure to asbestos dust
cause the following diseases: can increase the risk of this disease. Studies
• Mesothelioma have shown that the risk to asbestos workers is
roughly five times greater than for people who
• Lung cancer
are not exposed to asbestos.
• Asbestosis
Cigarette smoking, another cause of lung cancer,
• Other illnesses. multiplies the risk. Cigarette smoking and
A person exposed to asbestos may feel no ill asbestos combine to produce a synergistic effect.
effects at the time of exposure. The time period Research has shown that the risk of developing
between exposure to asbestos fibres and the lung cancer was fifty times higher for asbestos
workers who smoked than for workers who
neither smoked nor worked with asbestos.
Asbestosis is a disease of the lungs caused by
scar tissue forming around very small asbestos
fibres deposited deep in the lungs. As the
amount of scar tissue increases, the ability of
lungs to expand and contract decreases, causing
shortness of breath and a heavier workload on
the heart. Ultimately, asbestosis can be fatal.
Other illnesses – There is some evidence of
an increased risk of cancers of the
gastrointestinal tract and larynx. However, the
link between asbestos exposure and the
development of these illnesses is not as clear as
with lung cancer or mesothelioma.
9–4
ASBESTOS
The diseases described above do not respond much more durable because they are held
well to current medical treatment and, as a together by a binder such as cement, vinyl, or
result, are often fatal. asphalt. These products are termed “non-friable.”
Asbestos may cause skin irritation and a wart- FRIABLE means easily crumbled into dust
like condition which can be prevented by
NON-FRIABLE means difficult to crumble
wearing normal clothing. Asbestos does not
into dust.
cause skin cancer.
Significant exposure to asbestos puts you at risk 3.1 Typical locations – friable materials
for developing pleural plaques (scarring of the 3.1.1 Sprayed-on fireproofing
pleura—the lining of the lung). Pleural plaques
This material was widely used to fireproof steel
are an indicator of previous exposure to
structures. It can be found on beams, columns,
asbestos and can make breathing difficult. Some
trusses, joists, and steel pan floors. Sprayed
researchers believe that there is evidence that
material was also used as a decorative finish
workers with pleural plaques are at risk of
and as acoustical insulation on ceilings. The
developing other asbestos-related diseases such
material can be loose, fluffy, and lumpy in
as lung cancer or mesothelioma. If you develop
texture or, if more gypsum or cement was used,
pleural plaques you should inform your
it may be quite hard and durable.
physician about your exposure to asbestos.
Boiler
3.1.4 Vermiculite
Vermiculite is a mineral. It has been used in
insulation and many commercial and consumer
products for well over 50 years. Vermiculite
itself is not asbestos and has not been shown to
pose a health problem. Vermiculite, however,
can be contaminated with asbestos since
mineral deposits of the two substances can
occur together
Pipe and boiler insulation underground. For
example,
vermiculite ore
from the Libby
Mine in Montana
from the 1920s to
1990 was
contaminated with
asbestos. Insulation
made from this
vermiculite was
sold in Canada
Vermiculite
Air cell insulation during that time
under various trade names such as “Zonolite.”
3.1.3 Loose fill insulation
Not all vermiculite contains asbestos fibres. It is
This application was relatively rare and usually
recommended that buildings with vermiculite-
limited to tank insulation where the asbestos is
based insulation be tested to determine if
held in place by light gauge wire mesh and
asbestos is present. If you don’t test the
then covered with sheet metal.
material, assume that it contains some asbestos.
9–6
ASBESTOS
Asbestos concrete
3.2.2 Acoustical plaster
Acoustical plaster may be friable – it depends
on the exact mixture. This material was mixed
on site and applied like conventional plaster. It Vinyl asbestos flooring
was used in schools, auditoriums, hospitals, and
commercial buildings where acoustical
3.2.5 Roofing felts/shingles
properties were required.
Some roofing felts used in built-up asphalt or
3.2.3 Acoustical tiles pitch roofing contained asbestos. Asphalt or
Some of the older acoustical tiles may contain pitch was used to saturate the felts and bind the
significant amounts of asbestos. Some tiles were fibres in place.
stapled or glued in place whereas others were
3.2.6 Asphalt/asbestos limpet spray
suspended on T-bar. Some tiles can be
considered friable because they can be This black tarry mixture was sprayed onto tanks
crumbled by hand pressure. They are generally and other equipment primarily in petrochemical
considered to be non-friable, however, since plants and heavy industry. The application was
they are usually intact when they’re handled. very similar to sprayed-on fireproofing except
9–7
ASBESTOS
9–8
ASBESTOS
9–9
ASBESTOS
9 – 10
ASBESTOS
9 – 11
ASBESTOS
9 – 12
ASBESTOS
9 – 13
ASBESTOS
9 – 14
ASBESTOS
9 – 15
ASBESTOS
9 – 16
ASBESTOS
You are considered experienced if you have at insulation is to be removed using a glove bag.
least 1,000 hours of experience performing Type 3 The written notice must include
work before November 1, 2007. You must prove
• the name and address of the person giving
this with an Asbestos Work Report Form 1 (or
the notice
equivalent document for those from outside
Ontario) or a letter on official company letterhead. • the name and address of the owner of the
place where the work will be done
6.6 Notifying the Ministry of Labour (MOL)
• the exact address and location where the
6.6.1 Informing the Ministry of Labour work will be done
of Type 3 operations and Type 2
• a description of the work that will be done
glove-bag operations
You must notify the Ministry of Labour (MOL), • the starting date and expected duration of
orally and in writing, before beginning a Type 3 the work
operation, or before beginning a Type 2 • the name and address of the supervisor in
operation in which one square metre or more of charge of the work.
9 – 17
ASBESTOS
9 – 18
ASBESTOS
6.12.1 Powers of the Ministry of Labour lighting purposes or the operation of tools
Inspectors. or equipment.
An inspector can visit a site at any time and • Every precaution must be taken to avoid
exercise fairly broad powers to inspect, test, electrical shock. Use ground fault circuit
look at documents/records, take photographs, protection.
ask questions, and give orders. If the inspector
• Ensure that all permanent circuits are
approaches a worker or supervisor directly, the
provided with a grounding system. This
worker must answer questions and cooperate.
can be determined with a portable ground
The supervisor must be informed of any orders
tester.
given or recommendations made.
• Ensure that electrical outlets are tightly
7 NON-ASBESTOS HAZARDS sealed and taped to avoid water spray.
ASSOCIATED WITH ASBESTOS • Determine what equipment must remain
OPERATIONS energized during the abatement process.
9 – 19
ASBESTOS
7.1.3 Electrical cords and tools Wherever there is a danger of falling from a
• Provide heavy-duty extension cords with a height, you must install guardrails or use
ground conductor. appropriate fall protection equipment. Workers
must receive fall protection training in
• Ensure that cords are not damaged, accordance with the Construction Regulation.
contain no splices, and that grounding pins
on the male plugs are intact. Unguarded openings in the work area must be
adequately protected by installing a secure
• Position extension cords to eliminate
temporary cover or by guardrails with toe boards.
tripping hazards and to protect them from
Covers must be capable of supporting all vertical
being damaged by moving scaffolds.
loads imposed upon them. A large conspicuous
• Provide electrical tools which are either sign should warn people about the opening.
grounded or double-insulated.
Running and horseplay in work areas is
• Use shatterproof, guarded bulbs and heavy prohibited.
duty wiring for temporary lighting.
7.3 Ladders and scaffolds
• Where plugs enter receptacles, ensure that
the connection is protected and secured in Asbestos abatement work often requires
place. working at heights, leading to the use of ladders
and scaffolds. Improper use or inadequate
• Provide mechanical protection to protect
maintenance of this equipment can cause injury.
all temporary power cords.
• Inspect ladders regularly for damage.
• Before using them, inspect all power tools
Repair or replace them when damaged.
for damaged components and power cord
connections. • Workers must be instructed on how to use
ladders correctly.
7.2 Slips, trips, and falls
• Maintain 3-point contact.
Using water to control the spread of asbestos
fibres can make polyethylene sheeting very • Ladders must not be used as a work
slippery. Rubber boots with non-skid soles are platform or walk board.
recommended. Post signs in conspicuous • Stepladders should be used only when
locations warning workers of the slip hazard. they are completely open.
Poor lighting makes it difficult to see and can • If extension ladders are used, the base
lead to trips and falls. Lighting needs to be location should be 1 m away from the
sufficiently bright to minimize shadow and to point below the upper contact point for
illuminate objects on the work surface. every 3 or 4 m of elevation. (One metre
Poor housekeeping is a cause of trips and falls. out for every three or four metres up.)
ACM or other rubbish—such as ceiling tile, t-bar, Many projects require the use of scaffolds.
metal hangers, wood, nails and screws, and Correct set-up, regular inspection, and basic
drywall—should be bagged as often as necessary
maintenance are essential. If a scaffold is rented,
to keep the work area free of slipping and
the contractor should inspect all components
tripping hazards.
before accepting them. Scaffolding must be
Electrical cords, vacuum hoses, and water hoses erected and dismantled properly. To reduce the
should be organized and moved away from risk of a mobile scaffold tipping over, the height
where workers could trip over them. must not exceed three times the smallest
9 – 20
ASBESTOS
dimension of its base. The wheels of the • Heat cramps: painful muscle cramps.
scaffold must operate properly. The scaffold
• Heat exhaustion: high body
platforms must be fully planked or “decked.”
temperature; weakness or feeling faint;
Guardrails should always be installed on
headache, confusion or irrational
scaffolds to prevent falls. Toe boards should be
behaviour; nausea or vomiting.
installed to prevent tools and other objects from
dropping on workers below. The scaffold must • Heat stroke: no sweating (hot, dry skin),
not be overloaded. The rolling scaffold must not high body temperature, confusion, or
be moved with workers on it unless the workers convulsions. Get immediate medical help.
are each tied off to a separate fixed anchor.
Controls for heat stress hazards:
7.4 Heat stress • Provide cool drinking water near workers
Heat-related disorders are common in asbestos and remind them to drink a cup every 1/2
abatement work. Heat stress takes place when hour.
your body’s cooling system is overwhelmed and • Increase the frequency and length of rest
your temperature starts to increase. Heat stress breaks.
can be a hazard when working around boilers,
hot pipe, tanks or furnaces, or structures heated • Cool break areas should be provided if
by the sun. possible.
Heat stress can occur when heat combines with • Caution workers about working in direct
other factors such as sunlight.
• protective clothing that restricts the • Train workers to recognize the signs and
evaporation of sweat symptoms of heat stress. Start a “buddy
system” because it’s unlikely that people
• hard physical work will notice their own symptoms.
• high humidity • Allow workers time to get acclimatized.
• dehydration (loss of fluids) Note: Employers have a duty under Section 25
• certain medical conditions (2) (h) of the Occupational Health and Safety
Act to take every precaution reasonable in the
• lack of acclimatization: circumstances to protect the worker. This
■ When exposed to heat for a number of includes developing policies and procedures for
consecutive days, the body will adapt hot environments. For more information, see the
and become more efficient in dealing chapter on Heat Stress in this manual.
with heat. This is called acclimatization.
7.5 Cold stress
■ Acclimatization usually takes six to
Exposure to the cold can be an important
seven days but may be lost in as little as
consideration for workers if work must be done
three days away from work. People
outdoors in the winter or indoors if a building’s
returning to work after a holiday or a
heating system must be shut down. Exposure to
long weekend must understand this —
the cold can cause frostbite or hypothermia. For
and so should their supervisors.
work performed continuously in the cold, allow
Heat stress can lead to illness or even death. rest and warm-up breaks. Heated shelters such
as trailers should be available nearby. For more
9 – 21
ASBESTOS
information, see the chapter on Cold Stress in CO poisoning can be very subtle and may cause
this manual. drowsiness and collapse followed by death.
9 – 22
ASBESTOS
An emergency plan must be in place for each removed from an ill or injured worker since
individual jobsite and workers must be informed breathing through a respirator can place extra
of the procedures to follow. Workers must be stress on the heart.
trained on how to respond in the event of an
The ill or injured worker should be removed
emergency.
from the contaminated area to the clean room
There must be a means of communication unless the worker has sustained a head, neck,
between workers inside the enclosure and or back injury. Moving the worker minimizes
persons outside the enclosure (e.g., two-way exposing emergency response personnel and
radios, cell phones, etc.) The method of their equipment to asbestos. Non-injured
communication must be determined by the workers responding to the ill or injured worker
employer and set out in the emergency plan. must decide if there is time to decontaminate
Before any Type-3 work begins, workers must the worker. When first aid, ambulance, or
know the location of emergency equipment emergency personnel have to enter the
including fire extinguishers, first aid kits, spill kits, contaminated area they must be
and jobsite fire alarms. They must also know the
• warned of the hazard
emergency exit routes (clearly marked), where to
find the map to the nearest hospital, the • provided with appropriate personal
emergency phone numbers, and the material protective equipment
safety data sheets. Workers must also know who
• told how to use the protective equipment
the health and safety representative and first aid
attendants are. • told about the limitations of the protective
equipment.
Emergency exit
A serious injury or life-threatening hazard is a
more immediate health concern than short-term
asbestos exposure. Therefore standard protective
measures may be temporarily suspended if they
would result in an immediate threat to life. If
performing CPR, the respirator should be
9 – 23
ASBESTOS
1. Installing or removing less than 7.5 square 9.2 Controls for Type 1 operations
metres of ceiling tile containing asbestos
(81 square feet, or ten 4-foot x 2-foot 1. Eating, drinking, smoking, and chewing
ceiling tiles) without it being broken, cut, gum are prohibited.
drilled, abraded, ground, sanded, or 2. If a worker requests a respirator and
vibrated. protective clothing for Type 1 operations,
2. Installing or removing non-friable asbestos- the employer must provide them. The
containing material, other than ceiling tiles, respirators must be the proper type (see
without it being broken, cut, drilled, respirator chart, Appendix A) with filters
abraded, ground, sanded, or vibrated. suitable for asbestos. Once workers
request respirators, they must wear them.
3. Breaking, cutting, drilling, abrading, Protective clothing must be impervious to
grinding, sanding, or vibrating non-friable asbestos fibres. Once workers request
asbestos-containing material if a) you wet protective clothing, they must wear it.
the material, and b) you use only non- Protective clothing is used for two reasons:
powered hand-held tools.
• to prevent transfer of dust and waste
into clean areas
• to guard unprotected workers, their
families, and the public from secondary
exposures to asbestos.
Members of asbestos workers’ families
have developed illnesses from the dust
brought home in work clothes. (See article
on the next page.)
3. Before beginning work, visible dust must
be removed by wiping with a damp cloth
or by vacuuming with a special HEPA*-
filtered vacuum.
4. Removing less than one square metre of
drywall where asbestos joint-filling * HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate
compound was used. Aerosol) vacuums are specially designed
to trap very small particles. They catch
DRYWALL JOINT-FILLING COMPOUND at least 99.97% of all particles 0.3
microns or larger. See “HEPA Filters,”
Early drywall joint-filling compounds
Appendix I.
contained significant amounts of asbestos
fibre. This particular use was specifically 4. Never use compressed air to clean
prohibited in 1980. Still, it may be found in asbestos dust off surfaces. This just blows
buildings constructed several years the fibres into the air.
afterwards. Continued after the article on the next page.
9 – 24
ASBESTOS
9 – 25
ASBESTOS
WETTING AGENT
Water alone is not sufficient to control dust
and fibres. You must add a “wetting agent” 7. All asbestos dust and waste must be
to reduce the water’s surface tension. This cleaned up regularly and frequently
increases the water’s ability to penetrate (before it dries out) using a HEPA vacuum
material and get into nooks and crannies. To or by damp-mopping or wet-sweeping.
make this “amended water,” you can use 8. Before leaving the work area, workers
ordinary dishwashing detergent: 1 cup must damp-wipe or HEPA-vacuum their
detergent for every 20 litres of water. protective clothing to remove any surface
The US Environmental Protection Agency contamination. Workers must damp-wipe
(EPA), in its Guidance for Controlling their respirators before taking them off.
Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings, 9. Asbestos waste and disposable coveralls
EPA-560/5-85-024 (Purple Book), recommends must be placed in dust-tight containers and
the use of a 50:50 mixture of polyoxyethylene labeled with warning signs (see sections
ester and polyoxyethylene ether. 11.7, 11.12, and 12 for more information
6. You must use a dropsheet (typically 6-mil on clean-up and disposal).
polyethylene) below the work area to help 10. You must never reuse dropsheets. After
control dust. the work is done, dropsheets must be
9 – 26
ASBESTOS
9 – 27
ASBESTOS
To prevent electric shock, any power tools Wherever possible, the respirators should
used around water must be equipped with a be assigned to individual workers for their
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) and exclusive use. Otherwise, the respirators
be maintained properly. GFCIs constantly must be properly cleaned and disinfected
monitor for any current leaking to ground. If before being used by someone else.
leaking current is detected, the GFCI
2. Workers must wear protective clothing
immediately switches off power to that
impervious to asbestos with tight-fitting
circuit to prevent a lethal dose of electricity.
cuffs at the wrists, ankles, and neck, as
9. Using a glove bag to remove asbestos- well as a hood or head cover. This usually
containing insulation. means one-piece disposable coveralls—
ones which are easy to clean of surface
10. Cleaning or removing filters used in air-
contamination before you throw them
handling equipment in a building with
away. Torn or damaged clothing must be
sprayed asbestos fireproofing.
repaired or replaced. We recommend you
11. Any other operation that is not Type 1 or use laceless, pull-on rubber boots. They
Type 3, but one that may cause exposure can be washed off later or disposed of as
to asbestos. contaminated waste.
9 – 28
ASBESTOS
9 – 29
ASBESTOS
1 square metre of friable asbestos- their hands and faces before leaving the
containing material indoors, an enclosure work area. Workers must also wash
must be erected around the area to before eating, drinking, smoking, or any
prevent the spread of asbestos dust. If such activities.
your enclosure is opaque, it must have a
transparent window to allow observation 10.3 Glove Bag Operations
of the work. The ventilation system must All the procedures that apply to Type 2
be disabled and sealed off if the inlets or operations also apply to glove bag operations.
exhausts are within the enclosed area. In addition, you must do the following.
For other Type 2 operations, 6-mil
polyethylene dropsheets should be 1. Separate the work area from the rest of the
adequate. workplace by walls, barricades, fencing, or
other suitable means.
11. You must put waste asbestos, disposable
clothing, the enclosure and barrier 2. Disable the mechanical ventilation system
materials (such as polyethylene sheeting), serving the work area and seal all
and any other contaminated items into openings or voids, including ventilation
dust-tight containers labeled with warning ducts and windows to and from the work
signs. The containers must be damp- area.
wiped or HEPA-vacuumed to remove any 3. Place polyethylene dropsheets below the
surface contamination before you take work area.
the containers out of the work area. Refer
to Sections 11.7, 11.12, and 12 in this 4. The glove bag must be strong and large
chapter for information on clean-up and enough to hold the material you’re
waste disposal. removing.
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ASBESTOS
5. You must not use a glove bag if you can’t installations with asbestos refractory
make a proper seal because of the materials.
condition of the insulation, the temperature
5. Disturbing non-friable asbestos material in
of the surface, or the type of jacketing.
any way with power tools not attached to
6. Check the glove bag for damage or dust collectors equipped with HEPA
defects. vacuums.
7. Be careful not to puncture the glove bag. 6. Repair, alteration, or demolition of
buildings which are or were used to
8. When you’ve finished removing the
manufacture asbestos products unless the
asbestos,
asbestos was cleaned up and removed
• damp-wipe and HEPA-vacuum the tools before March 16, 1986.
• wet down the inside walls of the glove 11.2 Controls for Type 3 operations
bag
Type 3 operations require the most precautions
• thoroughly wet the material inside the because they can release substantial amounts of
glove bag asbestos dust. Controls for Type 3 operations
• wipe down the pipe (or whatever the include requirements for
asbestos was removed from) and seal it • worker protection including protective
with a suitable encapsulant clothing, respiratory protection, and
• evacuate air from the bag using a HEPA- decontamination facilities
vacuum and place the glove bag, with • site preparation including enclosure and
the waste inside, in a suitable dust-tight isolation of the work area and negative air
container units
• clean up the work area by damp-wiping • removal, clean-up, and disposal of waste
or HEPA-vacuuming. including dust-suppression techniques.
The following sections provide details.
11 TYPE 3 OPERATIONS
11.3 Worker protection
11.1 What are Type 3 operations?
11.3.1 Protective Clothing
Type 3 operations include the following:
Protective clothing is required for two reasons:
1. Removing or disturbing more than 1
square metre of friable asbestos-containing a) to prevent transfer of dust and waste into
material. clean areas
9 – 31
ASBESTOS
Street clothes must not be worn under coveralls. • whether the power tool is attached to a
dust-collecting device equipped with a
Any protective clothing (including rubber boots, HEPA filter or not.
reusable coveralls, and disposable coveralls)
exposed to the work area must be cleaned The types of respirators required for various
either by damp-wiping or HEPA-vacuuming Type 3 operations are identified in Ontario
before leaving the work area. If contaminated Regulation 278/05, Table 2. CSAO has
reusable coveralls are to be laundered, they summarized this table in the form of charts (see
should first be placed in dust-tight bags which Appendices A and B).
are soluble in hot water and can be loaded, The employer must develop written procedures
unopened, into a washing machine. These inner on the selection, use, and care of respirators.
bags should then be placed inside a second bag The employer must give a copy of the
which is sealed and labeled prior to being sent procedures to each worker required to wear a
to laundry facilities that specializes in cleaning respirator, and review the contents with them.
asbestos-contaminated clothing.
Wherever possible, the respirators should be
Disposable coveralls that will not be reused must assigned to individual workers for their
be disposed of as described in section 11.7. exclusive use. Otherwise the respirators
must be properly sanitized before being
used by someone else.
9 – 32
ASBESTOS
Air-supplying respirator
9 – 33
ASBESTOS
9 – 34
ASBESTOS
11.3.3.2.2 Powered air-purifying side arms will break the seal. An alternative
respirators (PAPR) such as eyeglass inserts in the respirator
These respirators use a battery-powered blower facepiece or contact lenses (check with your
to continuously draw air through HEPA filters employer to see if the use of contact lenses is
and into the tight-fitting facepiece (full or half allowed) should be considered for those who
facepiece) require prescription glasses.
Employers should ensure that the selected
facepiece is the right size (small, medium, large)
and can correctly fit each wearer.
9 – 35
ASBESTOS
9 – 36
ASBESTOS
After rinsing it, hang your respirator up to dry 11.3.8.3 Some major limitations of
supplied-air respirators
11.3.7 Storage
• When using supplied-air respirators, the air
Respirators should be stored in a clean location
must be tested to ensure that the it meets
(away from sunlight, chemicals, excessive heat
the requirements set out in the Canadian
or cold, and excessive moisture), preferably in a
Standards Association’s Compressed
plastic bag in a locker. Respirators must not be
Breathing Air (CSA Z180.1-00). This
left in a car or out where they can gather dust
standard limits the amount of carbon
and dirt or be damaged.
monoxide, oil mist, water vapour, and
11.3.8 Limitations of respirators other contaminants permissible in such
systems.
11.3.8.1 Some major limitations of air-
purifying respirators • Oil-lubricated compressors can produce
carbon monoxide. A continuous carbon
• They are not suitable for confined spaces,
monoxide monitor equipped with an alarm
or atmospheres with less than 19.5%
must be provided.
oxygen.
• They are not suitable for gases or vapours
unless equipped with proper cartridges.
• As the filter becomes clogged with dust, air
flow resistance increases and the filters will
have to be changed.
• Proper fit is essential for protection —
workers must be clean shaven.
9 – 37
ASBESTOS
9 – 38
ASBESTOS
9 – 39
ASBESTOS
9 – 41
ASBESTOS
11.5.1.1 Entry
1. Workers enter the clean change room and
• remove street clothes
Equipment (“dirty”) room
• put on disposable coveralls Note lockers and airlock/curtained doorway
9 – 42
ASBESTOS
2. Workers remove and discard disposable 4. Workers exit to the clean side, and enter
coveralls (see Section 11.7 for disposal the change room via the curtained
information) and store any other personal doorway, and change into their street
protective equipment (PPE), tools, and clothes.
equipment to be reused. They continue to Used towels should be treated as asbestos waste
wear their respirators. and put into a sealable container.
3. Workers enter the shower area via the Any tools or equipment used in the work area
curtained doorway and shower with their should be decontaminated by damp-wiping or
respirator on, rinsing off the respirator. HEPA-vacuuming before being taken out of
They then remove the respirator and the area.
9 – 43
ASBESTOS
If necessary, arrangements must be made so that container must be rigid and puncture-
female workers can decontaminate themselves proof)
separately from male workers.
• impervious to asbestos
11.6 Removal • properly marked that it contains asbestos
1. Wherever possible, asbestos-containing waste (see label below).
material (ACM) should be wetted before
removal starts. Unless wetting creates a
hazard, it is not recommended to remove
ACM when the material is dry. To improve
penetration of the water and reduce runoff
and dry patches, a “wetting agent” must be
added to the water (see section 9.2). You
may need to spray this “amended water”
repeatedly to penetrate the ACM and to
keep it wet. A portable pressurized vessel
such as a pump-up garden sprayer can be
used to apply the amended water.
Constant water pressure is desirable. High Examples of
pressure water spray should not be used. suitable
2. Any electric tools and equipment used in containers are
wet removal operations must be equipped 6-mil
with ground fault circuit interrupters polyethylene
(GFCIs) to prevent electric shock. bags (always
double-bag
11.7 Clean-up and storage them) or
1. Asbestos waste must be cleaned up polyethylene
drums. Double-bagged
frequently and regularly by HEPA-
vacuuming, damp-mopping, or wet- 4. You must always damp-wipe or HEPA
sweeping before it dries out. It might be vacuum the surface of the container to
necessary to spray down asbestos debris remove asbestos dust before taking it out
with amended water to keep it damp after of the work area. Containers must be
it is removed. removed from the workplace frequently
2. Asbestos waste and protective clothing that and at regular intervals.
will not be reused must be placed in a 5. Before sealing the first 6-mil polyethylene
suitable container for disposal. Dropsheets, bag, use a HEPA vacuum to suck any
polyethylene sheets, and enclosure excess air out of it. Seal the bag by
materials must be wetted before they are twisting the top tightly, folding it over, and
placed in a suitable container for disposal. sealing it with duct tape. Damp-wipe or
3. A suitable container is HEPA-vacuum the outside of the bag
before it is moved from the work area to
• dust-tight the decontamination area. Once in the
• suitable for the type of waste (e.g., if the decontamination area, place the bag into a
waste is sharp, such as floor tiles, the second 6-mil polyethylene bag and seal it.
9 – 44
ASBESTOS
11.9 Lockdown/gluedown
Although it is not a regulated requirement, it is
a standard industry practice to apply a lock-
down sealant throughout the containment area
6. Don’t place waste materials with sharp to seal down any invisible dust and fibres
edges—such as floor, wall, or ceiling undetected during the visual inspection after the
tiles— into a bag. These items should be removal activities.
neatly stacked together. Wrap each stack in • The lockdown sealant needs to be
2 layers of 6-mil or thicker polyethylene. compatible with any materials that will be
Then place in a suitable container for installed over the sealant such as
asbestos waste. fireproofing material. (The supervisor must
7. After cleaning up and removing the verify this with the manufacturer.)
asbestos waste, the work area must be • The sealant should be applied in
thoroughly washed down with amended accordance with the manufacturer’s
water if it’s possible to do so. recommendations.
8. Once all the asbestos has been removed, • There are a variety of lockdown sealants
tools and equipment—including available and the one you choose must be
scaffolding, ladders, etc.—must be appropriate for the intended use. For
9 – 45
ASBESTOS
9 – 47
ASBESTOS
9 – 48
ASBESTOS
• You may have to look behind these Power tools should not be used for
hidden places to identify suspected ACM. removing ACM because they generate high
Care must be taken when sampling the levels of airborne dust. If possible, use non-
material to see if it is ACM. powered tools or power tools with HEPA-
equipped dust-collecting devices. Also, use
• All pipes should be traced along their
amended water to control the dust.
whole length and all the ACM removed.
Demolition involving Type 3 operations is
exempt from
• creating and maintaining a negative air
pressure of 0.02 inches of water within the
enclosed area
• a final visual inspection and clearance air
testing.
All the other requirements as for indoor Type-3
operations apply. To prevent electric shock, all power tools
No one must enter the building that is to be used around water must be equipped with a
demolished except for the workers involved in ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) and
the demolition. be maintained properly.
9 – 49
ASBESTOS
9 – 50
ASBESTOS APPENDIX A
9 – 51
ASBESTOS APPENDIX B
RESPIRATORS
A* B C D
Air-purifying half- Choose any of the following: Pressure- Pressure-
mask respirator with demand demand
N-100, R-100, or ➤ Air-purifying full-facepiece respirator with N-100, R-100, or P-100 particulate supplied-air supplied-
P-100 particulate filter. respirator air
filter. The worker ➤ Powered air-purifying respirator with a tight-fitting facepiece (either full or with a half respirator
must wear the half facepiece) and a high-efficiency filter. facepiece. with a full
respirator if they ➤ Negative-pressure (demand) supplied-air respirator with a full facepiece. facepiece.
request it from the ➤ Continuous-flow supplied-air respirator with a tight-fitting facepiece (full or
employer. half facepiece).
Disposable respirators or dust masks are not recommended for avoiding exposure to asbestos fibres because it’s difficult to perform
negative-pressure and positive-pressure seal checks. For more information on seal checks, see Appendix F of CSAO’s Asbestos:
Controls for Construction, Renovation, and Demolition (DS037), available on www.csao.org
* For any Type 2 operation in which you will not wet the asbestos-containing material, CSAO recommends that you use a *
category B respirator.
9 – 52
ASBESTOS APPENDIX B
9 – 53
ASBESTOS APPENDIX B
4
7
9 – 54
ASBESTOS APPENDIX C
9 – 55
ASBESTOS APPENDIX C
9 – 56
ASBESTOS APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D
INSPECTING RESPIRATORS
Before each use, respirators must be inspected
to make sure that they are in good working
order. The pre-use inspection should include
checking
1. the facepiece and face-seal area for cracks,
tears, dirt, or warping
2. the inhalation valves for warping, cracking,
or tearing
3. the head straps for cracks — ensure that
they have good elasticity
4. all plastic parts for signs of cracking —
ensure that filter gaskets or seal areas are
in good condition
5. the exhalation valve and valve seat for
signs of dirt, warping, cracking, or tearing
6. the viewing area of the full facepiece for
any damage that might restrict vision
7. the type and condition of the filter
8. the battery charge/condition and the
airflow rate for powered air-purifying
respirators (PAPR).
9. the regulators, alarms, and other warning
systems.
A respirator with any damaged or
deteriorated components must be repaired
or discarded.
9 – 57
ASBESTOS APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E
CLEANING AND STORAGE OF
RESPIRATORS
Respiratory protective equipment should be
cleaned after each use. It must be disinfected
whenever the equipment is transferred from one
person to another. Maintenance and cleaning
procedures need to be appropriate for the type
of respiratory protective equipment being used.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
The following is based on Appendix F
(Guidelines for cleaning, disinfecting and storing
of respirators) of CSA Z94.4-02:
1. Remove cartridges and filters.
2. Rinse respirator in warm water.
3. Immerse facepiece (excluding filters and
cartridges) in warm water (50º C) with a
mild detergent.
4. Clean with soft brush or sponge. Do not
use cleaners containing solvents, because
they will damage the respirator
components.
5. Rinse in fresh, warm water.
6. If the respirator is shared, disinfect the
facepiece by soaking in a solution of
quaternary ammonia disinfectant or sodium
hypochlorite (30 ml of household bleach
in 7.5 litres of water).
7. Rinse in fresh, warm water, and air dry.
8. The cleaned respirator must be stored in a
clean area away dust, chemicals, sunlight,
heat, extreme cold, and excessive
moisture.
9 – 58
ASBESTOS APPENDIX F
Seal checking
Respirators must be seal checked (negative and
positive) before each use.
9 – 59
ASBESTOS APPENDIX G
Qualitative
In qualitative fit testing, the worker wears the
respirator. A chemical agent which can normally
be noticed by smell, taste, or the irritation that it
causes, is introduced to determine if a proper fit
has been achieved. A negative result (the
worker does not smell, taste, or become
irritated) indicates a good fit, while a positive
result (the worker smells, tastes, or is irritated)
indicates a poor fit.
Qualitative fit testing is uncomplicated, fast, and
can be done in the field. The drawback is that it
depends on the wearer’s subjective response to
the testing agent.
When testing half masks, irritant smoke or
other substances can irritate the eyes.
Wearers should close their eyes during the
test.
Quantitative
Quantitative fit testing is a procedure in which a
test substance (aerosol, vapour, or smoke) is
released outside the respirator. A probe and
specialized equipment measure the
concentration of the test substance both outside
9 – 60
ASBESTOS APPENDIX H
APPENDIX H
RESPIRATOR POLICY
Each company is required to have a written
respirator policy and a program for
implementing that policy.
The CSA Z94.4-02 standard outlines the content
requirements for a respiratory program which
includes:
• Roles and responsibilities
• Hazard assessment
• Selection of the appropriate respirator
• Respirator fit testing
• Training
• Use of respirators
• Cleaning, inspection, maintenance, and
storage of respirators
• Health surveillance of respirator users
• Program evaluation
• Record-keeping.
A qualified person should administer and
oversee the respiratory protection program.
9 – 61
ASBESTOS APPENDIX I
APPENDIX I Guidelines
To ensure that HEPA filters are working
HEPA FILTERS efficiently, take the following steps.
HEPA stands for High-Efficiency Particulate • Read and follow the manufacturer’s
Aerosol, and refers to filters used in a variety instruction manual.
of industries and workplaces. • Filters are contaminated with toxic
In construction, there are two main uses for substances. When inspecting or replacing
HEPA filters: filters, do it in a safe, well-controlled place
and wear personal protective clothing and
1. industrial HEPA vacuum cleaners equipment. Personal protective equipment
2. negative air filtration units. will vary according to the hazard but may
include an N-100, R-100, or P-100 NIOSH-
Vacuum cleaners with HEPA filters trap toxic approved air-purifying respirator, dust-
particles such as asbestos and keep them resistant safety goggles, disposable
from returning to the air where people can coveralls, and impervious gloves.
inhale them.
• When renting HEPA vacuums or negative
Negative air filtration maintains air pressure air units with HEPA filters, make sure the
inside an enclosure at a lower level than filters are real HEPA filters and not “HEPA-
outside. The filtration unit draws like” filters.
contaminated air from within the enclosure
through a HEPA filter and blows the air • Test HEPA filters by means of a Dispersed Oil
outside. Particulate (DOP) test when the filters are
first installed to see if they’re mounted
To qualify as a HEPA filter, the filter must be correctly. The purpose is to ensure that air
certified by the Institute of Environmental flows through the filter and doesn’t leak
Sciences and Technology to ensure that it can
capture 99.97% of particles greater than or around the seals of the filter housing.
equal to 0.3 microns in diameter. A filter We recommend that after the test is
passing the certification test is given a number
and the test results are recorded on the label.
complete, you put a sticker on the unit
So read the label carefully. stating when the test was completed and
the result. After the work is finished and
Efficiency before the next use, perform a new test
and place a new sticker on the unit.
By definition, a HEPA filter is able to remove
a minimum 99.97% of all particles 0.3 microns • Make sure the filter is not installed
in diameter or larger. A human hair, by backwards, is properly seated in its
comparison, is about 100 microns in diameter. housing, and is tightly secured.
Ordinary filters cannot trap such microscopic • Inspect the filter housing for signs of dust
particles. Instead, the particles are blown back indicating that dust is bypassing the filter.
into the air where workers can inhale them. A HEPA filter is useless if the housing
HEPA filters prevent this from happening. leaks.
HEPA vacuums and negative air units have • Dust in the exhaust airflow means the
pre-filters to remove large particles before HEPA filter has ruptured or failed and must
they can reach the HEPA filter itself. Without be replaced.
pre-filters, costly HEPA filters would have to • If the fan is not drawing the amount of air
be replaced much more often. required to keep the area under negative
9 – 62
ASBESTOS APPENDIX I
9 – 63
ASBESTOS APPENDIX J
9 – 64
ASBESTOS APPENDIX J
could be that the negative air unit’s integrity is good and that air flows
filters have become clogged with dust through the filter and doesn’t leak
which restricts the air flow through the around the seals or the filter housing.
unit. If this is the case the first thing you
can do is vacuum some of the dust off
■ All used filters must be placed in
of the pre-filter. You may be able to sealable plastic bags, labeled, and
remove enough dust to substantially disposed of as asbestos waste.
increase the air flow through the unit. If Where do I position the negative air unit
this doesn’t work, the negative air unit’s
and the exhaust?
filters need to be changed.
• When preparing for a Type 3 removal the
How do I change the filters? location of the negative air unit and the
• When the fan is not drawing the amount location of the unit’s exhaust duct are
of air required to keep the containment important.
area under negative pressure, the unit • Try to position the negative air unit away
filters may have become loaded or clogged from the demolition or in a location that
with dust. will have the least amount of airborne
• This can be confirmed by measuring the dust.
pressure difference across the filters. Most • Lower dust levels will minimize the
units have either a differential pressure likelihood of having to replace the filters
gauge or a “change filter” indicator as part which means
of the unit.
■ the unit will operate for longer durations
• If the filters have become clogged, the pre-
filter should be changed first. ■ the unit will operate more efficiently
• All filters must be changed within the ■ there will be less change in pressure
Type-3 enclosure and in accordance with within the enclosure
the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Whenever possible, the exhaust or
• If changing the pre-filter does not increase discharge duct should be placed so that it
the air flow then the intermediate filter discharges outside.
should be changed as well.
• Never have the exhaust duct discharge to
• If changing both the pre-filter and the building’s return air system. If the
intermediate filter does not solve the unit’s HEPA filter fails, asbestos fibers
problem, the HEPA filter may require could be spread throughout the building.
changing.
• Negative air pressure within the enclosure
■ When changing the HEPA filter, make must be established before any work is
sure the fan is off. performed.
■ Always use the manufacturer’s • Negative air pressure must be maintained
recommended replacement HEPA filter. at all times during Type-3 removal.
Other filters may not fit and therefore
What will happen if there is a power
they may leak.
failure?
■ After the filter has been replaced, • In the event of a power failure, the
arrange for a DOP (Dispersed Oil negative air unit will stop running. This
Particulate) test to ensure the new filter
9 – 65
ASBESTOS APPENDIX J
9 – 66
RADIATION
Ionizing radiation can be found anywhere in the natural Immediate effects — High doses of radiation delivered in
environment. It comes from space, from the sun, and from a short period to the whole body or particular organs can
naturally occurring radioactive elements in the earth. produce various health effects including death within a few
weeks after exposure. Death is usually a result of the
Ionizing radiation can also come from manmade sources body's inability to cope with the large quantity of dead
such as nuclear power plants and x-ray machines. The cells within various tissues and/or organs. The severity of
main sources of ionizing radiation are x-rays, gamma rays, symptoms depends on
alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons.
• the total radiation dose
X-rays • how quickly the dose was delivered
X-radiation is electromagnetic radiation produced by x-ray • the type of radiation and the part of the body exposed.
machines. X-rays can penetrate deep into the human
Delayed effects — Workers exposed to low doses of
body.
radiation are at increased risk of developing cancer later
Gamma Rays in life and of passing on damaged genetic material to their
Like x-rays, gamma rays are electromagnetic. They can offspring. Cancers observed in populations exposed to
pass right through the human body, interact with tissue, low levels of radiation include leukemia, thyroid, breast,
and cause severe damage. lung, and bone.
10 – 1
RADIATION
10 – 2
RADIATION
Figure 18.5
Figure 18.4 Controlling Radiation Exposure
To minimize exposure, the following measures are
Portal Monitor recommended.
Portal monitors (Figure 18.6) check not only your hands and
1. Engineering controls, such as properly enclosing the
feet for contamination but also your skin, clothing, and hair.
source, are the primary means of control.
2. Administrative controls, such as restricting access and
maintaining a safe distance, should be used as a
secondary means of control.
3. Training and educating workers is an essential
element in any control program.
4. Personnel should not smoke, eat, drink, or chew in
contaminated areas.
5. The selection of personal protective equipment
depends on the contamination level in the work area.
Workers should inspect protective equipment and
clothing before using it.
6. Workers must wear personal monitoring devices
Figure 18.6 where required.
7. Workers must keep track of radiation exposure status.
Bioassay Samples 8. Potentially contaminated clothing should be removed
A bioassay program is set up to measure radioactive without spreading contamination to the skin and
material within the body so that internal dose may be disposed of in the dirty clothes hamper.
calculated. The main contributor to internal dose is tritium, 9. A shower is required to ensure that contamination is
a radioactive form of heavy water. Tritium in the body can not taken home.
easily be measured by determining concentration in a
Control for Industrial Radiography Machines
urine sample.
Because of potential high radiation exposure to operators
of industrial radiography machines and to workers in
Radiation Control Programs adjacent areas, strict controls are necessary during
operation.
Basic Safety Factors
For external radiation exposure, the basic protection The following measures are recomended by Health
measures are reducing time of exposure, increasing Canada.
distance from the source, and shielding the source with
1. Portable cameras should be properly shielded to
appropriate material.
prevent excessive radiation from escaping.
Time 2. The device should be locked to prevent unauthorized
The longer a person is exposed to radiation, the greater use.
the chance of injury. Reducing exposure time by one-half 3. The camera should be designed so that the radiation
reduces exposure by one-half. A common control method source cannot be removed.
is therefore to reduce exposure time and thus exposure. 4. The camera should be designed so that it cannot be
unlocked unless it is fully shielded.
10 – 3
RADIATION
5. The control device should be designed so that it • People who work outdoors as teenagers are at an
cannot be removed unless the radiation source is in increased risk of developing skin cancers.
the stored position. • People with chronic exposure to the sun are at an
6. A radiation warning sign should be placed in the increased risk of developing skin cancer.
vicinity of the instrument.
7. The control device should be designed so that the
Eye Damage — UV radiation can damage the eyes.
operator can work the device without being exposed
Conditions include cataracts (clouding of the lens) and
to the emergent beam.
corneal injuries (involving the outer membane of the eye).
8. The camera must be transported in accordance with
regulations for transporting dangerous goods. Welders’ flash, also known as arc eye and snow
9. Operators must be certified to operate the machine. blindness, is a painful irritation of the cornea and
10. Operators should have a yearly medical exam. conjunctiva (the membrane connecting the eyeball and
the inner eyelid). Symptoms include sensitivity to light and
What is Non-Ionizing Radiation? the sensation of sand in the eye.
Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to Control Measures — To protect yourself from UV
ionize atoms, but it vibrates and rotates molecules, radiation while working outdoors, take the following
causing heating. Non-ionizing radiation is classified by precautions.
frequency and stated in units of hertz (Hz). • If possible, work in the shade when the sun is most
The following types of non-ionizing radiation may be intense (late morning and early afternoon).
present in construction; ultraviolet (UV), lasers, radio- • Wear sunglasses or safety glasses that protect
frequency, and RF/microwave. against UVA and UVB.
• Use sunscreen with a Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of
Ultraviolet Light Radiation at least 15. Apply sunsreen generously to all exposed
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation occupies the range between skin, including lips and nose.
visible rays and x-rays on the electromagnetic spectrum. • Wear clothing that covers arms and legs. The tighter
UV rays can be divided into three categories according to the weave the better.
wavelength:
Lasers
• UVA 320 nm Lasers are increasingly used in construction for line
• UVB 290-320 nm guides and levellers. Lasers can cause serious injuries,
• UVC 100-290 nm
especially to your eyes and skin. Lasers are identified by
Wavelengths are measured in nanometers (nm). A class, ranging from Class 1 (low-power lasers incapable of
nanometer is one billionth of a metre. damaging the eye and therefore exempt from control
measures) to Class 4 (high-powered lasers capable of
UVC from the sun is usually not a concern because causing severe eye damage in less than 0.25 seconds).
wavelengths below 290nm are filtered out by the earth's
atmosphere. Control Measures — The degree of hazard associated
Construction personnel working outdoors are exposed to with low-power lasers used in construction is relatively
invisible UV radiation from the sun during spring and low. However, everyone in the work area should be
summer. Another source of UV radiation is the intense advised of possible laser hazards and the following
light generated by welding. Overexposure to UV radiation precautions should be taken.
can lead to skin and eye damage. 1. The lasers should have a power output of less than
5 milliwatts (mW) and a power intensity (density) of
Skin Damage — Overexposure to UV radiation leads to less than 2.5mW per square centimetre.
the painful reddening, blistering, and peeling of skin 2. Operators of laser equipment should be trained in
commonly known as sunburn. The skin may "tan" by safety procedures, set-up, operation, and
producing melanin to protect itself against UV light. maintenance of the specific devices being used.
Although this dark pigment blocks some of the damaging 3. Where possible, the laser beam should be set up well
rays (mostly UVB), the protection is far from adequate. above eye level.
Skin damage still occurs. 4. The laser device should be shut off when not in use.
Damage done to the skin by excessive exposure to UV 5. All employees working near the laser should be
rays is cumulative. Chronic or long-term exposure to UV advised not to look directly at the laser or its
radiation has been related to a number of health effects, reflection.
including skin cancer, premature aging or wrinkling of the 6. Lasers should not be pointed at reflective surfaces.
skin, and eye problems. 7. A sign should be placed in the vicinity warning people
Note the following points about UV exposure and skin not to stare at the instrument or beam.
cancer. 8. Each laser should be labelled to indicate maximum
output and power intensity.
• UV exposure from the sun has been established as a 9. Workers who regularly work in the laser vicinity
major cause of melanoma — a deadly form of skin should have a yearly eye exam.
cancer in people with light skin colour. 10. For the safety of the general public, the beam should
• People who experience multiple sunburns early in life be confined within the construction area.
are more likely to develop skin cancer than people 11. Optical instruments such as transits and levels should
who experience no sunburns. not be pointed at the laser beam or its reflection.
10 – 4
RADIATION
Control Measures
1. The RF sealer should be properly shielded to prevent
excessive radiation from escaping.
2. The device should be designed so that it cannot be
operated unless it is fully shielded.
3. The control device should be designed so that the
operator can work the device without being exposed
to RF radiation.
4. Operators of the RF sealer should have a yearly
medical exam.
Control Measures
1. Temporarily lower power levels while work is being
performed on or around antennas.
2. Transmit from another antenna while work is being
performed.
3. Perform repairs or other work while the antenna is not
operational.
4. Maintain a safe distance from the antenna while it is
operating.
10 – 5
HEAT STRESS
11 HEAT STRESS doesn’t have enough water left to cool itself. The result is
dehydration. Core temperature rises above 38°C. A series
of heat-related illnesses, or heat stress disorders, can
The Construction Safety Association of Ontario thanks the then develop.
following for their help in developing this chapter: HOW CAN WE RECOGNIZE HEAT
• American Conference of Governmental Industrial STRESS DISORDERS?
Hygienists (ACGIH)
• Sarnia Regional Labour-Management Health and Heat stress disorders range from minor discomforts to life-
Safety Committee. threatening conditions:
• heat rash
WHERE DOES HEAT STRESS OCCUR IN • heat cramps
CONSTRUCTION? • heat exhaustion
• heat stroke.
Construction operations involving heavy physical work in
hot, humid environments can put considerable heat stress Heat rash
on workers. Hot and humid conditions can occur either
indoors or outdoors. Heat rash—also known as prickly heat—is the most common
problem in hot work environments. Symptoms include
Indoors
• red blotches and extreme itchiness in areas
• steel mills and foundries persistently damp with sweat
• boiler rooms • prickling sensation on the skin where sweating occurs.
• pulp and paper mills
• electrical utilities Treatment—cool environment, cool shower, thorough
• petrochemical plants drying. In most cases, heat rashes disappear a few days
• smelters after heat exposure ceases. If the skin is not cleaned
• furnace operations frequently enough the rash may become infected.
• oil and chemical refineries Heat cramps
• electrical vaults
• interior construction and renovation. Under extreme conditions, such as removing asbestos
from hot water pipes for several hours in heavy protective
Outdoors gear, the body may lose salt through excessive sweating.
• roadbuilding Heat cramps can result. These are spasms in larger
• homebuilding muscles—usually back, leg, and arm. Cramping creates
• work on bridges hard painful lumps within the muscles.
• trenching Treatment—stretch and massage muscles; replace salt
• pouring and spreading tar or asphalt by drinking commercially available
• working on flat or shingle roofs carbohydrate/electrolyte replacement fluids.
• excavation and grading.
Heat exhaustion
Asbestos removal, work with hazardous wastes, and other
operations that require workers to wear semi-permeable or Heat exhaustion occurs when the body can no longer
impermeable protective clothing can contribute significantly keep blood flowing to supply vital organs and send blood
to heat stress. Heat stress causes the body’s core to the skin to reduce body temperature at the same time.
temperature to rise. Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion include
• weakness
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE BODY’S • difficulty continuing work
CORE TEMPERATURE RISES? • headache
• breathlessness
The human body functions best within a narrow range of
• nausea or vomiting
internal temperature. This “core” temperature varies from
• feeling faint or actually fainting.
36°C to 38°C. A construction worker performing heavy
work in a hot environment builds up body heat. To get rid Workers fainting from heat exhaustion while operating
of excess heat and keep internal temperature below 38°C, machinery, vehicles, or equipment can injure themselves
the body uses two cooling mechanisms: and others. Here’s one example from an injury description
filed with the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board:
1) The heart rate increases to move blood—and heat—
from heart, lungs, and other vital organs to the skin. High temperature and humidity in the building contributed
2) Sweating increases to help cool blood and body. to employee collapsing. When he fell, his head struck the
Evaporation of sweat is the most important way the concrete floor, causing him to receive stitches above the
body gets rid of excess heat. right eye.
When the body’s cooling mechanisms work well, core Treatment—heat exhaustion casualties respond quickly to
temperature drops or stabilizes at a safe level (around prompt first aid. If not treated promptly, however, heat
37°C). But when too much sweat is lost through heavy exhaustion can lead to heat stroke—a medical
labour or working under hot, humid conditions, the body emergency.
11 – 1
HEAT STRESS
• Call 911. The primary signs and symptoms of heat stroke are
• Help the casualty to cool off by • confusion
• resting in a cool place • irrational behaviour
• drinking cool water • loss of consciousness
• removing unnecessary clothing • convulsions
• loosening clothing • lack of sweating
• showering or sponging with cool water. • hot, dry skin
• abnormally high body temperature—for example, 41°C.
It takes 30 minutes at least to cool the body down once a
worker becomes overheated and suffers heat exhaustion. Treatment
Heat stroke For any worker showing signs or symptoms of heat stroke,
Heat stroke occurs when the body can no longer cool • Call 911.
itself and body temperature rises to critical levels. • Provide immediate, aggressive, general cooling.
- Immerse casualty in tub of cool water or
WARNING: Heat stroke requires immediate medical - place in cool shower or
attention. - spray with cool water from a hose.
The following case is taken from a coroner’s report. - Wrap casualty in cool, wet sheets and fan rapidly.
• Transport casualty to hospital.
On June 17, 1994, a rodworker was part of a crew
• Do not give anything by mouth to an unconscious
installing rebar on a new bridge. During the lunch break,
casualty.
his co-workers observed him in the hot sun on the
bulkhead of the bridge; the recorded temperature by WARNING
Environment Canada for that day was 31ºC with 51%
• Heat stroke can be fatal even after first aid is
humidity. Shortly thereafter the rodworker was found
administered. Anyone suspected of suffering from
lying unconscious on the scaffold, apparently overcome
heat stroke should not be sent home or left
by the intense heat. He was taken to a local hospital, then
unattended unless that action has been approved by
transferred to a Toronto hospital. However, despite
a physician.
aggressive treatment by numerous specialists, he died.
• If in doubt as to what type of heat-related disorder the
Cause of death: heat stroke.
worker is suffering from, call for medical assistance.
11 – 2
HEAT STRESS
11 – 3
HEAT STRESS
11 – 4
HEAT STRESS
11 – 5
HEAT STRESS
11 – 6
HEAT STRESS
11 – 7
HEAT STRESS
11 – 8
HEAT STRESS
11 – 9
HEAT STRESS
Table B: Response
11 – 10
COLD STRESS
12 COLD STRESS
Contents
- Core temperature
- Wind chill
- Hypothermia
- Frostbite
- Risk factors
- Controls
- Exposure limits
12 – 1
COLD STRESS
12 – 2
COLD STRESS
- asthma/bronchitis
- diabetes
Hand Protection
- vibration/white finger disease. Manual dexterity is essential to safety and production.
- Fine work performed with bare hands for more
Check with your health practitioner to learn whether than 10-20 minutes in an environment below
medications you are taking may have adverse effects in a 16°C (60.8°F) requires special measures to keep
cold environment. workers’ hands warm. These measures may include
warm air jets, radiant heaters (fuel burning or
electric), or contact warm plates.
CONTROLS
- Metal handles of tools and control bars should be
The best protection against cold-related health risks is to covered by thermal insulating material for
be aware and be prepared. Workers should recognize the temperatures below -1°C (30.2°F).
signs and symptoms of overexposure in themselves and
- Workers should wear gloves where fine manual
others. Pain in the extremities may be the first warning
dexterity is not required and the air temperature
sign. Any worker shivering severely should come in out of
falls below 16°C (60.8°F) for sedentary, 4°C
the cold.
(39.2°F) for light, and -7°C (19.4°F) for moderate
work.
General
- To prevent contact frostbite, workers should wear
- Ensure that the wind-chill factor is understood by insulated gloves when surfaces within reach
workers, especially those working on bridges or out (especially metallic surfaces) are colder than -7°C
in the open on high buildings. (19.4°F). Warn workers to avoid skin contact with
- Ensure that workers are medically fit to work in these surfaces.
excessive cold, especially those subject to the risk - Tools and machine controls to be used in cold
factors highlighted in the previous section. conditions should be designed for operation by
- Make sure that workers understand the importance gloved hands.
of high-caloric foods when working in the cold. Warm
sweet drinks and soups should be arranged at the
thick or two thin pairs of socks. Wearing too many
work site to maintain caloric intake and fluid volume.
socks can tighten the fit of footwear and harm rather
Coffee should be discouraged because it increases
than help.
water loss and blood flow to extremities.
- Workers who get hot while working should open
- Personnel working in isolated cold environments,
their jackets but keep hats and gloves on.
whether indoors or outdoors, should have backup.
- Provide hot drinks and regular breaks under Shelter
extremely cold working conditions.
For work performed continuously in the cold, allow rest
and warm-up breaks (see table on the next page). Heated
Clothing
shelters such as trailers should be available nearby.
Select protective clothing to suit the cold, the job, and the Encourage workers to use these shelters at regular
level of physical activity. intervals depending on the wind-chill factor.
- Wear several layers of clothing rather than one thick Workers showing signs of shivering, frostbite, fatigue,
layer. The air captured between layers is an insulator. drowsiness, irritability, or euphoria should immediately
- Wear synthetic fabrics such as polypropylene next return to the shelter.
to the skin because these wick away sweat. Workers entering the shelter should remove their outer
Clothing should not restrict flexibility. layer of clothing and loosen other clothing to let sweat
- If conditions are wet as well as cold, ensure that evaporate. In some cases, a change of clothing may be
the outer clothing worn is waterproof or at least necessary.
water-repellent. Wind-resistant fabrics may also be
required under some conditions. Training
- At air temperatures of 2°C (35.6°F) or less, Before working in extreme cold, workers should be
workers whose clothing gets wet for any reason must instructed in safety and health procedures.
be immediately given a change of clothing and be Training should cover
treated for hypothermia.
- proper clothing and equipment
- Encourage the use of hats and hoods to prevent
heat loss from the head and to protect ears. - safe work practices
Balaclavas or other face covers may also be - guidelines for eating and drinking
necessary under certain conditions.
- risk factors that increase the health effects of cold
- Tight-fitting footwear restricts blood flow. Footwear exposure
should be large enough to allow wearing either one
12 – 3
COLD STRESS
EXPOSURE LIMITS
Ontario has no legislated exposure limits for work in cold
environments. The table below was developed by the
Saskatchewan Department of Labour and adopted by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH). It indicates Threshold Limit Values for
properly clothed personnel working at temperatures below
freezing.
Max No. Max No. Max No. Max No. Max No.
°C °F work of work of work of work of work of
(approx.) (approx.) period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks period breaks
Notes
a) This table applies to any 4-hour work period of moderate-to-heavy work with warm-up periods of ten minutes
in a warm location and with an extended break (e.g., lunch) at the end of the 4-hour work period in a warm
location. For light-to-moderate work (limited physical movement) apply the schedule one step lower. For example,
at -35°C (-30°F) with no noticeable wind (row 4), a worker at a job with little physical movement should have a
maximum work period of 40 minutes with 4 breaks in a 4-hour period (row 5).
b) Here is a rough guideline for using the chart if only the wind-chill cooling rate is available: 1) initiate special
warm-up breaks at a wind chill cooling rate of about 1750 W/m2; 2) cease all non-emergency work at or before a
wind chill of 2250 W/m2. In general, the warm-up schedule slightly undercompensates for the wind at the warmer
temperatures, assuming acclimatization and clothing appropriate for winter work. On the other hand, the chart
slightly overcompensates for the actual temperatures in the colder ranges because windy conditions rarely
prevail at extremely low temperatures.
c) The chart applies only to workers in dry clothing.
12 – 4
MOULDS
13 – 1
MOULDS
13 – 2
MOULDS
Containment
Use professional judgment to determine containment for
each situation, particularly as the size of the remediation
site, and the potential for exposure and health effects,
increase.
NR None Required
L Limited – From floor to ceiling, enclose affected area
in polyethylene sheeting with slit entry and covering
flap. Maintain area under negative pressure with
HEPA-filtered fan. Block supply and return air vents
in containment area.
F Full – Use two layers of fire-retardant polyethylene
sheeting with one airlock chamber. Maintain area
under negative pressure with HEPA-filtered fan
exhausted outside of building. Block supply and
return air vents in containment area.
13 – 4
Equipment,
Techniques,
and Hazards
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
PPE is designed to protect against safety and/or health This simply means doing the job in a way which is less
hazards. Hard hats, safety glasses, and safety boots, for hazardous. For example, brushing or rolling paint
instance, are designed to prevent or reduce the severity of produces much lower vapour levels than spray painting.
injury if an accident occurs. Similarly, wet removal of asbestos releases up to 100
times less dust than dry removal. The change should be
Other PPE, such as hearing and respiratory protection, is checked to ensure that it is safer.
designed to prevent illnesses and unwanted health
effects. Isolation
It is important to remember that PPE only provides Isolation isolates the worker from the hazard. In a quarry,
protection. It reduces the risk but does not eliminate the for example, the operator of a crusher can be isolated
hazard. from dust by a filtered, air-conditioned cab.
• assess hazards and select a suitable control method A substance or procedure may be enclosed to contain
• locate and interpret legislation related to PPE toxic emissions. It may be as simple as putting a lid on an
• effectively use and maintain PPE. open solvent tank or enclosing asbestos removal projects
with polyethylene
sheeting (Figure
Legal Requirements 1). Enclosures
have also been
While common to all trades, PPE varies according to
built around
individual, job, and site conditions.
compressors to
Legal requirements for personal protective equipment also reduce the noise
vary and the appropriate sections of the construction level. Enclosures
regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) under the Occupational Health must not restrict
and Safety Act should be consulted. access when
maintenance is
The Occupational Health and Safety Act makes employers
required.
and supervisors responsible for ensuring that required PPE Figure 1
is worn. This does not mean that the employer must provide Ventilation Enclosure
PPE but only ensure that it is provided by someone.
A common
Workers, meanwhile, have a duty under the Act to wear or engineering control
use PPE required by the employer. This addresses is to dilute the contaminant in the air by using general
situations where the regulations may not require PPE but ventilation. Local ventilation is better because it removes
the employer has set additional health and safety the contaminant. General ventilation may employ fans to
standards, such as mandatory eye protection. move large volumes of air and increase air exchange. This
is not suitable, however, for highly toxic materials.
The construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) broadly
requires that such protective clothing, equipment, or Local ventilation
devices be worn “as are necessary to protect the worker captures and
against the hazards to which the worker may be exposed.” removes
It also requires that the worker be trained in the use and contaminants at
care of this equipment. their source. At
a shop bench, a
Control Strategies fume hood can
Personal protective equipment should be the last resort in be constructed
defence. Better alternatives lie in engineering controls that to remove dusts
eliminate as much of the risk as possible. Engineering and fumes. On
controls fall into five categories: sites, portable
fume extractors
• substitution Figure 2 (Figure 2) can
• alternative work methods Fume Extractor
be used.
• isolation Remember: many filtering systems can only remove
• enclosure fumes—not gases or vapours.
• ventilation.
14 – 1
EYE PROTECTION
When it is not possible to apply any of the five engineering CSA Standard Z94.3-99 requires that Class 1 spectacles
controls, personal protective equipment may be the last incorporate side protection. Most side shields are
resort. permanently attached to the eyewear, but some may be
detachable.
Regulations often refer to Canadian
Standards Association (CSA) or other
equipment standards as a convenient Examples of Class 1 - Spectacles
way to identify equipment which meets
requirements and is acceptable. CSA-
certified equipment can be identified by
the CSA logo. For instance, there are CSA logo
CSA standards for
• Head Protection - CSAZ94.1M1992 Class 1A
Spectacles with side protection
• Eye Protection - CSAZ94.3-99
• Foot Protection - CSAZ195-M1992
For respiratory protection, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) standards and approvals are Class 1B
usually referenced throughout North America. Spectacles with side and radiation protection
14 – 2
EYE PROTECTION
14 – 3
EYE PROTECTION
7B
7A
Figure 8 – Hoods
14 – 4
EYE PROTECTION
Table 1
Hazards and Recommended Protectors
14 – 5
EYE PROTECTION
Table 2
Recommended Shade Numbers for Arc Welding and Cutting
Notes:
(1) For other welding processes (e.g., laser, electron beam welding), consult the manufacturer for eye
protection recommendations.
(2) For pulsed GMAW (MIG), use peak current for selecting the appropriate shade number.
(3) For underwater welding, the minimum shade number shown may not necessarily apply.
Courtesy Canadian Standards Association
Group A: Flying Objects Group B: Flying Particles, Dust, Group C: Heat, Glare, Sparks,
(Chipping) Wind, etc. (Sawing) and Splash (Brazing)
14 – 6
EYE PROTECTION
Group D: Acid Splash, Chemical Burns, etc. (Figure 14) Group E: Abrasive Blasting Materials (Figure 15)
Only eye protection recommended: Minimum eye protection recommended:
Eyecup or cover goggles (for dust and splash) Eyecup or cover goggles for dust and splash.
worn with face shields to provide eye and face Optimum eye protection recommended:
protection. Hoods with an air line.
Hoods may also be required for certain hazardous Group F: Glare, Stray Light (Figure 16)
activities such as chemical spraying.
These are situations where only slight reduction of visible
light is required, e.g., against reflected welding flash. Stray
light would result from passing by a welding operation and
Figure 14
receiving a flash from the side without looking directly at the
operation.
Minimum eye protection recommended:
Filter lenses for radiation protection. Side shields
must have filtering capability equal to or greater
than the front lenses.
Optimum eye protection recommended:
Goggles with filter lenses for radiation protection.
See Table 2 for recommended shade numbers.
Group G: Injurious Radiation (Figure 17)
These are situations where only moderate reduction of
visible light is required: for example, gas welding. Injurious
radiation would result from looking directly at the welding
operation.
Only eye protection recommended:
Goggles with filter lenses for radiation protection.
Figure 16
Figure 15
Figure 17
14 – 7
EYE PROTECTION
Note: The intensity of the flame and arc is lower in Group 6. Glare
G than in Group H. For this reason, required filter shade Glare can make it difficult to see and can cause
numbers for this group are also lower. See Table 2. extreme fatigue to the eye.
Group H: Injurious Radiation (Figure 18)
7. Radiation
These are situations where a large reduction in visible light Ultraviolet light from a welding arc can damage the
is essential, e.g., in electric arc welding. cornea.
Only eye protection recommended: Correct eye protection, when matched to the hazard, can
Class 1 spectacles worn with full welding prevent or reduce the degree of any eye injury. However, once
helmets or welding hand shields. These an eye injury has occurred, it is critical that the injury, no
spectacles should incorporate suitable filter matter how small, be given immediate attention and first aid.
lenses if additional protection is required when
the welding helmet is in the raised position: for Eye protection can only protect against injury if it is worn
example, when working near other welding continuously on-site.
operations. See Table 2. It is often the time when a worker removes eye protection
Figure 18 while working near or passing by other hazardous activities
on the job that an eye injury results. When it is necessary to
remove eye protection, do so only in a location that is
Group H: Injurious Radiation completely away from hazardous work areas.
(Electric Arc Welding)
The inconvenience of wearing eye protection is far
outweighed by the risk of being blinded in one or both eyes.
Purchase of Protective Spectacles
Protective spectacles are available with “plano” or non-
prescription lenses and with prescription lenses.
The polycarbonate materials used in safety glasses
provide the best protection, while regular plastic CR-39
lenses in industrial thickness provide a substitute where
polycarbonate is not available. Anti-scratch coatings are
applied to the lens surface to extend useful lens life.
Glass lenses, even when thermally or chemically
hardened, are not acceptable for the workplace. Current
glass lenses do not meet the impact requirements of CSA
Standard Z94.3-99.
When purchasing safety glasses, specify industrial
protection lenses and frames. This term indicates that the
eye protection meets specific test requirements.
Injuries Associated
Industrial protection safety glasses can be identified by
with Construction Hazards the manufacturer’s or supplier’s logo or monogram which
The cornea is the front layer of the eye and the first point is located on the lens and frame (Figure 19).
at which light enters the eye; if light rays cannot pass
Figure 19 – Where to Locate Identification Marks or Symbols
through the cornea, vision is prevented. Injuries to the
cornea that cause scarring, scratching, or inflammation
can impair sight.
Identification
1. Flying Objects Mark on Frames
A piece of metal can pierce the cornea and eyeball
and possibly cause the loss of an eye. Identification Mark
on Prescription
2. Dust Lenses
Dust, sawdust, etc. can cause irritation resulting in a Identification
corneal ulcer which is a breakdown of corneal tissue Mark on Lenses
causing a red, watery, or pussy eye.
3. Heat
Heat can burn and severely damage the cornea.
On non-prescription eye protectors, look also for the CSA logo.
4. Acid Splash
Acid splash and chemicals can burn the cornea,
conjunctiva (white coat on the eye), and eyelid and This mark must appear on both the frame
possibly cause loss of sight. and the lens. It distinguishes industrial
quality lenses and frames from streetwear
5. Abrasive lenses and frames.
Sand can cause a corneal abrasion which can result
in loss of sight. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
14 – 8
HEAD PROTECTION
certification program for non-prescription (plano) industrial 3. Lenses should be cleaned with clear water to remove
eye and face protection covers complete protectors only. It abrasive dust—cleaning dry lenses can scratch the
does not cover separate components such as lenses, surface.
frames, or shields. 4. Anti-fog solutions can be used on glass or plastic
lenses.
In addition to the manufacturer’s logo or I.D. mark which
5. Frames should be handled with care and checked
appears on the eye protector, the CSA logo will appear to
daily for cracks and scratches.
indicate the eye protection meets the requirements of the
6. Eye protectors should never be thrown into tool boxes
CSA Z94.3-99 standard. Certification of industrial
where they can become scratched or damaged.
prescription safety glasses is not yet available.
7. Cases should be provided and used to protect
Until such a program is available, the user should look for spectacle lenses when not being worn.
the manufacturer’s or supplier’s logo or I.D. mark on the
frame and lens which indicates adherence to the Contact Lenses
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard
In the construction industry, contact lenses are not a
Z87.1-1989.
substitute for protective eyewear. Dust and dirt can get
Fitting behind the contact lenses causing sudden discomfort and
impairment of vision.
Improper fit is the most common reason for resistance to
wearing eye protection. A worker who wears non- Contact lenses are also difficult to keep clean when they
prescription (plano) lenses and continues to complain have to be removed or inserted since there are seldom
about blurred vision after the fit has been checked by a suitable washing-up facilities on a jobsite.
competent person may require prescription lenses. It is recommended that contact lenses not be worn on
Prescription lenses must be fitted by an optician or construction sites.
optometrist. Plano eye protection should be fitted
individually by a trained person. However, in cases where contact lenses must be worn to
correct certain eye defects, workers should obtain from their
Here are some general guidelines to follow when fitting ophthalmologist or optometrist written permission indicating
the various classes of eye protectors. the necessity of wearing contact lenses in order to function
Class 1 – Spectacles require that the proper eye size, safely at work. In these cases eye protection, preferably
bridge size, and temple length be measured for each cover goggles, must be worn with the contact lenses.
individual. The wearer should be able to lower his head
without the spectacles slipping.
Class 2 – Goggles with adjustable headbands should fit HEAD PROTECTION
snugly over the wearer’s spectacles when worn.
Standards
Class 3 – Welding helmets are equipped with adjustable
attachments to provide a comfortable fit over the head Requirements for head protection are specified in the current
and face. Attachments are also available to fit on hard edition of the construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91).
hats. Under this regulation, hard hats are mandatory for all
Class 4 – Hand-held shields require no adjustment. construction workers on the job in Ontario. The hard hat
must protect the wearer’s head against impact and
Class 5 – Hoods Adjustments are located on the top against small flying or falling objects, and must be able to
inside of the hood. A tie is located around the neck to withstand an electrical contact equal to 20,000 volts
secure the hood and to prevent the entry of dust. phase to ground.
Class 6 – Face shields are equipped with adjustable At the present time, the Ministry of Labour (MOL)
attachments to provide a comfortable fit over the head considers the following classes of hard hats to be in
and face. Attachments are also available to fit on hard compliance with the regulation.
hats.
Class B
Class 7 – Respirator facepieces should fit snugly – manufactured and tested in accordance with CSA
without gaps to make an effective seal against airborne Standard Z94.1-1977
contaminants. Class B
Care – manufactured and tested in accordance with ANSI
Z89.1-1986
Eye protectors in construction are subjected to many Type I, Class E
damage-causing hazards. Therefore, care is very – manufactured and tested in accordance with ANSI
important. Z89.1-1997.
1. Lenses should be inspected regularly for pitting and Class E
scratches that can impair visibility. – manufactured and tested in accordance with CSA
2. Scratched or pitted lenses and loose frames or Standard Z94.1-1992
temples should be replaced or repaired as soon as Type II, Class E
possible with components from the original – manufactured and tested in accordance with ANSI
manufacturer. Z89.1-1997.
14 – 9
FOOT PROTECTION
"Type" and "Class" of hard hat can be identified by the When fitting boots, allow for heavy work socks. If extra
CSA or ANSI label. Some manufacturers also stamp the sock liners or special arch supports are to be worn in the
CSA or ANSI classification into the shell of the hard hat boots, insert these when fitting boots.
under the brim.
Care and Use
Styles
Lacing boots military style permits rapid removal. In an
New Class E hard hats come in three basic styles: emergency, the surface lace points can be cut, quickly
releasing the boot.
1) standard design with front brim, rain gutter, and
attachment points for accessories such as hearing In winter, feet can be kept warm by wearing a pair of light
protection socks covered by a pair of wool socks. Feet should be
2) standard design with front brim and attachment points checked periodically for frostbite.
for accessories but without a rain gutter
Use high-cut (260 mm or 9 in) or medium-cut (150 mm or
3) full-brim design with attachment points for accessories
6 in) CSA Grade 1 workboots. The higher cut helps
and brim that extends completely around the hat for
support the ankle and provides protection from cuts or
greater protection from the sun.
punctures to the ankle.
Figure 20
Figure 21
CSA label, stamped into the shell, indicating Class E hard hat
FOOT PROTECTION
Ankle injuries represent 50% of all foot injuries in Ontario
construction. Properly worn, a CSA-certified Grade 1
workboot meets the requirements of the current
Properly laced safety boots
construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) and helps protect
with CSA labels
against ankle and other injuries.
One of three CSA grades, Grade 1 offers the highest
protection and is the only one allowed in construction. In a HEARING PROTECTION
Grade 1 boot, a steel toe protects against falling objects while
a steel insole prevents punctures to the bottom of the foot. Introduction
Grade 1 boots can be identified by Construction generally produces noise. Typical
construction work may involve equipment driven by large
• a green triangular patch imprinted with the CSA logo
and small engines, metal fabrication, power drilling and
on the outside of the boot and
sawing, air hammering, and blasting — all of which can
• a green label indicating Grade 1 protection on the
produce noise at harmful levels.
inside of the boot.
Depending on the noise level, duration of exposure, and
Grade 1 boots are also available with metatarsal and other factors, a temporary or permanent hearing loss may
dielectric protection. A white label with result. Temporary hearing losses will usually be restored
the Greek letter Omega in orange by the body within a few hours after the exposure has
indicates protection against electric ceased. Hearing losses which cannot be restored by the
shock under dry conditions. body over any length of time are termed permanent.
Selection and Fit A person suffering a hearing loss will frequently not
realize it. Noise may be harmful at levels that an exposed
Grade 1 boots are available in various Greek Omega Label
person does not consider irritating or annoying. Therefore,
styles and sole materials for different
despite individual preferences, prevention and control
types of work. For example, Grade 1 rubber boots may be
procedures must be based on the general potential for
better suited than leather boots for sewer and watermain
hearing loss.
or concrete work.
Waiting for personal discomfort before taking preventive
Boots should provide ample “toe room” (toes about 1/2
measures may be too late to avoid a permanent noise-
inch back from the front of steel box toe cap when
induced hearing loss.
standing with boots laced).
14 – 10
HEARING PROTECTION
The backhoe is producing 90 dB of noise. The worker standing nearby is therefore exposed to 90 dB. Hearing Loss
Any reduction in the normal ability to hear
is referred to as a loss of hearing. A
hearing loss can be either temporary or
permanent.
Temporary Threshold Shift
With a temporary hearing loss, normal
hearing will usually return after a rest period
away from all sources of intense or loud
noise. The recovery period may be minutes,
hours, a day or perhaps even longer. It is
believed that a temporary hearing loss
occurs when hair cells in the inner ear have
been bent by vibrations and need time to
bounce back.
Most of the temporary hearing loss occurs
The backhoe is producing 90 dB. The compressor is also producing 90 dB. The worker standing during the first two hours of exposure and
between the two pieces of equipment is therefore exposed to their combined output. This double recovery takes place usually within the
intensity is 93 dB. first two hours after exposure stops.
14 – 11
HEARING PROTECTION
• Type of Noise
Figure 23 (continuous, intermittent, impact, high or low
frequency)
• Intensity of Noise
(level of loudness)
• Duration of Exposure
Stirrup (length of time worker subjected to noise — for
Hammer Anvil Cochlea example, during day, on specific shifts)
Messages • Employment Duration
to Brain
(years worker subjected to noise)
• Type of Noise Environment
(character of surroundings – for example, enclosed,
open, reflective surfaces)
• Source Distance(s)
Ear Canal Ear Drum Oval
Window (distance of worker from noise source)
• Worker’s Position
(position of worker relative to noise source)
Sound travelling through ear canal • Worker’s Age
(for instance, a 20-year-old apprentice versus a 50-
year-old journeyperson)
However, the length of time needed for recovery depends • Individual Susceptibility
primarily on how great the initial loss was. The greater the (sensitivity difference, physical impairments)
initial loss the longer the time needed to recuperate. This • Worker’s Present Health
temporary decrease in hearing ability is called a (whether a worker has any detectable losses or ear
temporary threshold shift (TTS) because the threshold or diseases)
level at which sound can be heard has been raised. • Worker’s Home and Leisure Activities
(exposures to noise other than occupational, such as
For instance, to listen to your favourite music at the hunting, skeet shooting, earphone music,
volume you like, you would have to turn it up a few more snowmobiling, etc.)
notches than usual. This phenomenon explains why some
people, particularly those who suffer from some form of Other prime causes of permanent hearing loss are age,
hearing loss, claim that they “get used to the noise.” traumatic injuries (such as from explosions or gunfire), and
infection.
If these previous exposures are allowed to continue under
the same conditions and without the proper interval of rest, Noise, however, is the major identifiable cause of hearing
then a certain degree of permanent hearing loss is possible. loss. Therefore, it is important that controls are exercised
wherever possible so that such losses can be prevented.
Permanent Threshold Shift
Permanent hearing loss is the result of hair cell or nerve Hearing Protection
destruction within the cochlea. Once these important parts
of the hearing process are destroyed, they can never be One form of controlling noise hazards is through the proper
restored or regenerated. The resulting permanent hearing use of hearing protection devices (HPDs). Hearing protectors
loss, also referred to as permanent threshold shift (PTS), should be provided when engineering controls cannot be
can range from slight impairment to nearly total deafness. implemented or while such controls are being initiated.
A symptom of PTS is the inability to pick up sounds with Hearing protective devices are barriers that reduce the
higher frequencies. As damage increases, the reception of amount of noise reaching the sensitive inner ear. Fit,
speech becomes more difficult. comfort, and sound reduction or “attenuation” are
important considerations in choosing HPDs.
Unfortunately, the damage builds up gradually. Workers
may not notice changes from one day to another. But Commonly used hearing protection devices are either
once the damage is done there is no cure. Effects may earplugs or earmuffs. Earplugs attenuate noise by
include the following. plugging the ear canal (Figure 24). The muff-type
protector is designed to cover the external part of the ear
• Sounds and speech become muffled so that it’s hard providing an “acoustical seal” (Figure 25). Table 1
to tell similar-sounding words apart or to pick out a describes some of the characteristics of these different
voice in a crowd. types of hearing protectors.
• Sufferers ask people to speak up, then complain that
they are shouting. Effectiveness
• There’s a permanent ringing in the ears (tinnitus).
• Sufferers need to turn the volume on the radio or Obviously, the effectiveness of an HPD depends on the
television way up or find it hard to use the telephone. amount of time it is worn. What is not obvious to most
wearers is the drastic reduction in protection if HPDs are
Determining Factors not worn in noisy environments even for short periods of
The following factors determine the degree and extent of time.
hearing loss:
14 – 12
HEARING PROTECTION
Figure 24 Figure 25
Standard Muff
Disposable Permanent with Band
Attachable
Muff
14 – 13
HEARING PROTECTION
CUSTOM- SEMI-INSERT
FOAM PREMOULDED FORMABLE MOULDED
EARPLUGS EARMUFFS EARPLUGS
EARPLUGS EARPLUGS EARPLUGS
STYLE Consist of Usually made of Consist of two Made from pliable Custom made to fit Commonly known
and compressible plastic or silicone insulated plastic material such as a particular ear by as banded earplugs
plastic foam. Come rubber attached to cups attached to cotton/wax taking an or canal caps. They
COMFORT in many shapes. a flexible stem for metal or plastic mixture, silicone impression of the consist of small
Often described as handling and band. Cups putty, and mineral ear, making a caps or pods that
“disposable plugs.” insertion. Come in equipped with soft wool. mould, and casting are held in place
Elasticity lets them many shapes and cushions for seal a plug. over the ear canal
adapt easily to sizes to suit and comfort. Head by spring-loaded
changes in ear different ear band tension bands.
canal. canals. ensures good seal.
INTENDED Most brands can To be used more To be used • Single-use for Permanent use To be used more
USE be reused a few than once. regularly. Can be mineral wool than once.
times before being worn with or products.
discarded. without plugs. • Multi-use for
Easily attached to cotton/wax
hard hats. products.
• Semi-permanent
for silicone putty
products.
HYGIENE Clean hands Plugs should be General Clean hands Wash with hot Wash with hot
PRACTICES required each time cleaned regularly maintenance required for water and soap, water and soap,
fresh plugs with warm soapy required. Head band shaping and preferably after preferably after
inserted. water, preferably must be maintained. insertion. removal. removal.
after each removal Cushions must be
from ear. replaced when
soiled or brittle.
ADVANTAGES Low risk of Reusable. Less likely to cause Relatively cheap Good fit only if a Good for when
irritation. One size irritation. When proper impression frequent removal is
fits most workers. attached to hard of the ear is taken. required.
hat, always
available for use.
DISADVANTAGES Use requires clean Plugs must be kept Bands may wear Not recommended If the wearer’s Proper seal is
hands. Large clean to prevent out and tension for the noise levels weight changes necessary for good
supply required for irritation. May decrease. Eyewear found on drastically, new attenuation.
frequent removals produce some and hair may construction plugs should be
and usage. discomfort with interfere with fit projects. made. Plugs can be
pressure. Though and reduce lost, shrink,
reusable, plugs protection. harden, or crack
degrade over time. over time, and
Inspect and replace must be replaced.
as necessary.
14 – 14
HEARING PROTECTION
Table 4 Table 5
MAXIMUM NOISE LEVEL RECOMMENDED CLASS OF TYPICAL NOISE LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
(dBA) HEARING PROTECTOR FOR CONSTRUCTION
Table 6 Earplugs
Effects of Hearing Protectors on Understanding Speech 1) Earplugs should conform to the latest issue of CSA
Standard Z94.2.
HEARING BACKGROUND / SURROUNDING NOISE LEVELS IN dBA 2) For maximum attenuation the method of insertion
ABILITY illustrated in Figure 26 should be used. Because the
OF WEARER Less
than 75 75 to 85 Greater than 85 ear canal is slightly S-shaped, the ear must be pulled
back to straighten the canal for the plug to fit properly.
Normal Little No Improves
hearing effect effect communication Figure 26
14 – 16
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
14 – 17
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
until several hours after exposure has stopped. • there is insufficient oxygen
• very high concentrations of contaminant are present
Asphyxiants are substances which result in inadequate
• the contaminant cannot be detected by odour or taste
oxygen in the body. They can be classified as either
at safe levels.
simple asphyxiants or chemical asphyxiants.
Simple asphyxiants are other gases or vapours which Warning: Air-purifying respirators simply remove
cause oxygen to be displaced, creating an oxygen- certain airborne hazards. They do not increase or
deficient atmosphere. Oxygen content of 18% may lead replenish the oxygen content of the air and should
to some fatigue during exertion. Oxygen concentrations never be worn in atmospheres containing less than
lower than 15% can cause loss of consciousness and 19.5% oxygen.
may be fatal. For example, nitrogen used to purge tanks Figure 27
can displace oxygen, resulting in unconsciousness and
even death for those who enter. Oxygen may also be
consumed by chemical or biological activity such as
rusting or bacteria digesting sewage.
Chemical asphyxiants interfere with the body’s ability to
transport or use oxygen. Two examples are carbon
monoxide and hydrogen sulphide.
Central nervous system depressants interfere with
nerve function and cause symptoms such as headache, Particulate Filter
drowsiness, nausea, and fatigue. Most solvents are
central nervous system depressants.
Fibrotic materials cause “fibrosis” or scarring of lung
tissue in the air sacs. Common fibrotic materials found in
construction include asbestos and silica.
Carcinogens cause or promote cancer in specific body
organs. Asbestos is the most common carcinogen in
construction.
Nuisance dusts do not cause significant effects unless
exposure is of high concentration and/or long duration. Gas/Vapour Cartridge Filter
Excessive exposure to these substances can be adverse in
itself or can aggravate existing conditions such as
emphysema, asthma, or bronchitis. Examples include
plaster dust, cellulose from some insulation, and limestone
dust.
Respiratory Protective Equipment
A wide variety of equipment can be used to protect
workers from respiratory hazards. Devices range from
simple, inexpensive dust masks to sophisticated self-
contained breathing apparatus. Generally, the equipment
can be divided into two distinct classes — air-purifying Combination Particulate/Gas/Vapour Cartridge Filter
respirators and supplied-air respirators. Filter Types
Air-Purifying Respirators Although many different filters have been designed for
specific hazards, there are three basic types used with
As their name indicates, these devices purify the air
air-purifying respirators:
drawn through them. There are two main types of air-
purifying respirators: • particulate filters
• gas/vapour cartridge filters
1) Non-powered
• combination particulate/gas/vapour filters. See Figure 27.
Air is drawn through the air-purifying filter by the
wearer breathing in and creating a negative pressure Particulate Filter
in the facepiece. Non-powered respirators depend
entirely on the wearer breathing in (inhaling) and This type removes solid particles such as dusts, fumes, or
breathing out (exhaling) to deliver an adequate supply mists and operates like the air filter in a car engine. The
of purified breathing air. devices may be filtering facepiece respirators or respirators
2) Powered with replaceable filters. Different grades of filters are
These respirators have a blower that blows purified air available, depending on the size of particles to be removed.
into the facepiece. (Figure 31). When particulate filters fill up with dust or fume, they
Air-purifying respirators have limitations and should not be become harder to breathe through but are more efficient,
used where since air is being filtered through the layer of trapped
particles as well as the filter itself.
14 – 18
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
14 – 19
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
The ambient air blower draws air through an inlet hose Styles of Facepieces
(positioned where the air is clean) and pumps the air
In addition to the type of respirator and mode of operation,
under fairly low pressure to the worker’s hood, helmet, or
the style of facepiece is used to classify respirators.
facepiece.
Different styles are available (Figure 32).
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) uses a
cylinder of air carried by the wearer (Figure 29). SCBAs are Protection Factors
awkward, heavy, and require frequent cylinder changes. The protection factor (PF) is a measure of the
Combination airline/SCBA units are available for work in effectiveness of a respirator. PFs are determined by
confined spaces and other high-risk assignments where dividing the concentration of a contaminant outside the
reserve protection is required (Figure 30). respirator by the concentration inside the respirator. PFs
are used in the selection process to determine the
With these devices or with simple airline units, the maximum use concentration (MUC) for the respirator. The
wearer’s mobility is understandably restricted by the MUC is determined by multiplying the legislated or
trailing hose and the length of line available. In addition, recommended exposure limit by the PF.
airlines may get crimped or may snag on equipment.
For example, the exposure limit for chrysotile asbestos in
If an atmosphere is immediately dangerous to life or Ontario is 0.1 fibre/cm3 of air. If we are using a half-mask
health, a combination airline/SCBA unit is required. respirator with N100 filters (PF=10), the MUC is 1
Both airline and SCBA units are more expensive than air- fibre/cm3. This is obtained by multiplying the PF (10) by
purifying systems, but they generally provide much the exposure limit (0.1 fibre/cm3). If the concentration of
greater protection. asbestos becomes greater than 1 fibre/cm3 during the
course of work, a respirator with a greater protection
Modes of Operation factor must be used.
Respirators can operate in the following modes: The Canadian Standards Association (CSA), the US
• “negative pressure” or “demand” National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
• “constant-flow” (NIOSH), and the American National Standards Institute
• “positive pressure” or “pressure-demand.” (ANSI) have each published slightly different protection
factors. In this manual, NIOSH-assigned protection factors
Negative Pressure or Demand Mode
are used.
Air is delivered only when the wearer inhales. Pressure
The degree of protection depends on the type of
inside the facepiece is then lower than pressure outside
respirator, style of facepiece, and principle of operation.
the facepiece. This allows air to pass through the filters in
the case of air-purifying respirators, or actuates a valve Generally, supplied-air respirators provide better
that allows air into the facepiece in the case of supplied- protection than air-purifying respirators; full-face masks
air respirators. Because contaminated air may leak inward provide better protection than half-face masks; and
around the facepiece, these devices have limited use in positive-pressure devices provide more protection than
high exposure conditions. negative-pressure types.
Constant-Flow Mode Table 7 lists protection factors for the respirators described
so far. The information can be used to select the most
As the name implies, these devices deliver a constant
appropriate device for any given situation.
flow of air to the wearer. Powered air-purifying respirators
(PAPRs) use a battery-powered fan to draw air through The protection factors listed in Table 7 were determined
the filter and then blow it into the facepiece (Figure 31). by testing a wide variety of devices worn by a large
Constant-flow supplied-air respirators such as number of people and represent the average degree of
sandblasters’ hoods use a simple valve to control the flow protection achieved. Protection factors for individual
of “clean” air from the compressor. Minimum flow rates of wearers may differ significantly from the values listed.
170 litres per minute (6 cubic ft/min) for loose-fitting hoods
or helmets and 115 litres per minute (4 cubic ft/min) for
Respirator Selection
tight-fitting facepieces must be maintained to minimize In order to select the proper respirator for a particular job,
inward leakage of contaminated air and still provide it is necessary to know and understand
adequate breathing air.
• the characteristics of the contaminant(s)
Positive Pressure or Pressure-Demand Mode • the anticipated exposure conditions
Since the previous modes may permit significant inward • the performance limitations of the equipment
leakage, a system which maintains a positive pressure • any legislation that applies.
inside the facepiece at all times, as well as supplying It is also important to realize that facial hair and deep
more air as demanded, was developed. facial scars can interfere with the seal between respirator
If leakage occurs, the high pressure inside the facepiece and face. Respirators should only be selected by
directs the leakage away from the facepiece rather than someone who understands all of these factors.
allowing it in. Before using or handling a controlled product, consult the
This class of device is only available with supplied-air material safety data sheet (MSDS). The MSDS will identify
respirators. any respiratory protection required. Under the Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), MSDSs
14 – 20
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
14 – 21
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Figure 32
Filtering Half-Facepieces
Most of these devices are designed to
be worn only once. They fit over the
mouth and nose, rest on the chin, and
are held in place by two straps. Some
of the more sophisticated versions with
adjustable straps and exhalation valves
can be worn more than once, provided
they are not damaged.
Filtering Facepiece
for Particulates
Full-Face Mask
This style covers the entire face
and consists of a moulded
Filtering Facepiece rubber or plastic frame and a
with Exhalation Valves clear visor. Since it fits against
the relatively smooth rim of the
face, it provides more protection
than other face masks. Full-face
masks can be used with air-
purifying, powered air-purifying,
and supplied-air respirators.
Exhalation Valve
Inhalation Valve
Half-Face Mask
This style is widely used as an air-purifying respirator with one
or more filters or cartridges attached to the facepiece. The
silicone, thermoplastic, or rubber facepiece covers the mouth
and nose, cups under the chin, and is usually held in place by
two straps. It generally provides better protection than quarter-
face masks because the chin cup affords a more secure fit.
f) Other materials being used in the vicinity. • Warning Properties (e.g., irritation, odour, taste) —
The respiratory protection specialist will evaluate this If the material has poor warning properties (for
information and compare it with the following example, when the lowest concentration that can
additional data: be detected by odour is greater than the
g) The permissible exposure limit of the dust, gas, or permissible exposure concentration), air-purifying
vapour, often referred to as the TLV® or Threshold respirators are usually not permitted.
Limit Value*. These values are used in conjunction • Types of Effects — With cancer-causing materials
with the protection factors listed in Table 1 to a higher degree of protection is usually specified.
determine the maximum use concentration. • Performance of Filters — With some gases and
h) The physical properties of the contaminant: vapours the filter can become overloaded in just a
• Vapour Pressure — The maximum amount of few minutes. Therefore, knowledge of the filtering
vapour which can be generated under given material and its performance against specific
conditions. gases and vapours is necessary.
i) The concentration considered to be Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH). IDLH
*TLV is a term copyrighted by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists.
atmospheres pose an immediate threat to life or
14 – 22
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
* SCBA or airline with emergency air bottle adequate for N Negative 1 Any appropriate NIOSH-approved
escape from the hazardous environment C Constant flow 2 High efficiency particulate aerosol (HEPA)
‡ Protection factor may be limited by the cartridge. Check P Positive 3 Appropriate NIOSH-approved gas or vapour
with manufacturer. N/A Not applicable
health or the threat of a serious but delayed effect on With every respirator except hoods or helmets, a tight seal
health (e.g., radioactive dust exposures). One is required between facepiece and face.
example of an IDLH situation is the repair of a
With negative-pressure respirators (e.g., non-powered air-
chlorine leak where a worker could be overcome by
purifying respirators and demand supplied-air respirators)
the gas very quickly. IDLH atmospheres should only
gaps in the seal will permit contaminated air to enter the
be entered by persons wearing SCBA or SCBA/airline
breathing zone.
respirators as shown in Figures 29 and 30.
j) Possibility of skin absorption. With some chemicals With positive-pressure respirators (e.g., powered air-
the amount of material which can be absorbed purifying respirators and pressure-demand supplied-air
through the skin is of equal or greater concern than respirators) a lot of air will be wasted through outward
the amount of gas or vapour which can be inhaled. leakage and the degree of protection provided to the
For these situations supplied-air protective suits may wearer could be reduced. Also, “venturi effects” may allow
be necessary. air to escape in one area and draw contaminated air into
k) Eye irritation — some contaminants will cause eye the facepiece around the escaping air.
irritation, making it difficult to see. For these For these and other reasons, the fit of respirators must be
contaminants, a full-face mask must be worn. carefully tested. Generally there are two types of fit testing
As shown by points a) to k), many factors must be — qualitative and quantitative.
considered to ensure that the proper respirator is selected
for a specific situation. Qualitative Fit Tests
14 – 23
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
14 – 24
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Review
The following section lists common claims about respirators and explains why the statements are true or false. The
information provides a convenient review of major points in this chapter.
1) All respirators are the same. (False) Most respirators, especially air-purifying types, are limited to
certain types of hazards. For instance, dust masks may be
suitable for dusts, but do not provide protection against
gases and vapours.
2) One size fits all. (False) Most manufacturers offer three sizes of facepieces (small,
medium and large) to ensure a proper fit. In some cases, no
size from one manufacturer may fit an individual and a
different brand may be necessary.
3) Respirators make breathing (True) With air-purifying respirators the air is being
more difficult. inhaled through a filter so some additional effort is required.
With most pressure/demand supplied-air respirators
additional effort is required to activate the inhalation and
exhalation valves.
4) Air-purifying respirators supply (False) These devices simply filter out specific gases,
oxygen. vapours, dust, mists, or fumes, but do not increase the
oxygen content of the air.
14 – 25
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
5) Most respirators require (True) With the exception of disposable and single-use
maintenance. respirators, some maintenance is required.
6) Any source of compressed air (False) Compressed breathing air must be “clean” and
will be adequate for supplied-air free from carbon monoxide, oil mist, and other
respirators. contaminants.
7) Protection factors are the same (False) The protection factors listed in Table 7
for everyone. are averages obtained by testing a large number or wearers.
Individual protection factors can be considerably different
from those listed.
8) Respirators are the best way to (False) Good ventilation is the best way of controlling
control respiratory hazards. respiratory hazards, though it is not always practical in many
construction applications.
9) The moisture content of (True) If the moisture content of the air in a pressurized
compressed air is important. breathing air system is too high, the regulators can freeze
shut and cut off the supply of air. Moisture can also cause
deterioration of storage cylinders.
10) Parts can be interchanged from (False) Using improperly fitted or matched components
one manufacturer to another. voids the NIOSH approval and can cause failure of the
respirator posing serious risk to the wearer.
11) Fitting of respirators is not (False) No matter how effective its protection against
important. specific hazards, the respirator must be properly fitted to
prevent inward leakage of contaminated air. The only
exceptions are hoods and helmets, and even these depend
on fit to a certain degree.
12) Self-Contained Breathing (True) They also have disadvantages which make
Apparatus (SCBA) and air-line their use impractical in some situations.
respirators provide the best protection.
13) Respirators should be checked (True) Damaged straps, missing or ill-fitting valves, and
each time they are used. other problems can make the device useless.
14) Only one respiratory hazard is (False) Often there are two or more hazards present.
present in a particular job. For instance, spray painting produces mists and vapours
while welding can produce fume and gases.
15) Respirators can be fitted with (True) Many manufacturers offer filters which will
filters suitable for more than one remove selected dusts, fumes, gases, and
hazard. vapours all at the same time.
16) Single-use dust masks should (True) These inexpensive respirators are meant to be put on once
not be worn more than once. only. They may not provide adequate protection once the
straps have been stretched.
17) Respirators provide absolute (False) Every respirator has limitations which the wearer
protection. must understand. Protection is ensured not only by the
respirator but also by its proper use.
18) Respirators are simple to select (False) In many cases even the respiratory protection
for any job. specialists have problems in selecting the right device.
19) Respirators interfere with eye (True) Protective goggles and glasses may not fit properly with
protection. many respirators. Full-face masks may be necessary.
20) NIOSH approvals are important. (True) NIOSH approvals indicate that the device has passed a set
of minimum design and performance standards. Unapproved
respirators may provide similar protection but this can only
be evaluated by expert review of the manufacturer’s claims.
21) Beards and mustaches do not (False) With the exception of hoods and some helmets,
affect respiratory protection. beards and mustaches cause a great deal of leakage and
reduce the effectiveness of respirators significantly.
Respirator wearers should be clean shaven to obtain the
best possible protection.
Summary
Respiratory protective equipment can prevent illness, disease, and death from breathing hazards. But the equipment
must be properly selected, fitted, worn, and maintained to ensure maximum protection.
The Construction Safety Association of Ontario can provide assistance in selecting respiratory protection and training
workers in its use, care, and maintenance. For additional information, contact CSAO.
14 – 26
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Lead
Optional
Application of lead-containing
coatings with a brush or roller
✔
N, R, or P
✔
Loose-
Spray application of lead-
fitting
containing coatings
hood or
helmet
Removal of lead-containing
coatings or materials by scraping ✔
or sanding using non-powered N, R, or P
hand tools
Removal of lead-containing
Optional
coatings or materials using non-
powered hand tools—other than
✔
N, R, or P
manual scraping or sanding
Removal of lead-containing
Optional
coatings with a chemical gel or
paste and fibrous laminated cloth
✔
N, R, or P
wrap
Removal of lead-containing
coatings or materials using a
power tool without a dust ✔
Full
collection system equipped with a
facepiece
HEPA filter
(airborne dust ≥ 0.05 mg/m3)
14 – 27
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Lead cont’d
Removal of lead-containing
coatings or materials using a
power tool with a dust collection Optional
system equipped with a HEPA filter ✔
N, R, or P
(airborne dust must be controlled
to < 0.05 mg/m3)
✔
Type CE
blasting;
positive
Abrasive blasting of lead-
pressure;
containing coatings or materials
tight-
fitting
half-
facepiece
Welding or high-temperature ✔
cutting of lead-containing coatings Tight-
or materials indoors or in a fitting full
confined space facepiece
Welding or high-temperature
cutting of lead-containing coatings
✔
Tight-
or materials outdoors—long-term
fitting full
operations or if material not pre-
facepiece
stripped
Welding or high-temperature
cutting of previously stripped lead- ✔
containing coatings or materials N, R, or P
outdoors—short term only
✔
Burning of a surface containing Tight-
lead fitting full
facepiece
Optional
Soldering ✔
N, R, or P
Optional
Installation or removal of lead-
containing sheet metal
✔
N, R, or P
14 – 28
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Lead cont’d
✔
Pressure
Removal of lead-containing dust
demand;
using an air-mist extraction system
full
facepiece
Painting
✔ ✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P N, R, or P
Spraying latex paint
(small- (small- (large-
scale) scale) scale)
Spraying stucco
✔
R or P
14 – 29
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Roofing
Silica
Blasting rock
✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P
Abrasive blasting—either ≥ 1%
silica in the abrasive blasting ✔
media or ≥ 1% silica in the target
material being blasted
Drywall sanding
✔ ✔
For short-term N, R, or P N, R, or P
14 – 30
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Silica cont’d
For short-term
Entry—for less than 15 minutes— applications,
into a dry mortar-removal or a filtering
abrasive-blasting area for facepiece
✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P
inspection or sampling where respirator
airborne dust is visible may be
appropriate
Removal of silica-containing
refractory materials with a
✔ ✔
or applications involving tools N, R, or P
jackhammer
14 – 32
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Aluminum**
✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P
Mild steel
✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P
Stainless steel
✔ ✔
N, R, or P N, R, or P
Welding or high-temperature
cutting of lead-containing coatings ✔ ✔ ✔
or materials indoors or in a N, R, or P
confined space
Miscellaneous
Paving
✔
R or P
** Protection from ozone may be required in some circumstances. Contact the respirator manufacturer.
N = Not resistant to oil R = Oil-resistant P = Oil-proof OV = Organic vapour cartridge
14 – 33
HAND / SKIN PROTECTION
14 – 34
HIGH-VISIBILITY CLOTHING
the sun, the higher the risk of developing skin cancer. clip onto your hardhat are available.
✓ Wear UV-absorbent safety glasses (CSA-approved
Although most construction workers generally cover up
their arms, legs, and torso on site, their faces and necks polycarbonate glasses incorporate this feature).
are still exposed to the sun’s harmful rays. In addition, ✓ Wear clothing that covers as much of the skin as
areas like the tips of the ears and the lips are often possible. Tightly woven material will offer greater
overlooked when it comes to sun protection. protection as a physical block to UV rays.
✓ If you sweat heavily, you may need to reapply
The type of skin cancer that develops on the ear or the lip sunscreen more often. Additionally, when clothing is
has a high chance of spreading to other parts of the body wet, it loses some of its ability to block out the sun’s
and causing death. Melanoma may also occur on the sun- rays. Ensure you have additional dry clothing if
exposed parts of the head and neck. necessary.
In fact the majority of skin cancers (2 out of 3) occur on ✓ Try to find a shaded area for your breaks and lunch.
the head and neck, followed by the forearm and back of ✓ Wear a wide-brim hard hat designed to protect your
the hand. Workers too often leave these critical areas face and neck from the sun. Adding a glare guard
exposed to the harmful effects of UV radiation. under the peak of your hard hat will help reduce
reflective UV rays.
Individual risk factors for developing skin cancer include
✓ Examine your skin regularly for any unusual changes.
- fair skin that burns easily The most important warning sign for skin cancer is a
- blistering sunburns in childhood spot on the skin that is changing in size, shape, or
and adolescence colour. The danger signs include any wound or skin
- family history of melanoma patch that doesn’t heal properly or scales. Be
- many freckles and moles. particularly attentive to any mole that grows or
becomes irregular in shape, especially if it is multi-
In addition to the harmful effects of the sun’s direct rays,
coloured. If anything looks unusual, see your doctor as
some workers may be exposed to indirect UV radiation.
soon as possible. Skin cancers detected early can
Workers can receive additional radiation if they are on or
almost always be cured.
near a surface that reflects sunlight. Reflective surfaces
such as concrete, water, unpainted corrugated steel, What Employers Can Do
building glass, and aluminum can increase the amount of
ultraviolet radiation to which a worker is exposed. ✓ Supply workers with a broad-spectrum sunscreen with
an SPF of 15 or higher.
Another source of indirect UV radiation is from the hard ✓ Ensure adequate shaded areas for workers on breaks
hat itself. UV rays can reflect off the hard hat onto a and lunch.
worker’s face, magnifying the amount of UV exposure. ✓ If possible, rotate workers to shaded areas of the
Although all construction workers are at risk, those who don’t jobsite.
have ready access to shade and/or work at heights are at a ✓ Educate workers on the hazards of UV radiation.
higher risk for UV overexposure. These trades include ✓ Ensure that workers use UV-absorbent safety glasses.
- concrete finishing workers The majority of skin cancers are preventable. Taking
- roofers basic precautions can significantly reduce the health
- rodworkers effects of chronic sun exposure.
- formworkers on high-rise and
residential sites
- roadworkers HIGH-VISIBILITY CLOTHING
- traffic signallers The construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) requires that
- ironworkers. any worker who may be endangered by vehicular traffic
In addition, working at sites with southern exposure on a project must wear a garment that provides a high
decreases the daytime shade available and increases level of visibility.
UV exposure. There are two distinct features to high-visibility clothing.
Remember—even on cloudy or hazy days, UV Background Material
radiation can penetrate the atmosphere and burn
This is the fabric from which the garment is made. It must
your skin.
be fluorescent orange or bright orange in colour and
What Workers Can Do afford increased daytime visibility to the wearer.
✓ Apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a sun Fluorescent orange provides a higher level of daytime
visibility and is recommended.
protection factor (SPF) of 15 or greater to all exposed
skin areas. Be sure to cover your ears and the back of Retroreflective Stripes or Bands
your neck. Apply sunscreen 20 to 30 minutes before you
The stripes or bands must be fluorescent and
go out in the sun. Reapply sunscreen every 2 hours.
retroreflective and be arranged on the garment with two
✓ Use an SPF 15 or higher sunscreen lip balm and
vertical stripes down the front and forming an X on the
reapply every two hours. Skin cancers can develop on back. The stripes must be yellow and 50 mm wide.
lips. Retroreflective stripes are to afford the worker both low-
✓ You may add UV protection to the back of your neck by light and night-time visibility.
using fabric to block the sun’s rays. Neck protectors that
14 – 35
HIGH-VISIBILITY CLOTHING
14 – 36
GUARDRAILS
18
5 GUARDRAILS
A worker at risk of falling certain distances (see below) must
be protected by a guardrail system or, if guardrails are not
practical, by a travel-restraint system, fall-restricting system,
fall-arrest system, or safety net. In many cases, guardrails
are the most reliable and convenient means of fall protection
and they must be your first consideration.
Guardrails or, if guardrails are impractical, other appropriate
methods of fall protection must be used when
• a worker could fall more than 3 metres (10 feet) from
any location
• there is a fall hazard of more than 1.2 metres, if the
work area is used as a path for a wheelbarrow or
similar equipment
• a worker could have access to the unprotected edge
of any of the following work surfaces and is exposed Wire Rope Guardrail System
to a fall of 2.4 metres (8 feet) or more:
• a floor, including the floor of a mezzanine or
balcony
• the surface of a bridge
• a roof while formwork is in place
• a scaffold platform or other work platform,
runway, or ramp.
• there are openings in floors, roofs, and other working
surfaces not otherwise covered or protected
• there are open edges of slab formwork for floors and
roofs
• a worker may fall into water, operating machinery, or
hazardous substances.
Manufactured Safety Fences
Basic requirements for wood guardrails (Figure 33) include
Figure 34
• top rail, mid rail, and toeboard secured to vertical
supports • toeboard at least 100 mm (4 inches) high – 89 mm
• top rail between 0.9 m (3 feet) and 1.1 m (3 feet 7 (3 1/2 inches) high if made of wood – and installed
inches) high flush with the surface
• posts no more than 2.4 metres (8 feet) apart.
Other systems are acceptable (Figure 34) if they are as
strong and durable as wood guardrails with the same
minimum dimensions.
Support
Typical methods of supporting wood guardrails are shown
in Figure 33. Posts extending to top rail height must be
braced and solidly fastened to the floor or slab.
Shoring jacks used as posts should be fitted with plywood
softener plates top and bottom. Snug up and check the
posts regularly for tightness.
Figure 33
15 – 1
GUARDRAILS
Top rail –
Clamp Double 2" x 4"
Binding
850 mm
Cast Sleeve (34")
Posts Figure 37
Guardrails on Stairs Clip angles to
secure posts
Figure 35
Travel
restraint he
s
nc
6i
t,
ee
6f
Fall Arrest
s
he
nc
6i
t,
ee
6f
15 – 2
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
16 – 1
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
• must include a lanyard equipped with a shock minimum load capacity. In practical terms, anchorage
absorber unless the shock absorber could cause a should be strong enough to support the weight of a small
falling worker to hit the ground or an object or a level car (about 3600 pounds).
below the work
Lifelines
• must include an adequate fixed support; the harness
must be connected to it via a lifeline, or via a lanyard There are three basic types of lifelines:
and a lifeline 1) vertical
• must prevent a falling worker from hitting the ground 2) horizontal
or any object or level below the work 3) retractable.
• must not subject a falling worker to a peak fall-arrest
All lifelines must be inspected daily to ensure that they are
force greater than 8 kilonewtons.
- free of cuts, burns, frayed strands, abrasions, and
The construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) requires that other defects or signs of damage
• all fall protection equipment must be inspected for - free of discolouration and brittleness indicating heat or
damage, wear, and obvious defects by a competent chemical exposure.
worker before each use
• any worker required to use fall protection must be 1) Vertical Lifelines
trained in its safe use and proper maintenance. Vertical lifelines must comply with the current edition of
the applicable CSA standard and the following minimum
Any defective component should be replaced by one that requirements:
meets or exceeds the manufacturer’s minimum - Only one person at a time may use a vertical lifeline.
performance standards for that particular system. - A vertical lifeline must reach the ground or a level
The regulation also requires that any fall-arrest system above ground where the worker can safely exit.
involved in a fall be removed from service until the - A vertical lifeline must have a positive stop to prevent
manufacturer certifies all components safe for reuse. the rope grab from running off the end of the lifeline.
For any worker receiving instruction in fall protection, the
manufacturer’s instructions for each piece of equipment
should be carefully reviewed, with particular attention to
warnings and limitations.
Components
The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) provides
minimum standards for most components of personal fall
protection equipment:
- CAN/CSA-Z259.1-M99 – Safety Belts and Lanyards
- CAN/CSA-Z259.2.1-M98 – Fall Arresters, Vertical
Lifelines, and Rails
- CAN/CSA-Z259.2.2-M98 – Self-Retracting Devices for
Personal Fall-Arrest Systems
- CAN/CSA-Z259.2.3-M98 – Descent Control Devices
- CAN/CSA-Z259.10-M90 – Full Body Harnesses
- CAN/CSA-Z259.111-M92 – Shock Absorbers for
Personal Fall-Arrest Systems
- CAN/CSA-Z259.12-01 – Connecting Components for
Personal Fall-Arrest Systems.
For any component not covered by these standards, Vertical lifelines are typically 16-millimetre (5/8-inch)
confirm with the manufacturer that the component is synthetic rope (polypropylene blends).
suitable for the particular system being considered. 2) Horizontal Lifelines
The minimum strength of fall-arrest components depends The following requirements apply to any horizontal lifeline
on whether or not the system uses a shock absorber. system:
• In systems without shock absorbers, all components, - The system must be designed by a professional
including lifeline and lifeline anchorage, must be able engineer according to good engineering practice.
to support a static load of at least 8 kilonewtons (1800 - The design can be a standard design or specifically
pounds) without exceeding the allowable unit stress of engineered for the site.
the materials used for each component.
The design for a horizontal lifeline system must
• In systems with shock absorbers, all components,
including lifeline and lifeline anchorage, must be able ✓ clearly indicate how the system is to be arranged,
to support a static load of 6 kilonewtons (1350 including how and where it is to be anchored
pounds) without exceeding the allowable unit stress of ✓ list and specify all required components
the materials used for each component. ✓ clearly state the number of workers that can safely be
attached to the lifeline at one time
In designing both systems, it is recommended that a ✓ spell out instructions for installation, inspection, and
safety factor of at least two be applied to the stated
maintenance
16 – 2
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
16 – 3
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
16 – 4
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
✓ burns, cuts, or signs of chemical damage Check all connecting devices for
✓ loose or broken stitching ✓ damage, cracking, dents, bends, or signs of deformation
✓ frayed web material. ✓ connecting rings centred—not bent to one side or
Shock Absorbers otherwise deformed
✓ rust
- Shock absorbers absorb some of the force generated ✓ moving parts working smoothly
by fall arrest. Shock absorbers can be purchased as ✓ signs of wear or metal fatigue.
separate equipment or built into lanyards.
- One end of the shock absorber must be connected to Fall-Arrest Planning
the D-ring on the full body harness.
- In most cases the shock-absorbing component is Before deciding on a fall-arrest system, assess the
enclosed in a snug-fitting jacket to protect it from the hazards a worker may be exposed to in case of a fall.
user’s day-to-day activities. In a fall, the jacket tears Before the fall is arrested, will the worker "bottom out,"
open as the shock absorber deploys. that is, hit ground, material, equipment, or a lower level of
- Check the cover jacket for stress or tearing (many the structure? Will the pendulum effect cause the worker
shock absorbers have a tag on the jacket that tears if to swing from side to side, possibly striking equipment,
the unit is exposed to a shock load—make sure this material, or structure? In the event of fall arrest, how will
tag is intact). the suspended worker be rescued? Planning must take
- Ensure that a shock absorber built into a lanyard has into account these and other concerns.
a constant cross-section or diameter.
Total Fall Distance is the distance required to fully arrest a
Connecting Devices fall. It consists of
Locking Snap Hook – has a spring-loaded keeper across - Free Fall Distance, which should be kept to 1.5
the opening of the hook that cannot be opened unless the metres (5 feet) or less, plus
locking mechanism is depressed. - Fall Stopping Distance, which includes stretch in the
lanyard (minimal) and lifeline, slack in the harness
Karabiner (D-Clip) – designed not to open under twist (maximum 30 cm or 1 foot due to allowable
loads. To open the gate or keeper requires two separate adjustments for user’s comfort), and deployment of
actions: 1) twisting the locking mechanism and (2) pulling the shock absorber (maximum 1.1 metres—or 42
the locking mechanism back. When released, the spring- inches).
loaded locking mechanism flicks back into the locked
position. Free Fall Distance is measured from the D-ring of a
worker standing on the work surface down to the point
Rope Grab – used to connect lanyard to lifeline. These
where either the lanyard or the shock absorber begins to
devices can be moved up and down the lifeline when a
arrest the fall. It is strongly recommended that this
steady force is applied but will lock when a sharp tug or
distance be kept as short as possible.
pull is applied. They will remain locked on the lifeline until
the applied force is released. To minimize free fall, workers should tie off to an anchor
overhead and use as short a lanyard as the work will allow.
Each rope grab is designed and manufactured for use
with a specific diameter and type of lifeline. Rope grab Where a worker is
and lifeline must be compatible. Specifications are connected to a vertical
usually listed on the housing. lifeline by a rope grab,
the rope grab should
The rope grab must also be attached to the lifeline in the be positioned as high
correct direction—not upside down. On most rope grabs above the D-ring as
an arrow indicates the direction in which to orient the the work will allow. By
device. In addition, each rope grab is designed for use doing this, the worker
with a specific length of lanyard, normally two or three feet minimizes not only the
maximum. Free Fall Distance but
also the Fall Stopping
Distance required to
completely arrest a fall.
Bottoming Out
Bottoming out occurs
when a falling worker
hits a lower level, the
ground, or some other
hazard before the fall
is fully arrested.
This occurs when Total
Fall Distance is
greater than the
distance from the work
Bottoming Out
16 – 5
PERSONAL FALL PROTECTION
surface to the next level, the ground, or some other hazard department. Aerial ladder trucks or other high-reach
below. equipment may be necessary. In extreme cases, the fire
department may use rappelling techniques to reach
Fall-arrest systems must be planned, designed, and
trapped workers and lift or lower them to a safe level.
installed to prevent any risk of bottoming out.
Plans should cover the on-site equipment, personnel, and
Pendulum Effect
procedures for different types of rescue. Any off-site
The farther you move sideways from your anchor point, rescue services that might be required should be
the greater the chance of swinging if you fall. This is contacted and arranged in advance to familiarize them
known as the "pendulum effect." And the more you swing, with the project. CSAO’s Emergency Response poster
the greater the force with which you’ll strike columns, (P103) can be used to indicate the nearest hospital and
walls, frames, or other objects in your path. the phone numbers of fire, ambulance, and police
Swinging may even cause your taut lanyard or lifeline to services.
break where it runs over rough or sharp edges. Site management must ensure that
Swing Fall or Pendulum Effect - everyone on site is aware of the rescue plan
- equipment and other resources are available
- designated personnel are properly trained.
Conclusion
Employers, supervisors, and workers all have responsibilities
in reducing or eliminating falls in construction.
This section has provided guidelines for fall protection,
including both fall prevention and fall arrest. But the
information means nothing unless employers, supervisors,
and workers apply it on the job.
To minimize pendulum effect, workers should keep
lanyard or lifeline perpendicular from edge to anchor. Workers who have any questions about fall hazards or fall
Where work extends along an open edge, anchor points protection should ask their supervisor. When it comes to
can be changed to keep lanyard or lifeline perpendicular fall protection, make sure you know how the equipment
as work progresses. works and how to use it. Your life depends on it.
16 – 6
LADDERS
17 – 1
LADDERS
Sectional
Straight Ladder Hooked
Ladder
Ladder
or “Catwalk”
Figure 1
Fixed Ladder
Plaform Figure 3
Ladder
Job-Built Wooden
Ladders (Figure 5)
Job-built ladders
should be constructed
Trestle Ladder according to good
structural carpentry
Special Purpose practice.
Ladder
The wood should be
Figure 4
Step Ladder straight-grained and
free of loose knots, sharp edges, splinters, and shakes.
Locked
Rungs should be clear, straight-grained, and free of knots.
Extension Trestle Job-built ladders must be placed on a firm footing and be
Ladder
securely fastened in position.
SPREADER ARMS SHOULD LOCK IN THE OPEN POSITION
Figure 2 40 cm (15.75") minimum
Single Width 61 cm (24") maximum
17 – 2
LADDERS
Remember — a wooden ladder should not be painted or as with other supervisory responsibilities, details overlooked
coated with an opaque material. today can become problems tomorrow.
A straight wooden ladder should not be longer than 9 Proper Use of Ladders
metres (30 feet).
More than 80 percent of ladder accidents are related to
Job-built ladders are heavy and not recommended where improper use or application of the equipment. Supervisors
portability is important. Because they are made of wood must control the application of equipment to particular
and often used by a whole crew of workers, job-built situations. But personnel using the equipment must also
ladders deteriorate rapidly. They should be inspected be trained to use it. Training should include the following
every day or so. If defective, they must be repaired precautions.
immediately or taken out of service and destroyed.
— Check the ladder for defects at the start of a shift,
SUPERVISION AND USE after it has been used in another location by other
workers, or after it has been left in one location for a
The Supervisor's Task lengthy period of time. (See the end of this chapter for
Ladder injuries can be significantly reduced by control of inspection procedures.)
usage and improved site management. This requires that — Areas surrounding the base and top of the ladder
supervisory personnel should be clear of trash, materials and other
obstructions since getting on and off the ladder is
— train workers to maintain and use ladders properly relatively more hazardous than other aspects of use.
— evaluate the access requirements of a specific work — The base of the ladder should be secured against
assignment accidental movement. Use a ladder equipped with
— choose the best means of access for the job. non-slip feet appropriate for the situation, nail a cleat
Because portable ladders are inherently hazardous, they to the floor, or otherwise anchor the feet or bottom of
should only be used where safer means of access such as the side rails (Figure 6).
stairs, scaffolds, manlifts, or ramps are not suitable or
practical. Supervisors must consider the number of workers
requiring access to elevated work locations as well as the
extent and duration of the work before deciding on the
safest and most economical means of access.
Ladders should not be used by large crews of workers.
Basic considerations of efficiency usually indicate that other
types of access such as stairs or even personnel hoists are
much more suitable where significant numbers of workers
are making repeated use of the access.
Where a significant amount of elevated work is to be
performed by even one tradesman in an area, ladders are
not recommended. Other types of access such as
stationary or rolling scaffolds or powered elevating
platforms will usually be more efficient and significantly
reduce the potential for accidents.
In deciding on the best type of access for various tasks and
work locations, management should also consider the Methods of securing ladder base against displacement
amount of material involved; the time workers spend on the Figure 6
access equipment; weather conditions; equipment available — The ladder must be set up on a firm level surface. If
on site; condition of surface from which access must be its base is to rest on soft, uncompacted or rough soil,
made; room available; potential for shared use with other a mud sill should be used (Figure 7).
trades, and so on. It is critical that consideration be given to — The top of the ladder should be tied off or otherwise
worker access for specific tasks and for entire work areas. secured to prevent any movement (Figure 8). If this is
Ladders must not be used where other means of access not possible, given the type of ladder or circumstances
are practical and safer. of its use, one worker should hold the base of the
If there is no practical alternative to ladders, supervisors ladder while it is being used.
should ensure that ladders are suitable and in good condition — If a ladder is used for access from one work level to
and personnel are trained to use them properly. Ladder another, the side rails should extend a minimum of
stabilizers on straight and extension ladders are strongly 900 millimetres (3 feet) above the landing. Grab rails
recommended where ladders are the only means of access. should be installed at the upper landing so that a
worker getting on and off the ladder has secure
In addition to proper training, planning, and organizing for handholds.
worker access, supervisory personnel must exercise control — All straight or extension ladders should be erected at
of all access situations. The supervisor must check that an angle such that the horizontal distance between
planning and directions are being carried out by workers. the top support and the base is not less than one-
Although very important, the control function is often given quarter or greater than one-third the vertical distance
insufficient attention by the busy supervisor. With ladders, between these points (Figure 9).
17 – 3
LADDERS
Figure 7
Tie-Off
3 ft. Min
(900 mm) Point
Figure 10
Tied-off
extension — When working from a ladder, keep your centre of
ladder gravity between the side rails. A person's centre of
gravity is approximately in the centre of the body at
belt height. The location of your centre of gravity can
shift when you reach out to either side of a ladder,
especially with materials, tools, or equipment in your
Proper ladder
angles hands. As the centre of gravity of your body and
Figure 8 hand-held objects moves beyond the side rails, the
Figure 9
ladder is tending toward instability.
— Before setting up straight or extension ladders, check — Whenever possible, avoid climbing up or down a
the area for overhead power lines. Ladders made of ladder while carrying anything in your hands. Tools,
aluminum or other conductive material should never be equipment and materials should be placed in a
used near power lines. Only competent electricians and container and raised or lowered by rope, if necessary.
linemen using ladders made of non-conductive material — Workers should be instructed and frequently reminded
are allowed to work in close proximity to energized to keep their boots free of mud, snow, grease, or
electrical lines. other slippery materials if they are using ladders.
— Portable ladders should never be used horizontally as — Always hold onto the ladder with at least one hand. If
substitutes for scaffold planks, runways, or any other this is not possible because of the task to be done
service for which they have not been designed. and in particular if the work is 3 metres (10 feet) or
— When a task can only be done while standing on a more above the floor, the worker must wear a safety
portable ladder, the length of the ladder must be such harness and tie the lanyard off to the structure or to a
that the worker stands on a rung no higher than the lifeline before beginning work.
fourth from the top. The ladder should also be tied off — Never straddle the space between a ladder and
or equipped with a suitable stabilizer. another object (Figure 11).
17 – 4
LADDERS
General Procedures
Ladders should be inspected for structural rigidity. All
joints between fixed parts should be tight and secure.
Hardware and fittings should be securely attached and
free of damage, excessive wear, and corrosion. Movable
parts should operate freely without binding or excessive
play. This is especially important for gravity-action ladder
locks on extension ladders.
Non-skid feet should be checked for wear, imbedded
material, and proper pivot action on swivel feet.
Deteriorated, frayed or worn ropes on extension ladders
should be replaced with a size and type equal to the
manufacturer's original rope.
Aluminum ladders should be checked for dents and bends
in side rails, steps, and rungs. Repairs should be made
only by the manufacturer or someone skilled in good
aluminum or metal work practices. Replacing a rung with
a piece of conduit or pipe is not good practice and should
not be permitted.
Wooden ladders are susceptible to cracking, splitting, and
rot and should be either unpainted or covered with a
transparent finish in order that checks, cracks, splits, rot,
or compression failures can be readily detected. Repairs
should be consistent with good woodworking practice.
Only wood equal to or better than the wood used by the
Never straddle the space
between a ladder and manufacturer should be used in the repair.
another object
The bases, rungs, and steps of all ladders should be
Figure 11
examined for grease, oil, caulking, imbedded stone and
— Persons frequently required to use or work from metal, or other materials that could make them slippery or
ladders should wear protective footwear with soles otherwise unsafe.
and heels made of slip-resistant materials such as Methods of storage and transportation are important.
soft urethane. Storage areas should permit easy access and be cool and
— Never erect ladders on boxes, carts, tables, or other dry, particularly if wooden ladders are kept there. Areas
unstable surfaces. where the moving of other materials can damage ladders
— Fall-arresting equipment such as ladder climbing should be avoided. Ladders should be supported during
devices or lifelines should be used when working from storage and transportation to prevent sagging or chafing.
long fixed ladders or when climbing vertical fixed When being transported, ladders should be “top freight”
ladders. — nothing should be piled on them. If damage does
— Never rest a ladder on any of its rungs. Ladders must occur, the condition causing the damage should be
rest on their side rails. corrected as well as having the ladder repaired.
— When erecting long, awkward, or heavy ladders, two
or more persons should share the task to avoid injury Special Considerations
from over-exertion. All trades have frequent ladder accidents. To improve
— Instruct all personnel to watch for overhead power accident prevention, supervisors should devote more time
lines before attempting to erect any ladder. When to training and reinforcement of training on the job.
overhead power lines are in proximity of the work,
aluminum ladders must not be used. Approximately 50 percent of all ladder accidents occur
while tasks are being performed from the ladder. Many of
these accidents could be prevented by using other types
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE of access equipment such as scaffolds or powered
Regular inspection and maintenance will increase the elevating platforms.
useful life of ladders and reduce the number of accidents. Between 30 and 40 percent of all ladder accidents involve
A suggested checklist for inspection has been provided at unexplained loss of footing. Because inattention may be a
the end of this chapter. Repairs should only be carried out cause, training should be strengthened to maintain
by someone competent and familiar with this kind of work. awareness of the hazards involved in working from
Ladders found to be defective should be taken out of ladders.
service and either tagged for repair or scrapped. Once Many ladder accidents are related to unfavourable
tagged, the ladder must not be used until repaired. Ideally, weather conditions such as wind, mud, ice, snow, and rain
the tag should only be removed by the person who took the which create slippery and unstable situations. This is an
ladder out of service initially. The tag should be printed in especially important consideration for the outside trades
big bold letters with the words “DANGER – DO NOT USE”.
17 – 5
LADDERS
■ Familiarize personnel with your ladder safety policy. 3. Are there any missing or broken rungs? ■ ■
4. Are there any broken, split, or cracked ■ ■
■ Use a ladder properly suited to the task. rails repaired with wire, sheet metal,
or other makeshift materials?
■ Construct job-built ladders properly. 5. Are there any worn, damaged, or ■ ■
missing feet?
■ Inspect ladders before use.
6. Are there any worn, damaged, or ■ ■
unworkable extension ladder locks,
■ Erect ladders with the proper slope (between 4:1 and
pulleys, or other similar fittings?
3:1).
7. Is the rope on extension ladders ■ ■
■ Avoid placing ladders in areas with high traffic or worn, broken, or frayed?
activity such as walkways, entrances, and exits. 8. Has the rope on extension ladders ■ ■
been replaced by material inferior
■ Tie ladders off at the top. to the ladder manufacturer's original
rope?
■ Block or otherwise secure the ladder base or have the 9. Are the spreader arms on step ■ ■
ladder held by a second worker when in use. ladders bent, worn, broken, or otherwise
rendered partly or totally ineffective?
■ When outdoors, place the ladder base on firm
footings such as compacted soil or mudsills. If the answer is “YES” to any of the questions on the
Inspection Checklist, the ladder should be tagged so that
■ Extend the ladder 900 mm (3 feet) above the top workers will know it is defective and should not be used. It
landing. should be taken out of service immediately and placed in
a location where it will not be used until repairs are
■ Clear material, debris, and other obstructions from the completed. If the ladder is not to be repaired it should be
top and bottom of ladders. destroyed.
WHEN CLIMBING
■ Use a single-width ladder one person at a time only.
17 – 6
SCAFFOLDS
More than half of scaffold accidents in Ontario Overloading causes excessive deflection in planks and
construction are falls. Several fatalities are also related to can lead to deterioration and breaking. Overloading
scaffolds each year. The number and severity of injuries occurs most often in the masonry trade where skids of
involved make scaffold accidents one of the more serious material can exceed 1500 kg (3000 lb.). If material is left
safety problems in construction. overhanging the scaffold platform it can cause an
imbalance leading to the scaffold overturning.
2 PROBLEM AREAS 2.5 Platforms Not Fully Decked
The main problem areas are This situation is related to injuries not only during erection
• erecting and dismantling scaffolds and dismantling but in general scaffold use. The
• climbing up and down scaffolds Construction Regulation (Ontario Regulation 213/91)
• planks sliding off or breaking requires that all scaffold platforms must be at least 450
• improper loading or overloading mm (18 inches) wide. All platforms above 2.4 metres
• platforms not fully planked or “decked” (8 feet) must be fully decked.
• platforms without guardrails 2.6 Platforms without Guardrails
• failure to install all required components such as base
plates, connections, and braces Platforms without guardrails are a serious safety problem
• moving rolling scaffolds in the vicinity of overhead in construction. Guardrails are an important fall prevention
electrical wires measure not only for high platforms but also for low ones.
• moving rolling scaffolds with workers on the platform. Over one-third of the falls from scaffolds are from
platforms less than 3 metres (10 feet) in height. Therefore,
2.1 Erecting and Dismantling guardrails are recommended during normal use for all
From 15 to 20% of scaffold-related injuries involve scaffold platforms over 1.5 metres (5 feet) high. Guardrails
erecting and dismantling. The most common problem is for all working platforms should consist of a top rail, a mid-
the failure to provide an adequate working platform for a rail, and a toeboard.
worker to use when installing the next lift of scaffold. 2.7 Failure to Install All Required Components
Working from one or two planks is not recommended.
Failure to use all of the proper scaffold components
The next important consideration involves components, is a serious safety problem. Workers are more likely to cut
such as tie-ins, which you should install as the assembly corners when scaffolds are only a few frames in height. All
progresses. Failure to do so makes the scaffold less too frequently they fail to install base plates, braces,
stable and, while it may not topple, it may sway or move proper securing devices such as “banana” clips or “pig
enough to knock someone off the platform. This happens tails” at the pins of frame scaffolds, and adequate tie-ins.
more often when platforms are only one or two planks Those erecting the scaffold must have all the necessary
wide and guardrails are missing, as is frequently the case components, and must use them to ensure that the
during erection and dismantling. scaffold is safe. Furthermore, workers should install these
2.2 Climbing Up and Down parts as the scaffold erection progresses.
Approximately 15% of scaffold-related injuries occur when 2.8 Electrical Contact with Overhead Wires
workers are climbing up and down. Climbing up and down Scaffolds seldom make contact with overhead electrical
frames is a common but unacceptable practice that has lines, but when it does happen it almost always results in
resulted in numerous injuries and fatalities. Climbing up a fatality. Failure to maintain safe distances from overhead
and down braces is also a frequent cause of accidents. powerlines while moving scaffolds is a major problem.
You must provide adequate ladders to overcome this Before attempting to move rolling scaffolds in outdoor
problem. In addition, workers must use proper climbing open areas, check the route carefully to ensure that no
techniques (three-point contact). overhead wires are in the immediate vicinity. Partial
dismantling may be necessary in some situations to
ensure that the scaffold will make the required safe
18 – 1
SCAFFOLDS
clearances from overhead powerlines. The required • the use of mechanical equipment to aid in erecting
minimum safe distances are listed in Table 1. Hoisting the scaffold.
scaffold material by forklift or other mechanical means
requires careful planning and should be avoided in the 4 BASIC TYPES OF SCAFFOLDS
vicinity of powerlines. Transporting already-erected
scaffolds by forklift, particularly in residential construction, 4.1 Standard Tubular Frame Scaffolds
has been the cause of many electrical contacts — this is This is the most frequently used scaffold in construction.
a dangerous practice. Workers handling materials or Historically it has been made of steel tubing, but
equipment while working on the platform must also take aluminum is gaining popularity. The scaffold is
care to avoid electrical contact. manufactured in various configurations and spans. On
Table 1: Minimum distance from powerlines some systems, ladder rungs are built into the end frames
(Figure 4.1). These ladders are not suitable for tall scaffold
Voltage Rating of Power Line Minimum Distance
towers unless rest platforms are installed at regular
750 to 150,000 volts 3 metres (10 feet) intervals and trapdoors are provided in the platforms.
150,001 to 250,000 volts 4.5 metres (15 feet) Other models are equipped with ladders that attach to the
end frames (Figure 4.3). The ladder shown in Figure 4.3 is
over 250,000 volts 6 metres (20 feet) continuous and workers gain access via gates at the
platform level. Again this ladder is not suitable for high
scaffolds. Scaffolds in excess of 9 metres (30 feet) should
2.9 Moving Rolling Scaffolds with Workers on the Platform have built-in stairs with rest platforms. Vertical ladders can
Moving rolling scaffolds with workers on the platform can reach up to 9 metres, but above 2.2 metres (7 feet) they
be dangerous. Where it is impractical for workers to climb require a safety cage.
down, and the scaffold is over 3 metres (10 feet) in height, The advantages of the frame scaffold are that it is simple
each worker must be tied off with a full body harness and to assemble, many construction trades are familiar with its
lanyard. Lifelines must be attached to a suitable anchor use, and the components can be lifted manually by
point other than the scaffold. Holes, depressions, curbs, workers. However, as with other systems, all parts must
etc. have all been responsible for scaffolds overturning be used. Failure to install any of the components, such as
while being moved. In some jurisdictions moving a bracing and base plates, may lead to accidents.
scaffold with workers on the platform is prohibited if the
platform exceeds a certain height. Ladder rungs built Aluminum/plywood
into frame not more combination platform
than 12” centre to
3 SELECTION centre
The safe and efficient use of scaffolding depends first on
choosing the right system for the job. If the scaffold’s basic
characteristics are unsuited to the task, or if all the necessary
components are not available, personnel are forced to make
do and improvise. These conditions lead to accidents.
Proper selection of scaffolding and related components
requires basic knowledge about site conditions and the
work to be done. Considerations include
• weight of workers, tools, materials, and equipment to
be carried by the scaffold
• site conditions (e.g., interior, exterior, backfill, concrete
floors, type and condition of walls, access for the
equipment, variations in elevation, anchorage points)
• height or heights to which the scaffold may be erected
Figure 4.1
• type of work that will be done from the scaffold (e.g.,
STANDARD FRAME SCAFFOLD
masonry work, sandblasting, painting, metal siding,
mechanical installation, suspended ceiling installation)
• duration of work 4.2 Standard Walk-through Frame Scaffolds
• experience of the supervisor and crew with the types This is a variation of the standard tubular frame scaffold.
of scaffolds available An example is shown in Figure 4.2. Although primarily
• requirements for pedestrian traffic through and under designed to accommodate pedestrian traffic at the ground
the scaffold or street level, the walk-through scaffold is frequently used
• anticipated weather conditions by the masonry trade to provide greater height per tier
• ladders or other access to the platform and easier distribution of materials on platforms at
• obstructions intermediate levels.
• configuration of the building or structure being worked on
• special erection or dismantling problems including
providing practical fall protection for the erector
18 – 2
SCAFFOLDS
Wooden
guardrails
Castor wheel with brake
secured to frame
and swivel lock
Tube-and-clamp Horizontal
guardrails to Bracing Brake
protect
outrigger/side Figure 4.3
platform ROLLING SCAFFOLD
Horizontal
bracing NOTE:
Screw jacks should
be adjusted to lift
wheels off ground
before workers
mount
Figure 4.2 the scaffold.
WALK-THROUGH SCAFFOLD
18 – 3
SCAFFOLDS
Scaffolds that are not securely pinned together can 4.6 Tube-and-Clamp Scaffolds
separate if they drop into a hole or depression, or run into
Tube-and-clamp scaffolds (Figure 4.7) are frequently used
an obstacle at ground level. Horizontal bracing is
where obstructions or non-rectangular structures are
necessary on a rolling tower scaffold to keep it from
encountered. The scaffolds are infinitely adjustable in
folding up because the connections between frames and
height and width. They can also be used for irregular and
braces are essentially pinned joints.
circular vertical configurations.
Castors should be secured to the frame. A castor
Personnel erecting tube-and-clamp scaffolds must be
dropping off in a hole or depression in floors has been the
experienced. It is strongly recommended that, for each
cause of serious accidents and injuries. Each castor
application, a sketch or drawing be prepared by someone
should have a brake and swivel lock which are in good
who understands general structural design and the need
working order and can be applied easily. The castors or
for diagonal and cross bracing. In general, this type of
wheels should be suitable for the surface on which the
scaffold takes longer to erect than the standard tubular
scaffold is being used. Small wheels are suitable for
frame type. Tube-and-clamp scaffolds above 10 metres
pavement or concrete floors. You need larger pneumatic
(33 feet) must be designed by a professional engineer.
wheels when soils are the working surface. Before using
rolling scaffolds, the surface must be smooth, free of
depressions and reasonably level.
Node point
4.3.1 Electrical Contact
One of the biggest concerns with rolling scaffolds is the
possibility of contact with overhead electrical wires.
Scaffolds making accidental contact with powerlines have
caused many deaths. Before moving a rolling scaffold,
check the intended path of travel and maintain the
required minimum clearances as set out in Table 1.
4.4 Fold-up Scaffold Frames
Fold-up scaffold frames (Figure 4.5) are frequently used Clamp bolted
to structure
by trades such as electricians, painters, and suspended
ceiling erectors. Widths range from dimensions that will
pass through a 750-mm (30-inch) opening to the standard
width of about 1.5 metres (5 feet). Frequently made of
aluminum, this type of scaffold is easily and quickly
transported, erected, and moved about construction sites
and from job to job. It should be used only on a smooth,
hard surface.
Gate
Figure 4.7
TUBE-AND-CLAMP SCAFFOLD
Figure 4.5
FOLD-UP SCAFFOLD
Figure 4.6 illustrates European scaffold systems have become very popular in
another type of scaffold applications that were traditionally suited to tube-and-
with uses similar to the clamp. Although they are not as adjustable as tube-and-
fold-up model. Although clamp scaffolds, they can be applied to a wide variety of
it is not so easily non-rectangular, circular, or dome-shaped structures. A
erected, the system is typical example is shown in Figure 4.8. As with tube-and-
light and very easily clamp scaffolds, personnel carrying out the erection
adjusted for height. It should be experienced with that type of system and a
breaks down into a sketch or drawing of the scaffold to be erected is
Figure 4.6 recommended for each application. Systems scaffolds
minimum of components SCAFFOLD
readily transported from above 10 metres (33 feet) in height must be designed by
with
job to job. These devices ADJUSTABLE a professional engineer.
should also be used only PLATFORM
There are a great many systems available, ranging from
HEIGHT
on smooth, hard light-duty aluminum to heavy-duty steel support
surfaces. They are not structures. They all employ different patented locking
intended to carry heavy devices (wedges, locking pins, etc.) which are not
loads. intended to be interchanged with other systems.
18 – 4
SCAFFOLDS
Engineered drawings
should accompany this
work platform outlining
such components as
load capacity, tie-in
requirements, and
bracing.
The potential for fall-
related accidents is
reduced when using
mast-climbing work
platforms since workers
stay on a wide, secured
platform even during
Typical rosette
erection and
and wedge joint
dismantling.
Manufacturers’
Figure 4.8 instructions
SYSTEMS SCAFFOLD
must be
followed at all
4.8 Mast-Climbing Work Platforms
times. A
The use of mast-climbing work platforms (Figure 4.9) is competent
becoming increasingly common, particularly in the masonry worker should
industry. They are best suited for medium to high-rise supervise the
projects, and are used also by siding installers, window erection.
installers, drywallers, and other trades. For low to medium-
4.9 Crank-up or Tower
height projects they can be freestanding, depending on
Scaffolds
ground conditions and manufacturers’ instructions. For high-
rise applications they can be tied to the structure at regular Although crank-up
intervals as set out by the manufacturer. scaffolds (Figure 4.10)
are more popular in the
Mast-climbing work platforms can be used as a single
United States, some
tower or as multiple towers braced together. The platform
Canadian masonry
climbs the mast, normally powered by an electric or gas
contractors use them.
engine. The climbing mechanism will have a failsafe system
They consist of towers,
to prevent accidental lowering or failing of the platform.
bases, and platforms that
can be lifted by winches.
The working platform is
located 600 to 900
mm (2 to 3 feet)
below the
material platform, Figure 4.10
TOWER SCAFFOLD
which is in an
ergonomically good position for the worker.
The entire scaffold can be raised easily, allowing the worker
a comfortable working height. Crews must be trained to
erect, use, dismantle, and maintain tower scaffolding safely
and efficiently. Manufacturers’ instructions must be
followed at all times. Tower scaffolds must be tied to the
structure according to manufacturer’s instructions.
5 SCAFFOLD COMPONENTS
Tubular Frame Scaffolds: There are many tubular frame
scaffold components available (Figures 5.1, 5.2). Some
Figure 4.9
MAST-CLIMBING WORK PLATFORM
components are necessary in almost all situations; others
are optional depending on use and manufacturers’
Although not shown here, the working platform can be a instructions. In addition to scaffold end frames, the
set distance below the material platform. This allows minimum components required are
material to be stacked at a convenient height for the
worker. The entire platform can be raised to whatever – base plates or castors
height is required. As such it has significant ergonomic – mudsills
advantages. – adjustable screw jacks
– vertical braces on both sides of frames unless
18 – 5
SCAFFOLDS
Frames
Castors
Coupling pins—used to
connect frames together
Pig tail—used to connect
frames to coupling pins
Figure 5.1
FRAME SCAFFOLD COMPONENTS
Manufactured
guardrail
section
Toeboard bracket
Spring-loaded
pin lock
Vertical braces
Guardrail
posts
Guardrail
Horizontal
brace
Figure 5.2
FRAME SCAFFOLD COMPONENTS
18 – 6
SCAFFOLDS
Ladder rails should extend at least 900 mm (3 feet) above Guardrails should be designed to resist the forces
the platform level to facilitate getting on and off. Injuries specified in the Construction Regulation.
are often connected with stepping on and stepping off the Frequently, guardrails must be removed to allow material
ladder at the platform level. to be placed on the scaffold platform. Workers must
Rest stations should be decked in on scaffold towers at protect themselves from falling by using a fall-arrest
intervals no greater than every 9 metres (30 feet). system properly worn, used, and tied off. The fall-arrest
Climbing is strenuous work and accidents happen more system should be worn while the worker is removing the
frequently when climbers suffer from overexertion. guardrail, receiving the material, and replacing the
guardrail. Too often, guardrails are removed to receive
5.4 Guardrails
materials and then not replaced. Many workers have fallen
Failing to use guardrails is one of the main reasons for because other workers have left unguarded openings on
falls from scaffold platforms. Manufacturers of frame scaffold platforms.
18 – 8
SCAFFOLDS
Figure 5.6
GUARDRAILS
Swivel clamps on
side of guardrail
Right-angle clamps
on corners of
guardrail
Tube-and-clamp
Posts fastened to frame with
guardrail system
parallel clamps
18 – 9
SCAFFOLDS
6 ERECTING AND DISMANTLING Do not use blocking or packing such as bricks, short
pieces of lumber, or other scrap materials either
SCAFFOLDS under scaffold feet or under mudsills (Figure 6.2). If
the scaffold is subjected to heavy loading, bricks or blocks
6.1 General can break. Vibration can cause blocking to move or shift,
Scaffolds should always be erected under the supervision leaving a scaffold leg unsupported. In such conditions the
of a competent worker. Although scaffold systems vary scaffold can topple when heavy loads are applied.
between manufacturers, certain fundamental requirements
Figure 6.2
are common to all scaffold systems. Frame scaffolds over IMPROPER SUPPORT
15 metres (50 feet) in height, and tube-and-clamp and
systems scaffolds over 10 metres (33 feet), must be
designed by a professional engineer. Supervisors must
ensure that the scaffolds are constructed in accordance
with that design.
6.1.1 Foundations and Support Surfaces
Scaffolds must be erected on surfaces that can
adequately support all loads applied by the scaffold. To
support scaffolds, backfilled soils must be well compacted
and levelled. Mud and soft soil should be replaced with
compacted gravel or crushed stone. Embankments that
appear unstable or susceptible to erosion by rain must be
contained. Otherwise, the scaffold must be set far enough
back to avoid settlement or failure of the embankment.
Where mudsills must
be placed on sloping
ground, levelling the
area should be done,
wherever possible, by
excavating rather than
backfilling (Figure 6.1).
In some cases it may
be necessary to use Take particular care when erecting scaffolds on frozen
half-frames ground. Thawing soil is often water-soaked, resulting in
to accommodate grade considerable loss of bearing capacity. You must take
changes. For these thawing into account when tarps or other covers will be
situations the placed around a scaffold and the enclosure will be
side bracing is usually heated.
provided by using tube-
and-clamp If the scaffold is inside a building, preparing the foundation
components. may mean
Floors are usually • clearing away debris or construction materials and
adequate to support equipment stored in the way
scaffold loads of • using sills or placing shoring under old wooden floors.
workers, tools, and
Figure 6.1 For a scaffold on the outside of a building, preparing the
light materials. As MUDSILL ON SLOPING GROUND foundation may include
loads become greater,
floors, especially the • replacing mud and soft ground with gravel or crushed
older wooden types, should be examined to ensure that stone
they will support the anticipated loads. In some cases, • levelling and compacting loose backfill
shoring below the floor and directly under the scaffold • stabilizing or protecting embankments
legs may be necessary. In other situations, you may need • providing protection against erosion from rain or
sills that span the floor support structure. thawing
• using mudsills.
Scaffolds erected on any type of soil should have a
mudsill. At minimum the mudsill should be a 48 mm x Foundation preparation is important with any scaffold. It is
248 mm (2" x 10") plank (full size) and should be especially important when scaffolds will be heavily loaded,
continuous under at least two consecutive supports. The as in masonry work. Differential settlement may damage
scaffold feet should rest centrally on the mudsill and the scaffold components even if no serious incident or
sill should, where possible, project at least 300 mm collapse occurs.
(1 foot) beyond the scaffold foot at the ends. Mudsills may
be placed either along the length or across the width of
the frames.
18 – 10
SCAFFOLDS
6.1.2 Inspection
Scaffold materials should be inspected before use for
• damage to structural components
• damage to hooks on manufactured platforms
• splits, knots, and dry rot in planks
• delamination in laminated veneer lumber planks
• presence of all necessary components for the job
• compatibility of components.
Structural components which are bent, damaged, or
severely rusted should not be used. Similarly, platforms
with damaged hooks should not be used until properly
repaired. Planks showing damage should be discarded
and removed from the site so that they cannot be used for
platform material.
6.1.3 Location
Before erecting a scaffold, check the location for
• ground conditions
• overhead wires
Figure 6.3
• obstructions WELL WHEEL AND DAVIT
• variation in surface elevation
• tie-in locations and methods.
Checking the location thoroughly beforehand will eliminate The use of forklifts or other mechanical means of hoisting
many of the problems that develop during erection and scaffold materials has become more common particularly
will allow erection to proceed smoothly, efficiently, and in masonry applications. The use of this type of equipment
safely. greatly reduces the potential for overexertion injuries due
6.1.4 Base Plates to lifting and pulling. However, extra precaution must be
taken to prevent powerline contact and other potential
Base plates and adjustable screw jacks should be used hazards such as overloading.
whether the scaffold is outside on rough ground or indoors
on a smooth level surface. Base plates should be centred 6.1.7 Tie-ins
on the width of the sill and nailed securely after the first Scaffolds must be tied in to a structure or otherwise
tier has been erected. Sills may run either across the stabilized —in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions
width or along the length of the scaffold depending on and the Construction Regulation—as erection progresses.
grade conditions and other factors. Generally, bearing Leaving such items as tie-ins or positive connections until
capacity will be increased by running sills longitudinally the scaffold is completely erected will not save time if it
because the sill has more contact with the ground. results in an accident or injury. Moreover, in most
6.1.5 Plumb jurisdictions it is prohibited. For further information on tie-
in requirements see Section 7.6.
When the first tier of scaffold has been erected it should
be checked for plumb, alignment, and level. Where 6.1.8 Fall Protection in Scaffold Erection
necessary, adjustments can be made using the screw Providing practical fall protection for workers erecting and
jacks. dismantling scaffold and shoring has been challenging for
Settlement or slight variations in the fit of the components the construction industry.
may require additional adjustments as tiers are added to In Ontario, revised fall protection requirements (Section 26
the scaffold tower. Braces should fit easily if the scaffold of the Construction Regulation) were introduced in June
tower is level. If braces do not fit easily it is an indication 2000 and require that workers erecting, using, or
that the scaffold is out of plumb or out of alignment. dismantling scaffolds must be protected from falling by
6.1.6 Hoisting Materials using guardrails, travel restraint, fall-restricting systems, or
fall-arrest systems.
Where scaffolds will be more than three frames high, a
well wheel or “gin” wheel and a hoist arm or davit will For fall protection while workers are using a scaffold as a
make the hoisting of materials easier during erection work platform, the safest solution is guardrails, provided
(Figure 6.3). they can be erected safely. Workers involved in erecting or
dismantling scaffolds face a different challenge. Erecting
While materials can be pulled up by rope without these guardrails and using fall-arrest equipment requires
devices, the well wheel and hoist arm allow the hoisting to specialized procedures since normally there is nothing
be done by workers on the ground. This is much safer and above the erector on which to anchor the fall protection
eliminates the risk of workers falling from the scaffold system. For suggestions, see CSAO’s Scaffolds and
platform as they pull materials up by rope. Loads lifted by Frame Shoring Towers: Fall Protection, which you can
a well wheel should normally be no more than 50 kg download from www.csao.org.
(100 lb.) unless special structural provisions are made.
18 – 11
SCAFFOLDS
18 – 12
SCAFFOLDS
6.2.5 Guardrails The scaffold must start with a set of ledgers and transoms
immediately above the base plates. This is necessary to
Guardrails must be installed at each working level as the
hold the base plates in their proper position. The typical
scaffold is erected and also at the top level of the scaffold.
erection sequence for a simple tower is shown in Figure
This is recommended for all scaffolds regardless of height.
6.6. Each vertical and horizontal member should be
Although you do not require guardrails until scaffolds are
checked with a spirit level as erection proceeds.
2.4 metres (8 feet) high, a considerable number of severe
injuries and even fatalities are due to falls from lower
scaffolds.
Some manufacturers have recently introduced temporary
guardrails workers can use when erecting scaffolds. A
guardrail can be set in position from the previous level
and can provide a protected work platform for the worker
to install the next level of components. Each type of
guardrail has a unique design and system of attachment
to the scaffold.
Figure 6.5 shows one example of an “advanced guardrail”
with the platform fully enclosed. The guardrail is
positioned on a bracket which is mounted from below on
the outside of the scaffold, and does not interfere with the
placement of subsequent frames and braces. As the
scaffold goes up the guardrail may be raised as well, or
left in position to form the permanent guardrail. The
erector must use another fall protection method—
permanent guardrails or a full body harness with
a lanyard attached to the scaffold—while moving either
the platforms or the temporary guardrail.
Figure 6.5
ADVANCED TEMPORARY GUARDRAIL
Figure 6.6
Bracket mounted ERECTION OF TUBE-AND-CLAMP SCAFFOLD
on frame to
accept guardrail
6.3.2 Materials and Components
The tubing normally used for tube-and-clamp scaffolding
in Ontario is schedule 40, 1.9” OD (11/2 ID) aluminum pipe
manufactured of either 6061 or 6063 alloys.
Clamps are usually made of steel and have a variety of
configurations. Depending on the manufacturer, clamps
can be fastened using wedges, bolts, or other methods.
The following types are used.
• Right-Angle Clamp—a clamp used for connecting
tubes at right angles. They maintain the right-angled
6.3 ERECTING TUBE-and-CLAMP SCAFFOLDS orientation providing rigidity to the structure.
Most of the general rules that apply to frame scaffolding • End-to-End Clamp—an externally applied clamp to
also apply to tube-and-clamp scaffolding. The connect two tubes end-to-end.
requirements for mudsills, platforms, and guardrails are • Swivel Clamp—a clamp used to connect two tubes
exactly the same for both types. when right-angle clamps cannot be used. They
usually connect bracing.
The most important difference between the two is the • Parallel Clamp—a clamp used for lap jointing two
additional degree of skill and knowledge necessary to tubes together. It can be used to connect short
erect tube-and-clamp scaffolds safely and efficiently. guardrail posts to the standards or legs of frame
Tube-and-clamp scaffolds should not be erected by an scaffolds.
unskilled or inexperienced crew. Basic terms are identified • Concrete Tie Clamp—a clamp used to connect a
in Figure 6.6. tube to concrete or other surfaces using a bolt or
6.3.1 General Requirements concrete anchor.
Tube-and-clamp scaffolds are erected plumb and level like These and other devices are shown in Figure 6.8
frame scaffolds but the erection system is quite different. depicting a typical tube-and-clamp scaffold.
18 – 13
SCAFFOLDS
Before using clamps, check them carefully for damage to every third standard horizontally. The tie-in tube should be
wedges or threads on bolts and distortion of the clamp body. connected to both standards or both ledgers, near the
standard to provide rigidity. Connections should be made
6.3.3 Spacing of Standards
with right-angle clamps. Tie-ins should be capable of
The spacing of standards depends on the load-carrying withstanding both tension (pull) and compression (push)
requirements of the scaffold. Wherever possible, tube-and- forces (Figure 6.8).
clamp scaffolding should have bay and elevation spacing
6.3.8 Bracing
of about 2 metres (6'-6") longitudinally and vertically. This
allows for the front sway bracing to be located at Internal bracing (Figure 6.8) is connected standard-to-
approximately 45° to the horizontal. It also facilitates the standard using swivel clamps. It should be clamped as
use of 5-metre (16-foot) planks with adequate overhang. close to the node as possible. Internal bracing should
The width of these platforms can vary but is usually normally be placed at every third standard. The location
approximately 1 metre (3 feet). This spacing allows the should coincide with tie-in points. You should also install
aluminum tubing specified earlier to carry normal bracing for tube-and-clamp scaffolding as erection
construction loads adequately. An advantage of tube-and- progresses.
clamp scaffolding is that the platform height can be easily
Face sway bracing should be installed to the full height of
adjusted to the most appropriate level for the work being
the scaffold. It may be located in a single bay or extend
done.
across several bays (Figure 6.7). Where the bracing is
6.3.4 Ledgers and Transoms located in single bays it should be in the end bays and at
least in every fourth bay longitudinally. In practice, it
Ledgers should be connected to standards using right-
becomes difficult to get bracing close enough to the node
angle clamps. These clamps maintain a rigid 90° angle
points if it extends more than four bays in width (see ends
between members.
of bracing in Figure 6.7).
Transoms should be placed above the ledgers and both
should be maintained in a horizontal position by levelling
with a spirit level. Transoms may be connected to either
standards or ledgers by using right-angle clamps.
6.3.5 Joints in Standards and Ledgers
Joints in standards and ledgers should be made with end-
to-end clamps. These joints should be as close to the
node points as the clamp arrangements will allow. Joints
in vertically-adjacent ledgers should not occur in the same
bay but should be staggered to provide rigidity.
A node point is the point at which the ledger-to-standard,
transom-to-standard, and bracing-to-standard connections
come together. An example of a node point is shown in
Figure 4.7 and below.
Node point
18 – 14
SCAFFOLDS
Figure 6.8
COMPLETED TUBE-AND-CLAMP SCAFFOLD
Maximum 6'-6"
Reveal
tie Push-
pull
tie
End-to-end
clamps
Note: Face
End-to-end sway
joints in ledgers bracing
should be close
to standards and Internal
in staggered bays. bracing Ledgers fixed to standards with right-angle
2" x 10" clamps – maximum vertical spacing 6'-6".
Timber sills
Where the platform will be more than 10 metres (33 feet) manufacturer. Typical connections are shown in Figure
high or where unusual structures such as cantilevered 6.9, although others are available. An end-to-end
platforms are involved, a professional engineer must connection, normally a spigot, is formed at one end to
design the scaffold. A professional engineer or a facilitate extension of the standard.
competent worker must inspect the scaffold before it is
Starter Collars are short standards with one set of
used to ensure that it is erected in accordance with the
system rings or rosettes attached. They are convenient to
design drawings.
use because they allow one person to put the first set of
6.4 ERECTION of SYSTEMS SCAFFOLDS transoms and ledgers in place easily (Figure 6.10).
Erection of systems scaffold is very similar to that of tube- Ledgers or Runners for each system are available in
and-clamp scaffold. The requirements for mudsills, varying lengths and have built-in connection devices for
platforms, and guardrails are the same as is the connecting to the standards. The connection is secured by
requirement for being built level and plumb. The main wedging, bolting, or by other methods.
differences are the method of connecting individual
Transoms or Bearers are made wide enough for four or
members together and the fact that all the members are
five planks. They normally have end connections similar to
of a fixed length. As with tube-and-clamp scaffolds, all
those of ledgers and connect directly to the standard.
systems scaffolds above 10 metres (33 feet) must be
Normally transoms have a lip or groove—particular to the
designed by a professional engineer.
individual manufacturer—designed to accommodate the
6.4.1 Components platform.
Standards come in a variety of lengths and have a variety Braces are made in set lengths to fit the scaffold being
of built-in connection points at equal distances along their constructed, with connections at both ends to fit directly
length. These connectors are normally between 450 and onto the connection point on the standard.
500 mm (18 and 21 inches) apart depending on the
18 – 15
SCAFFOLDS
When the scaffold is square and level you should tighten the
connections and nail the base plates to the mudsills.
At this point set up an erection platform for installing the
standards for the next lift. You now install the second level
ledgers and transoms as well as the deck.
You must install ledger bracing at the ends of all system
scaffolds and at intervals according to the manufacturers’
recommendations. Each brace will be the correct length
for the span being braced and should be connected to the
attachment point on the standard.
You must install face or sway bracing according to manu-
facturers’ instructions. Again, attachment points are set on
Figure 6.9 the standards, and the braces come in specific lengths for
TYPICAL SYSTEMS SCAFFOLD CONNECTORS the span of the scaffold being constructed. Normally,
every third bay is braced for sway.
Platform boards (also called staging) come in a variety of
lengths and widths. They fit directly into the transoms and Figure 6.10 outlines the typical erection procedure for
can be secured to prevent wind uplift. To facilitate systems scaffold.
climbing, some platforms have trap doors with built-in 6.4.3 Tie-ins
drop-down ladders.
Systems scaffolds must be tied in to structures using the
6.4.2 Erection Procedure 3-to-1 rule as with other scaffolds. Some manufacturers
The foundation for systems scaffolds should be prepared have special adjustable ties which connect directly into the
in the same way as other types of scaffolding, ensuring a standards, while others use a tube-and-clamp method to
firm level base, and using mudsills, base plates, and tie in to the structure. Anchors attached to the structure
adjustable screw jacks. are the same as in frame or tube-and-clamp scaffolds.
The base plates should be laid out in what you estimate is 6.4.4 Guardrails
the correct location. We recommend starter collars since Generally, guardrails are installed at all working levels.
they allow scaffolds to be laid out level and square. These guardrail components come in modular lengths and
The first level of transoms and ledgers should be placed on are made from lighter materials than the ledgers. They
the starter collars and be levelled using the screw jacks. attach directly to the connection points on the standards.
Ledger
Transom
Transom
Ledger
Face
bracing
Ledger
Bracing
Figure 6.10
ERECTION SEQUENCE OF TYPICAL SYSTEMS SCAFFOLD
18 – 16
SCAFFOLDS
18 – 17
SCAFFOLDS
18 – 18
SCAFFOLDS
Table 8.1
Layers
of Planks
150 No. 1 No. 1
PER SQUARE FOOT lbs.
UNIFORM LOAD
SEL
100 No. 1 STR No. 1
lbs.
75 No. 1 No. 1
lbs.
50 No. 1 No. 1
lbs.
SEL SEL
4000 No. 1 No. 1
4'X4' PALLET LOADS
STR STR
(POUNDS)
No. 1 SEL
2430 STR No. 1
18 – 19
SCAFFOLDS
The advantage of aluminum/plywood platform panels is it is usually lighter and therefore easier to handle than
that they are light and durable. Worn-out plywood can Douglas fir. Table 8.1 provides maximum loads based on
easily be replaced. However, they are expensive and the unit stresses from Canadian Standards Association
hooks on most models can be damaged if dropped from Standard 086.1-1994 “Engineering Design in Wood” for
the scaffold repeatedly during dismantling. Check the Number 1 and select structural SPF plank platforms.
platform hooks and fastening hardware regularly for Sawn lumber planks must be stamped by the
looseness, cracking, and distortion. When used outdoors, manufacturer identifying them as scaffold planks.
these platforms should be secured to the scaffold frames
Since wood planks deteriorate they must be regraded
using wind locks. Otherwise, when left unloaded, they can
and culled periodically. For most situations, visual grading
be blown off the scaffold by strong winds.
is recommended. Scaffold planks must be inspected
8.3 Laminated Veneer Lumber regularly because they deteriorate with use and age, and
are subject to damage. Figure 8.2 illustrates defects to
This material is really a special type of exterior plywood
look for when inspecting planks. Cull out planks with large
with laminations oriented longitudinally rather than in two
knots in the edge, spike knots, checks, wanes, worm
directions. The wood is usually spruce or Douglas fir,
holes, and steeply sloping grain patterns. Planks with
although other structural species can be used. The
these defects should not be used as scaffold material and
material is manufactured in large sheets of various
should be destroyed. Scaffold planks can also be
thicknesses that can be sawn to the sizes required.
weakened by dry rot. It is not easy to notice this condition
The use of laminated veneer lumber as a scaffold platform in its early stages, especially if the exterior of the planks is
material is increasing. The strength varies from weathered. Planks substantially infected with dry rot are
manufacturer to manufacturer depending on method of usually lighter than sound planks of similar size and
fabrication and species of wood used. Users of the species. For this reason do not use planks which feel
material should ask suppliers to furnish rated working lighter than normal.
loads for the scaffold spans on which the lumber will be Figure 8.2
used. In general, the material will be stronger than sawn DEFECTS IN LUMBER PLANKS
lumber scaffold planks of similar size and species. The
strength is also more uniform than sawn lumber.
Like all lumber and plywood, laminated veneer lumber is Worm Hole
subject to deterioration from weathering and rot. It must Split
therefore be inspected periodically. Sections showing
delamination, cracks, serious damage to several layers of
Sap Line
lamination, fungi, or blisters should be discarded.
8.4 Sawn Lumber Planks Spike Knot
Rough sawn planks 48 mm x 248 mm (2 inches by 10
inches) or larger have been the standard scaffold platform
material for many years. They are also the least expensive Wane
of the common platform materials. Dressed lumber
Check
should never be used for scaffold platforms.
The proper use of planks on a scaffold or other work 8.5 Reinforcing Wood Planks
platform is governed by the Construction Regulation Wood planks may be reinforced with metal nailer strips or
under Ontario’s Occupational Health and Safety Act. The plates. Research conducted by the Construction Safety
regulation specifies that wooden planks used on a Association of Ontario has indicated that the strength of
scaffold must weaker planks may be increased considerably by this
• be number 1 grade spruce technique but it should only be used to increase the strength
• bear a legible stamp or be permanently identified as of planks that are of the proper grade. Do not use this as a
being number 1 grade spruce method of upgrading inferior grades for scaffold use.
• be at least 48 mm by 248 mm (17/8" x 93/4") The advantages of strengthening planks by this method
• be arranged so their span does not exceed 2.1 are twofold:
metres (7 feet) • planks are not as likely to be cut up or used for
• overhang their supports by no less than 150 mm (6") purposes other than scaffold planks
and no more than 300 mm (12") • you have additional assurance that poorer quality
• be laid tightly side by side across the full width of the planks undetected in the grading process will not
scaffold at the working level break prematurely causing an accident.
• be cleated or otherwise secured against slipping
• be capable of carrying any load likely to be applied WARNING: Nailer plates should not be placed over
and as a minimum be capable of carrying 2.4 the portion of the plank resting on the scaffold
kilonewtons per square metre (50lb./sq. ft). support—unless cleats are used to prevent the plank
from sliding—since there is little friction between the
It is recommended that planks should meet or exceed the bearing surfaces.
requirements for select structural grades of the species Take care when handling planks reinforced in this way
group used, which should be either spruce-pine-fir (SPF) since sharp edges can cut your hands.
or Douglas fir. Although the SPF group has less strength,
18 – 20
SCAFFOLDS
Figure 8.3
PLANK REINFORCED WITH NAILER PLATES
If you have overlapping planks, the cleated end should be We discussed ladder access in Section 5.3. The ladder
resting on the scaffold support. Be aware that the must be properly erected with rails projecting 1 metre (3
overlapped section presents a tripping hazard (Figure 8.5). feet) above the platform of the scaffold. You should clear
debris, extension cords, and tools away from areas
Figure 8.5
around the top and bottom of ladders. Store materials
OVERLAPPING PLANKS FOR MULTI-SPAN TOWERS
away from these locations.
Falls often happen when workers are getting on or off the
ladder at the platform level. Both hands must be free to
Note:
Cleat only hold guardrails or ladder rails. Do not carry tools or
one end of materials by hand when climbing ladders. Wear a tool belt
each plank. and pouch and move material up or down by rope.
You should always place portable straight ladders with an
adequate slope and secure them to the scaffold structure
(Figure 5.5).
Always use three-point contact (Figure 9.1) when climbing
ladders. This means using two hands and one foot, or two
feet and one hand, to maintain contact with the ladder at all
times. Always face the ladder when climbing and always
keep your centre of gravity between the two ladder rails.
For more information, refer to the Ladders chapter of this
8.7 Wind Uplift manual.
Wind can lift light platform materials from the scaffold if 9.2 Guardrails Missing or Removed
they are not secured. When you anticipate severe wind
conditions or when you are using high scaffolds, you There may be situations where scaffolds must be used
should secure platform materials such as without guardrails. If the scaffold is more than one frame
aluminum/plywood panels to the scaffold. With some types or tier in height and there are no guardrails, personnel on
of platform panels you can do this with wire or nails. the platform must tie off with a full body harness and
18 – 21
SCAFFOLDS
Figure 9.1
lanyard (Figure 9.2). Many falls and serious injuries occur
THREE-POINT CONTACT when workers use platforms without guardrails. Any
worker who removes a guardrail for any reason must
replace it when the task is completed.
9.3 Standing on Objects Above the Platform
People working from the platform should have both feet
on the platform. Standing on a barrel, box, stepladder,
guardrail, or other object to gain extra height is extremely
dangerous and is illegal in most jurisdictions, including
Ontario. You should know the required height of the
scaffold before erecting it, so you can obtain all the
required material, including half frames when necessary.
9.4 Overloading
Overloading scaffold platforms in the masonry trades is
one of the most frequent violations of good scaffold
practice. Placing full pallets of bricks or concrete blocks on
a single layer of 48 mm x 254 mm (2" x 10") scaffold
planks is, in most cases, overloading the platform. You
may have to double plank decks to support pallets of
masonry materials. Place the pallets over the supports
wherever possible. In addition, inspect planks used to
support masonry materials for damage or for
Note: Vertical ladders above 3 metres in deterioration regularly and often. Table 8.1 indicates the
height must have a safety cage beginning 2.2 load-carrying capacities of various grades of plank. Table
metres above the ground or platform. 9.1 lists the approximate weights of common building
The cage is omitted here for clarity.
materials. Bear in mind overloading may affect stability as
well as load-carrying capacity.
Differential settlement is often a problem when you apply
heavy loads to scaffolds resting on uncompacted soils. A
scaffold tower 9 metres (30 feet) high that settles 25
millimetres (1 inch) on one side can move 150 millimetres
(6 inches) at the top. Settlement puts stress on braces,
tie-ins, and frame joints. Place heavy loads symmetrically
on the platform to ensure that soil settlement is uniform.
Finally, the scaffold structure must be capable of carrying
the load that you will apply. Both light-duty and heavy-duty
frames are available on the market. Do not use light-duty
frames where you have heavy loads. If you do not know
the load-carrying capacity of the frames, consult the
manufacturer or supplier. The load-carrying capacity of
frames usually varies with the height of the towers.
9.5 Debris on Scaffold Decks
Scaffold decks are small, narrow, and confined. Store
tools and materials in an orderly fashion. Do not allow
debris and waste materials to collect on the platform. Put
them in a container or remove them from the platform
immediately. Set up a plan for dealing with waste
materials. Simply throwing garbage off the scaffold is
extremely dangerous—don’t do it. If work on the scaffold
is likely to result in debris falling, such as in masonry
work, then cordon off the scaffold to prevent workers from
entering the area.
Figure 9.2
Waste pieces of lumber, pipe, wire, miscellaneous metal,
FALL PROTECTION WITHOUT GUARDRAILS
and small tools are tripping hazards which have caused
18 – 22
SCAFFOLDS
Decontamination Trailer
ASBESTOS REMOVAL
Table 9.1
18 – 23
SCAFFOLDS
18 – 24
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
19 ELEVATING WORK Figure 1.2 shows one example of controls. Although fixed
to the platform, the controls are moveable from one side
PLATFORMS of the platform to the other. This enables the operator to
see the path of travel.
Basic Types
The controls must be oriented correctly so that the
There are two basic types of elevating work platforms— operator does not inadvertently move the machine in the
boom and scissor. Both types come in wrong direction. Many machines have colour-coded
• on-slab models for use on smooth hard surfaces such directional arrows on the chassis to aid the operator in
as concrete or pavement moving the machine.
• rough-terrain models for use on firm level surfaces
such as graded and compacted soil or gravel.
Both types share three major components: base, lifting
Controls
mechanism, and platform assembly. 1. Emergency stop button
Scissor-Type Machines 2. Choke
3. Glow plugs (diesel engines
These are raised and lowered by hydraulic pistons and an only)
expanding scissor mechanism. Platforms are available in 4. Stop/start switch
various configurations with different capabilities for 5. Run/idle switch
6. Lift up/down switch
extension and movement. Some have extendable 7. Drive high range/low range
platforms or platforms that can rotate. Extendable switch
platforms should be retracted before raising or lowering 8. Forward/reverse joystick
the device. Typical machines are illustrated in Figure 1.1. 9. Left/right steer switch
10. Traversing deck out/in
On-slab units switch
11. Outriggers up/down switch
- not designed for uneven or sloping ground
- normally have solid rubber tires
- generally powered by rechargeable DC battery
- some powered by internal combustion engine, either
Figure 1.2: Example of controls on scissor-type platforms
gasoline or propane
- most have “pothole protection”—a metal plate lowered
Self-Propelled Boom-Supported Platforms
close to the ground to afford some protection against
inadvertent movement into depressions or debris. - normally fitted with rough-terrain undercarriages
- some smaller on-slab units
- platforms have lifting capacity of about 227 kg (500
pounds) or two workers
- lack capacity of scissor-type machines; not intended
for lifting materials
- usually powered by an internal combustion engine,
gasoline, diesel, or propane.
Booms
- telescopic, articulating, or
combination of both
- raised and extended by hydraulic
cylinders
Figure 1.1: Scissor-type powered platforms - can reach up to 45 metres (150
feet)
Rough-terrain units
- can extend well beyond the
- similar in design to on-slab machines wheelbase.
- built to handle rigorous off-slab challenges
- normally have wider wheel bases, larger wheels, and
pneumatic tires
- some fitted with outriggers for extra stability
- usually powered by internal combustion engines,
gasoline, diesel, or propane
- DC units also available but not common
- lifting mechanism is hydraulic.
Figure 1.3: Boom-type powered platforms
Scissor-type machines range in capacity from 500 to
Figure 1.4 shows one example of controls for a boom
several thousand pounds. They are available with platform
machine. Although controls are fixed in position, the
heights often reaching 15 metres (50 feet) and beyond.
operator may become disoriented by machine rotation and
Scissor-type machines must be set up on stable level must remain aware of the direction of movement. Many
ground, even with outriggers deployed. A slight machines have colour-coded directional arrows to help the
imbalance or instability is amplified when the machine operator move the machine in the right direction.
is raised.
19 – 1
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
19 – 2
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
- platforms don’t usually exceed 11 metres (36 feet) in Overhead powerline contact
height Contacting overhead wires can cause electrocution. This
- as platform is raised, risk of overturning increases can happen with any type of machine—and with the loads
- extra care required when operating at maximum carried by or overhanging the machine.
height.
Makeshift extensions
When the machine can’t reach the working height desired,
Selection don’t compensate by using scaffold planks, ladders,
Elevating work platforms are designed for different uses. It blocks of wood, or other makeshift arrangements. Such
is essential to select the right machine for the job. practices lead to falls and machine instability.
Typical Mistakes Overloading the platform
EWPs overloaded or loaded unevenly can become
• using an on-slab machine on rough terrain unstable and fail. Boom-type machines are especially
• using a unit undersized with respect to height, reach, sensitive to overloading. Always stay within the operating
and lifting capacity range specified by the manufacturer.
• lifting large materials that overhang the platform
• using a scissor lift where the reach of a boom-type Failure to cordon off
machine is needed - EWPs have been struck by other construction
• extending the platform with planks, ladders, or other equipment or oncoming traffic when the work area is
devices because the machine can’t reach the required not properly marked or cordoned off.
height. - Workers have been injured when they inadvertently
entered an unmarked area and were struck by falling
Factors to Consider material, tools, or debris.
- In unmarked areas, workers have also been injured by
Capacity – Does the machine have the lifting capacity,
swinging booms and pinched by scissor mechanisms.
the reach, and the height to complete the task?
Accidental contact
Surface conditions – Are the surface conditions hard or
Many EWPs have blind spots. Moving the machine or
soft, sloped or level? Will the ground have an effect on the
platform may cause contact with workers or with obstacles.
type of machine selected?
Use a designated signaller on the ground to guide the
Platform size and configuration – Do you need a operator when the path of travel isn’t clear or access is tight.
regular or extendable platform? Is rotation required? Are
Improper maintenance or modifications
there space restrictions to consider?
EWPs should be maintained by competent workers in
Mobility – Is a boom type better suited than a scissor lift accordance with manufacturer’s instructions. No
to the task at hand? modifications should be made to the machine without the
manufacturer’s approval.
Material to be lifted – Will the machine be able to lift the
size and weight of material required for the job? Improper blocking during maintenance
Failing to block, or improperly blocking the machine,
Access – Will the machine be able to travel around the
boom, or platform can cause serious crushing injuries and
workplace safely? Are there obstructions or depressions
property damage.
that will restrict the use of certain machines?
Improper access
Operator skill or training – Are the people on site
Don’t enter or leave the platform by climbing the scissors or
competent to operate the machine? If a propane-powered
the boom. Don’t use extension ladders to gain access.
engine is used, has the operator received propane
Ladders exert lateral loads on the platform that can cause
training?
overturning. For the safest access, lower the machine
Work environment – If the work is to be done indoors or completely.
in a poorly ventilated area, will an electrically powered
Moving with platform raised
machine be required?
Lower the platform before moving the machine unless
Basic Hazards 1) the machine is designed to move with platform raised and
2) the supporting surface is smooth and level. Slight dips
The following are some basic hazards. and drops are amplified when the platform is raised and
Machine tipping or overturning can cause the machine to overturn.
Many factors cause instability—sudden stops, Improper refuelling
depressions, drop-offs, overreaching, overloading, etc. Take care when refuelling. Gasoline, for instance, should
Overturning and tipping result in many fatalities and be kept in approved containers and dispensed to prevent
injuries. spills and sparking.
Overriding safety features Pinch points
Disarming features such as the tilt or level warning and Clothing, fingers, and hands can get caught in scissor
the deadman switch can prevent operators from knowing mechanisms. As platforms are raised, machines may
when they are in a dangerous situation. Overriding the sway. Workers can be pinched between guardrails and the
deadman switch has resulted in a fatality; so has structure. Position the platform so that work takes place
malfunction of the tilt warning. above guardrail height.
19 – 3
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
• The devices must be checked each day before use by Stability and Tipping
a trained worker [section 144(3)(b)].
• The owner or supplier must keep a log of all In general, EWPs are well manufactured and are safe to
inspections, tests, repairs, modifications, and use within their specific limitations. As with any equipment
maintenance [section 145(2)]. or tool, there are do’s and don’ts to follow.
• The log must be kept up to date and include names
One of the most dangerous hazards in operating EWPs is
and signatures of persons who performed inspections
and other work [section 145(3)]. tipping over. This can be caused by one or several of the
• A maintenance and inspection tag must be attached following factors:
near the operator’s station and include the date of the • sudden movement of the unit or parts of the unit when
last maintenance and inspection and the name and elevated
signature of the person who performed the work • sudden stopping when elevated
[section 146]. • overloading or uneven loading of the platform
• Workers must be given oral and written instruction • travelling or operating on a slope or uneven terrain
before using the platform for the first time. Instruction • changing the weight distribution of the machine by
must include items to be checked daily before use replacing parts with others of a different weight or
[section 147]. adding attachments not approved by the manufacturer
• All workers on the platform must wear a full body • holes or drop-offs in the floor surface causing one
harness or a safety belt attached to the platform while wheel to drop suddenly
the platform is being moved [section 148(e)]. • operating the equipment in windy conditions (refer to
The health and safety responsibilities of all parties on a the operator’s manual for safe operating conditions).
construction site are outlined in the “green book”—the It is important that users understand what makes a
Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations for platform stable and what causes it to overturn. To
Construction Projects. understand stability, one must understand the concept of
Because elevating work platforms are often rented from centre of gravity, tipping axis (or tipping point), and forces
an equipment supplier, there is confusion as to the that shift the centre of gravity.
responsibilities of the parties involved. Generally, the Stability is resistance against tipping over. Stability
responsibilities can be summarized in the following way. depends on the location of the centre of gravity in relation
The owner or supplier must ensure that the machine to the tipping axis.
• is in good condition Centre of Gravity
• complies with regulations
Every object has a centre of gravity. It is
• is maintained in good condition
the point where the object’s weight would
• conforms to the appropriate CSA Standard
be evenly distributed or balanced. If a
• includes the correct load rating charts if required.
support is placed under that point, the
The employer and supervisor on the project must object would be perfectly balanced.
19 – 4
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
19 – 5
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
On the platform, check • the nominal voltage rating of the batteries, if battery-
powered
✓ Platform assembly for loose and missing parts, • a warning to study the operating manual before using
missing or loose lock pins and bolts the equipment
• a notice outlining the required inspections
✓ Platform floor for structural damage, holes, or
• diagrams or description of the various configurations
cracked welds and any dirt, grease, or oil that in which the platform can be used
can create a hazard • the capacity in each configuration
✓ Operator’s manual to make sure it’s in place • a statement as to whether or not the platform is
insulated
✓ Extendable platform deck for ease of • warnings against replacing, without the manufacturer’s
extension/retraction and proper function of consent, components critical to the machine’s
locking position of platform stability—for example, batteries or ballasted tires with
lighter weight components (the minimum weights of
✓ Guardrails to make sure they’re in place such components must be specified).
✓ Access gate for ease of movement, missing
Many of these signs are vital
parts, latch, and locking capabilities to the operation of the
✓ All fall protection anchorage points machine and the protection
of workers. All signs and
✓ All control mechanisms for broken or missing decals must be kept clear of
parts dust and grease so they can
be easily read. Torn or
✓ All emergency controls for proper function—
damaged signs must be
stopping, descending, master OFF switch replaced. A typical warning
✓ All safety devices such as tilt and motion alarms sign is shown in Figure 5.1.
for malfunction CSA standards also require
that the manufacturer provide
✓ Swivels for freedom of rotation
a manual containing the
✓ Scissors for smooth movement up and down following information: Figure 5.1
19 – 6
ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS
the constructor is required to have written procedures Never operate equipment on which you have not been
in place to prevent equipment from encroaching on trained or which you are not comfortable operating.
the minimum distance. Copies of the procedures must The safety of you and others on site depends on the
be available for every employer on the project. competent, knowledgeable operation of equipment.
See section 188 of the Construction Regulation for
further requirements. Work Area Inspection
• Allow for movement or sway of the lines as well as the
platform. Be aware of overhanging tools or equipment. Before operating the EWP, check the work
area for
Voltage Rating of Powerline Minimum Distance
750 to 150,000 volts 3 metres (10 feet)
✓ drop-offs or holes in the ground
19 – 7
SUSPENDED ACCESS
20 SUSPENDED ACCESS
EQUIPMENT
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Equipment types, limitations, and applications
3. Components and rigging
4. Set-up and operation
5. Fall protection
6. Checklists
1 INTRODUCTION
Suspended access equipment of various kinds has been
used in construction and restoration for many years. With
the increase in high-rise construction there has been a
corresponding increase in the number and diversity of
applications for this equipment. Unfortunately, there has also
been an increase in the number of injuries and fatalities.
In an average year, two fatalities and over 100 lost-time
injuries are connected with suspended access equipment
in Ontario construction and window cleaning.
This chapter covers the main types of suspended access Figure 1
Types of Equipment
equipment used in construction, restoration, and Described in this Section
maintenance work. It explains the fundamental
requirements for set-up, rigging, and use; the necessary
provisions for fall arrest; and the importance of assessing
each job carefully in order to select the equipment most
suitable for safe, efficient operation.
2 EQUIPMENT TYPES, LIMITATIONS,
AND APPLICATIONS
Equipment discussed in this section is restricted to
factory-built stages, work cages,
and bosun’s chairs such as the A copy of the design drawings must be kept on the
types shown in Figure 1. project. In addition, a professional engineer must inspect
the suspended scaffold before use and confirm in writing
Unusual or non-conventional
that it has been erected in accordance with the drawings.
arrangements of equipment should
be reviewed by a professional 2.2 Manual Traction Climber Equipped Stage (Figure 2)
engineer to ensure compliance with
For many years this was the predominant type of
applicable standards,
suspended access equipment in the industry. More
regulations, and good
recently it has been replaced by various types of powered
practice. In some
climbers, especially where considerable movement is
cases, the services of
required or heights are greater than 100 feet.
a professional
engineer are required
under the Construction
Regulation (Ontario
Reg. 213/91). Figure 2
Manual Traction Climber Equipped Stage
2.1 Special
Requirements
Tiered stages and
setups where the
suspended platform
and associated
suspended equipment
weigh more than 525
kilograms (1,157 Ib.)
must be designed by a
professional engineer.
20 – 1
SUSPENDED ACCESS
This type of equipment is, however, quite suitable for 2.5 Powered Drum Hoist Climber Equipped Stage
moderate heights where the stage will remain in (Figure 5)
approximately the same position for a reasonable period This equipment is common in the industry today. One
of time and where only limited climbing is required. advantage is that the suspension lines are wound up on
2.3 Drill-Powered Figure 3 the drum of a hoist rather than extending to the ground.
Traction Climber Drill-Powered Traction Climber This keeps the free ends of suspension lines from
Equipped Stage (Figure 3) Equipped Stage crossing, catching on the building, entangling, or
otherwise hindering safe operation. This feature improves
The climbers on these the safety of the equipment. Although not common, other
devices are powered by types of climbers can be equipped with a reel to provide
specially designed the same feature.
electric drills. One
advantage is that they 2.6 Bosun’s Chair (Figure 6)
operate on a 120-volt Bosun’s (or boatswain’s)
power supply. This chairs were used for
eliminates the centuries on ships.
requirement for special
220-volt wiring commonly Originally equipped with a
required on larger rope fall, the chairs required
powered climbers. A considerable physical effort
disadvantage is that the to be raised and lowered.
rate of climb is somewhat Today with descent control
slower than for other devices or powered climbers,
types of powered bosun’s chairs can be used
climbers. for various purposes in
Drills powering the construction, repair,
climbers can be easily Figure 4 maintenance, and
removed and stored Powered Traction Climber inspection.
Equipped Stage
when not in use, In some cases, it may be
eliminating some of the safer and more efficient to
weather damage and Figure 6
use work cages equipped
vandalism that occur with powered climbers.
when other climbing
devices are left Whether equipped with a descent control device or power
outdoors. climber, all bosun’s chairs must use wire rope support
cables if
2.4 Powered Traction
Climber Equipped • the distance from the fixed support to the work
Stage (Figure 4) platform will exceed 90 metres (295 feet)
• corrosive substances are used in the vicinity of the
This is the most support cables, or
common type of • grinding or flame-cutting devices are used in the
powered climber in use vicinity of the support cables.
today. Its fast rate of
climb makes it ideal As with all suspended access equipment, a fall-arrest
where vertical system (Figure 7) is essential with a bosun’s chair. The
distances are large or system must be used at all times when a person is getting
frequent movement is on, working from, or getting off the chair.
required. Usually For more information on fall arrest, see the chapter on
powered by a 220-volt Personal Fall Protection in this manual.
power source, the unit
may require installation
of a temporary
electrical supply depending on Figure 5
location. Powered Drum Hoist Climber
Equipped Stage
Because of the relatively fast rate of
ascent and descent (up to 35 ft/min),
operators must take care that the
stage does not catch on obstructions
such as architectural features and
overload the suspension system. This
caution, of course, applies to all
devices but is most important where
climbers operate at greater speeds.
20 – 2
SUSPENDED ACCESS
Figure 8
Bosun’s Chair with Descent Control Device
2.9 Work Cage with Powered Climber (Figure 10)
20 – 3
SUSPENDED ACCESS
20 – 4
SUSPENDED ACCESS
Most platform structures are manufactured from aluminum beam projection beyond the fulcrum, as discussed in
components for strength, light weight, and easy handling. Section 4.3.
However, aluminum platforms are not recommended
3.5 Wire Rope
where caustic or acidic materials and fumes may be
encountered. In these instances special provisions must For suspension lines on any type of climbing equipment
be made to protect the platform from the particular use only wire rope of the type, size, construction, and
hazardous substance. Where aluminum platforms are grade recommended by the manufacturer of the climbing
exposed to caustic or acidic conditions, they should be unit. The minimum size of steel wire rope used for
rinsed off with clean water regularly and inspected climbing devices on suspended access equipment is 7.8
regularly for signs of degradation or damage. Aluminum mm (5/16 inch) diameter.
stages may be given a protective coating. Figure 16 Bird-Caging
Components of the platform such as the main structure, Wire Rope Defects
handrails, and stirrups should be inspected regularly and
any damage promptly repaired. Only competent persons
should repair the platform structure. Welding repairs should
be done only by a certified welder with the manufacturer’s
approval using proper equipment and procedures.
Connector bolts, brackets, and shackles should be checked Flattened areas indicate wear spots
for wear and torque regularly and often.
3.3 Outrigger Beams
Various types of outrigger beams are in common use.
Most beams are steel while others are aluminum. They Take care to ensure that
have two or sometimes three sectional components to the solid core wire rope
keep them light and portable. intended for some traction
Figure 17
climbers is not replaced
The outrigger beam should be rated to withstand four times Cable Clips
by fibre core wire rope.
the maximum load applied without exceeding its ultimate
The compressibility of the
unit stress. These beams are not indestructible, however,
fibre core can cause the
and should be used only in accordance with the
rope to slip through the
manufacturer’s or supplier’s table of counterweights and
traction climber. Manual
allowable projections beyond the fulcrum for various
traction climbers use a
suspension line loads. Adequate legible instructions for the
wire rope of relatively stiff
use of counterweights must be affixed to the outrigger
construction (usually 6 x
beam.
17). Powered climbers Right
Wrong
It must be understood that outrigger beams have use a more pliable wire
maximum allowable projections beyond the fulcrum rope construction (usually
due to strength limitations. Consult the manufacturer or 6 x 19 or 6 x 31).
supplier if this information is not provided on the equipment.
Wire ropes should be free
Sectional outrigger beams must have a means of of kinks, birdcaging,
preventing pins from loosening and falling out (Figure 15). excessive wear, broken
Otherwise, pins can work loose with movement of the wires, flat spots, or other
stage and action of the climbers. defects (Figure 16).
Beams should be free of any damage, dings or kinks When brazing the end of
since these can reduce structural capacity considerably. wire ropes, cut the core
back 3 or 4 inches short
to allow for movement in the rope and easier threading
through the climber.
Wire ropes may be used as static lines or tieback lines for
outrigger beams. In either case, the wire rope must be
properly secured to adequate anchorage.
Figure 15
Secured Pin in Outrigger Beam The use of secondary safety devices commonly known as
“block stops” simplifies the installation of wire rope tiebacks.
These devices must be installed, used, inspected, and
maintained according to manufacturer’s instructions.
3.4 Counterweights
Cable clips used with wire rope tiebacks or static lines
Counterweights range from 50 to 60 Ib. each. Only manu-
should be the right size and number, torqued up tightly, and
factured counterweights compatible with the outrigger
correctly installed (Figure 17).
beam should be used. The counterweights should have a
means of being secured in place on the beam. An Cable clips must never be used on fibre or synthetic rope
adequate number of counterweights should be available unless the procedure is authorized by the rope
to provide the counterweight capacity required for the manufacturer.
20 – 5
SUSPENDED ACCESS
Table 1 specifies the number of cable clips required for steel (Figure 18). The capacity of these devices for normal
various types and sizes of wire rope commonly used for hoisting purposes is usually based on a safety factor of 5
tiebacks and static lines. Although U-bolt clips are the most and should be stamped on the device. For use with
common, double saddle clips (sometimes called J-clips or suspended access equipment, this capacity must be
fist grips) do not flatten the wire rope and are more divided by two to ensure a safety factor of 10.
appropriate to this application.
3.7 Manual Traction Climbers
Note: Cable clips are not recommended for use on
The mechanical action of these devices is similar to hand-
suspension lines. Loops in suspension lines should
over-hand pulling on a rope. While one mechanism pulls,
have thimbles and be either spliced or secured with a
the other changes position to pull in turn. The jaws of the
mechanically swaged fitting.
device grip the wire without damaging it. They are self-
Table 1 locking. As the load increases, their grip increases—the
greater the load the tighter the grip.
INSTALLATION OF WIRE ROPE CLIPS
Amount of Torque in
Rope Minimum Rope Turn Foot-Pounds STEP 1
Diameter Number Back From
Unlubricated
(inches) of Clips Thimble
(inches) Bolts
5/16 3 11-1/2 30
3/8 3 11-1/2 45
7/16 3 11-1/2 65
APPLY FIRST CLIP – one base width from dead end
1/2 3 11-1/2 65 of wire rope – U-Bolt over dead end – live end rests
9/16 3 12 95 in clip saddle. Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.
5/8 3 12 95
3/4 4 18 130 STEP 2
7/8 4 19 225
20 – 6
SUSPENDED ACCESS
Lifting capacity varies with the size of the device. Check of power failure or other emergency. Workers using the
the manufacturer’s literature to ensure that the capacity is stage should be fully instructed in the operation and
adequate for the load. A maximum load rating for pulling purpose of these devices.
and maximum load rating for hoisting will usually be
Manufacturers usually list a safe working load either on
specified in the literature. Use the load rating for hoisting.
the device or in their literature. Along with this information
Only the size, type, construction, and grade of wire rope the climbing speed will usually be noted. Climber lifting
specified by the manufacturer should be used with these capacities range from 304 to 1,134 kg (750 to 2,500 Ib.)
climbers. Maintenance is usually limited to daily inspection and climbing speeds vary from 0.178 to 0.76 metres per
and periodic cleaning. Field personnel should not try to second (15 to 35 ft/min). You must not exceed the rated
repair these devices. Repairs should be left to an working load of either of the two climbers on your stage.
authorized dealer with factory trained personnel. To ensure that you are not overloading the climbers, take
the combined total of
3.8 Secondary Safety Devices
a) half of the weight of the stage, motors, climbers, and
A secondary safety device is a wire rope grabbing device
power cables
that provides protection in case the wire rope connection
plus
or primary hoisting system fails. Figure 19 illustrates how
b) the full weight of all the people, working
the device is mounted on each wire rope above the hoist
materials, tools, equipment, and anything else that the
with a whip or sling connected to the stirrup of the stage.
stage may carry.
These devices may also be a fixed component on
powered climbers. This combined total must not exceed the manufacturer’s
As these devices advance on the wire rope their jaws rated working load of each of your climbers taken alone.
open slightly to let the rope pass through. When a sharp Before selecting an electrically powered climbing device
downward pull is exerted, the jaws automatically close on for a particular application, determine what circuits are
the rope and grip it with a degree of tightness determined available at the site. If circuits do not meet the voltage and
by the load. amperage required, temporary wiring will be necessary to
accommodate the climbers. Where the wiring runs are
Figure 19
long, voltage drops may be so large that a portable step-
Stage Equipped with Secondary
Safety Device
up transformer is needed to maintain current levels so that
Secondary the motor will not overheat.
Safety
Device Also consider the amount of climbing necessary for the
job. Climbing speeds vary with the size of the climber.
Small climbers carrying loads up near their safe working
load limits over large distances may overheat and
automatically cut off power. Workers should be advised
why such situations can occur. It is usually because of
improper climber selection, an inadequate circuit for the
supply of power, or a cable too small for the length of run.
Power supply cables or cords must have wire heavy
enough to minimize voltage drop in the line. Most supply
cable is either 10 or 12 gauge 3 wire cab tire (neoprene
rubber protected) depending on size of climber motors
and length of run. Twist-lock outdoor male and female
connectors should be used. “Sock” supporting devices
should be used to relieve the strain on connections for
long vertical cable runs (Figure 20).
Figure 20
Sock Supporting Device
20 – 7
SUSPENDED ACCESS
20 – 8
SUSPENDED ACCESS
An alternative method for providing a second independent Tiered stages must not be used unless the system is
designed for the specific application by a professional
engineer familiar with this type of equipment. The system
must be rigged according to the design. Drawings of the
design should be kept on-site for easy reference and
inspection. In addition, the rigging should be checked by a
professional engineer before the first drop is made.
Suspension System
Figure 23
One Independent Means of Support
Figure 26
Tiered
Stage
20 – 9
SUSPENDED ACCESS
4.3 Loads and 4-to-1 Safety Factor The first operation in calculating the proper counterweight
load is determining the appropriate suspension line load
The dynamic loads involved and the unforgiving nature of
as discussed in 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.
suspended equipment require that the outrigger beam/
counterweight arrangement must have a safety factor of 4 For calculating the proper counterweight load, Figure 28a
against overturning. describes a formula for people with a good understanding
of mathematics and the “law of the lever.”
This means that the tipping tendency holding the beam from
overturning must be at least 4 times the tipping tendency
created by the suspension line load acting on the beam.
4.3.1 Suspension Line Load with Powered Climbers
For both suspended stages and bosun’s chairs operated
by powered climbers, the line load used to calculate the
number of counterweights is the same as the
manufacturer’s rated capacity of the climber. The
information plate on the climber should provide this
information. The rated capacity must match the load limit Figure 28(a)
information on the outrigger beams.
Powered climbers operating at speeds up to 35 feet per minute We can also look at the problem in terms of what we have
can load up very quickly if the stage or chair gets caught “working against us” versus what we need “working for us.”
on an obstruction. In this situation the line load will reach the What we have working against us are the suspension line
capacity of the climber before it automatically cuts out. load and its distance from what we call the “fulcrum” or
4.3.2 Suspension Line Load with Manual Climbers the tipping point. What we have working for us are the
counterweights and the distance from the tipping point to
Stages and bosun’s chairs with manual climbers do not the centre of the weights (Figure 28b).
move nearly as quickly as powered climbers so there is
no need to consider the capacity of the climber as the
maximum possible suspension line load. We recommend
the following criteria for establishing these loads on
manually powered systems.
Two-point Suspended Stages: Calculate the weight of
people, tools, and material expected to be on or
suspended from the stage plus the weight of the stage,
suspension lines, and climbers. Consider this load to be at Figure 28(b)
least 1,000 lb. Then take 1,000 lb or the total weight of the
suspended system— whichever is greater—as the Because of dynamic loads and the unforgiving nature of
suspension line load for calculation purposes. Consider the equipment, we need to build in a safety factor. The
this the load on each suspension line. safety factor is 4. We need 4 times as much for us as we
For example, if a stage weighs 200 lb, 2 workers weigh have against us (Figure 28c).
400 lb, and climbers and other gear weigh 200 lb, the total
load is 800 lb. In this case we recommend that each
suspension line be rigged for 1,000 lb of line load. If the
load had been 1,200 lb we would recommend rigging for a
suspension line load of 1,200 lb after checking with the
supplier to ensure that the equipment is capable of
taking such a load.
Bosun’s Chairs: Calculate the weight of the person,
tools, materials, chair, suspension line and climber, but Figure 28(c)
not less than 350 lb The greater value then becomes the
suspension line load for calculation purposes. A dynamic load is greater than a static or stationary load.
We have all caught something dropped to us. The article
4.3.3 Calculation of Counterweight Load is heavier when we catch it than when we simply hold it.
Each outrigger beam should have an information label The increase is due to the article moving. Its load when
attached to it. This label will state the number of moving is called the dynamic load. This is one more
counterweights you need for a given loading and reason why we need a safety factor.
overhang situation. This information applies only to The law of the lever says that the “tipping effect” or
that beam, and to the counterweights provided by the “moment” is equal to the load multiplied by the length of
manufacturer for use with that particular system. If the the lever. We have all used a pry bar to move heavy
label is missing, you must not attempt to calculate objects. The longer the bar the easier it is to move the
the number of counterweights needed unless you heavy object, or the heavier the person on the bar the
know all the characteristics of that beam and of the easier it is to move the object. This concept and the safety
counterweights being used. factor of 4 form the basis for our calculation.
20 – 10
SUSPENDED ACCESS
If we assume our line load is 1,000 lb and the suspension Remember—the load line must remain vertical. This
point is located 1 foot beyond the outrigger beam’s tipping affects whether or not the beam projection can be
point (Figure 28d), then the tipping force (moment) is: reduced and by how much.
1,000 lb x 1 foot = 1,000 lb ft Another approach is to add more counterweights. If we
add two more, our counterweights total 500 lb. However,
To resist this tipping force of 1,000 lb ft and at the same
our lever arm is reduced by 6 inches since the centre of
time ensure a built-in safety factor of 4, we need to have 4
the counterweights has shifted.
times this value, that is, 4,000 lb ft, working for us.
What we have working against us is still the same:
If overall beam length is 12 feet, then the section working
for us to resist tipping force extends from the tipping point 1,000 lb x 1 ft = 1,000 lb ft
to the far end, that is,
What we need working for us is still:
12 feet – 1 foot = 11 feet.
4 x 1,000 lb ft = 4,000 lb ft
However, in our calculation we can only consider the
What we have working for us is:
distance from the fulcrum or tipping point to the centre of
the counterweights. 500 lb x 8.5 ft = 4,250 lb ft
Let’s assume that there are 400 lb of 50-lb counterweights Again, this would be satisfactory. We have more working
each 1/2 foot in width. In Figure 28d you can see that the for us than we actually need (Figure 28f).
lever arm from the fulcrum to the centre of the
counterweights can only be 11 ft – 2 ft = 9 ft. What we
have working for us is: 400 lb x 9 ft = 3,600 lb ft.
20 – 11
SUSPENDED ACCESS
It is especially
important to spread
the loads on scaffold
legs or the special
Figure 30 support structure over
Planks and Plywood to
Spread Counterweight Load
a large area of the
roof. Otherwise
damage to the roofing
material and possibly
the deck itself may
occur. Note planks and
plywood under scaffold
Counterweight legs in Figure 31.
Figure 32
Special Support Structure Used to Clear Parapet Wall
20 – 12
SUSPENDED ACCESS
20 – 13
SUSPENDED ACCESS
A fundamental concept in
the use of any type of fall
protection system is that it
must be fully rigged, in
place, properly adjusted, and
worn by all workers
• while they are setting up
and taking down the
suspension equipment
and working within 2
metres (6 feet) of the
Figure 39 perimeter edge;
Parapet Clamp • while they are getting on
and off the suspended
access equipment; and
• at all times while they are
on the equipment.
4.9 Adequate Anchorage for Tiebacks
Figure 40
Adequate anchorage for tiebacks includes Full Body Harness and Fall-Arrest System
20 – 14
SUSPENDED ACCESS
❑ If there are no engineered anchors, are any existing ❑ In an arrested fall from the highest point on the
structures big and strong enough to serve as anchors? project, can the worker be reached by ground? Is
An adequate anchor should be capable of supporting there an adequate ladder or other device for rescue?
the weight of a small car (about 3,600 pounds). Where is the equipment stored and who has access
❑ Are there any sharp edges requiring lifelines to be to it?
protected? ❑ Can a suspended worker be rescued from a level
above or below? Is access unobstructed? Is a key
Fall protection planning must include
necessary? Is there a way of quickly removing a
• type of fall protection equipment to be used window or other feature to reach the worker?
• type, length, and number of lifelines required ❑ If a suspended worker can’t be reached from ground,
• travel restraint or warning barriers to be used when another level, or a work platform, what specialized
setting up or dismantling the suspended access rescue equipment is needed? Are workers trained to
system on the roof use this equipment?
• fall protection procedures to follow while setting up, ❑ What procedures are in place to rescue a suspended
getting on, getting off, working from, and dismantling worker who is unconscious, injured, or otherwise
the suspended access equipment. unable to assist rescuers?
❑ What service, private or public, is available to aid in
Finally, all horizontal and vertical work surfaces where the
high-reach rescue? Has the service been notified and
suspended access equipment will be assembled,
supplied with project information such as location,
operated, and dismantled must be evaluated to determine
access, size, height, and available anchorage? Is the
escape, rescue, and other emergency procedures in the
phone number of the service posted where everyone
event of mechanical failure or breakdown.
can see it? Have employees been advised to contact
5.1.1 Fall-Arrest Rescue Planning the service when high-reach rescue is needed?
Before any fall-arrest equipment is used on a construction 5.2 Fall Protection Systems
project, the employer is legally required to have in place a
written procedure outlining how to rescue a worker There are two main types of fall protection systems:
involved in a fall arrest. This procedure is in addition to 1) fall prevention
those required by law to cover general emergency 2) fall arrest.
response on a project.
5.2.1 Fall Prevention Systems
A worker hanging in harness after a fall arrest must be
rescued and brought to a stable work surface, platform, or Fall prevention is a system that prevents a worker from
ground within 30 minutes. Left suspended for more than gaining access to a known fall hazard. A guardrail is one
30 minutes, the worker may experience increasing example.
discomfort, nausea, dizziness, and fainting. If left
Fall prevention is primarily used around areas on the roof
suspended for a prolonged period of time, the worker may
where workers set up or take down the suspension
have heart and breathing difficulties and may even die.
system. It can also be used to protect personnel working
To ensure timely, effective rescue, an employer may on balconies or similar structures.
create generic procedures to cover all potential fall rescue
A parapet wall 0.9 metres (3 feet) high or higher
requirements for the company’s typical work.
surrounding a roof provides fall prevention. This is
The employer must then equivalent to having a guardrail around the perimeter.
Workers can work near the edge of the roof without
• provide staff training in the procedures
additional protection as long as they don’t reach over or
• ensure that the procedures are reviewed and modified
beyond the parapet wall. Otherwise they must wear
as necessary to meet specific job conditions
appropriate fall protection equipment and be properly tied
• provide staff training in these modified, site-specific
off (Figure 41).
procedures.
20 – 15
SUSPENDED ACCESS
A bump line or warning barrier can be set up 2 metres Training should include, but not be limited to,
(6 feet) from any perimeter edge. Inside this cordoned-off
• basic inspection, care, and maintenance of personal
area, workers do not require fall protection equipment.
fall protection equipment
The barrier acts as a physical boundary by keeping
• proper methods of assembling, putting on,
unprotected workers away from the perimeter.
and adjusting equipment
Where no bump or warning line is used, or where the • how to protect, handle, and secure lifelines
work requires workers to be less than 2 metres (6 feet) • safe versus unsafe anchor points
from the edge, a travel-restraint system is required. This • procedures for tying off
has all the same components as a fall-arrest system—full • explanation of all work procedures that require
body harness, shock absorber, lanyard, rope grab, and fall protection
adequately anchored lifeline (see 5.2.2). The difference • explanation of company policy regarding
between the two systems is how they are used. mandatory use of fall protection on the job.
The lifeline in a travel-restraint system must have a positive Employers must keep written records of all employees
stopping device or knot tied in it to prevent the rope grab trained in fall protection.
from travelling beyond that point. The device or knot must be
positioned so that the distance back to the anchor point, 5.3 Lifelines
plus the combined length of the rope grab, lanyard, and D- Each lifeline must be tied back to an adequate anchorage.
ring on the harness, is less than the distance from the In practice, adequate anchorage is usually a matter of
anchor point to the edge of the work surface. With the judgment rather than calculated capacity. As a rule of
system arranged in this way, a worker falling toward the thumb, the anchorage should be capable of sustaining the
edge will be stopped before going over the edge. weight of a small car.
5.2.2 Fall-Arrest Systems On new construction, lifelines usually can be secured to
Workers getting on, getting off, or working from exposed structural components such as beams or
suspended access equipment must wear a fall-arrest columns. On existing buildings adequate anchorage
system and be properly tied off to an adequately includes the points itemized in section 4.9.
anchored lifeline. This also applies to workers working on Each lifeline must be tied off to an adequate anchor point
balconies or similar structures without other means of fall separate and independent from the anchor points used for
protection. other lifelines and for tiebacks (Figure 42). Where there
A fall-arrest system must include aren’t enough independent anchor points to meet this
requirement, an anchoring system must be designed by a
• a full body harness that meets or exceeds the professional engineer.
current CSA standard
• a shock absorber that meets or exceeds the current
CSA standard and is attached to the D-ring on the
harness
• a lanyard that meets or exceeds the current CSA
standard and is connected to the free end of the
shock absorber and properly connected to the
connecting ring of a rope grab
• a rope grab properly attached to an adequate
vertical lifeline
• a vertical lifeline that meets or exceeds the current
CSA standard and is properly secured to an adequate
Figure 42
anchor Parapet Clamps and
• an independent anchor which has been designed by Built-in Roof Anchors
a professional engineer for that purpose or which a
competent worker can reasonably consider strong
enough to support the weight of a small car (about
3,600 pounds).
5.4 Protection for Lifelines
In cases where the second means of support consists of
Lifelines must be protected from abrasion or chafing and
a second, properly designed, fully rigged, and complete
from sharp corners which can break the lines under heavy
suspension system, workers can tie off directly to the
shock loads.
suspended access equipment, as per design
specifications for that particular system. A spliced eye and thimble, complete with a safety hook, is
the recommended connection device. However, where the
5.2.3 Fall Protection Training
rope must be tied to the anchorage it is recommended
Employers must ensure that any worker who may use a that the rope be doubled back and tied with either a round
fall protection system is properly trained in its use and turn and half-hitches (Figure 36) or a triple bowline knot
given adequate oral and written instructions by a (Figure 37).
competent person.
20 – 16
SUSPENDED ACCESS
Although tying to the anchorage with knots is necessary in 5.5 Lanyards and Rope Grabs
some situations, it is not recommended where the spliced
Lanyards should be attached to the lifeline by a rope grab.
eye and safety hook can be used. Knots may reduce the
The rope grab should meet the requirements of CSA
load-carrying capacity of the rope significantly.
Standard Z259.2M-1998.
Lifelines must also be protected from abrasion where they
Rope grabs and lanyards should be attached by a locking
pass over a parapet wall or the edge of a roof. A rubber
snap hook, a karabiner looped through a spliced loop and
hose clamped to the lifeline to hold it in position is an
thimble, or a loop and thimble spliced into the rope grab
effective means of providing protection. Rubber mats or
ring. These methods will prevent “roll-out.”
carpeting also provide protection but should be fixed to
the lifeline or be wide enough to allow for considerable Roll-out can occur when a regular snap hook attached to
shifting of the lifeline because of wind or worker a small ring in the connection system releases itself under
movement below (Figure 21). load (Figure 44). Small rings are sometimes found on
older rope grabs.
The lifelines should be reasonably taut. Loose coils on the
roof should be lined out. Lifeline anchors should be 5.6 Full Body Harness
perpendicular to the roof edge at the point where the With suspended access equipment, it is a legal
lifelines drop over. The anchor point should be a requirement in Ontario to wear a full body harness—not a
reasonable distance from the roof edge—preferably 3 safety belt. The harness absorbs fall-arrest loads at the
metres (10 feet) or more. This will allow the rope to absorb thighs and buttocks rather than the upper abdomen and
more energy in the event of a fall arrest at the roof edge. chest where many of the body’s vital organs are located.
Lifelines must also be protected from entanglement in Lanyards should be attached to shock absorbers which
traffic on the ground below or in construction equipment should, in turn, be attached to the full body harness. The
such as tower cranes. This can be done by tying the attachment should be a locking snap hook or a spliced
lifeline to the structure at ground level or weighting it down hook loop and thimble. Looping a splice around a D-ring is
with counterweights (Figure 43). Always allow enough not recommended.
slack for the movement of workers on the stage.
The fall-arrest system must be in place and properly
Figure 43
rigged, with attachments suitably adjusted, before the
Lifeline Secured worker gets on the suspended access equipment. The
to Counterweight worker must wear the fall-arrest system and be properly
at Ground Level tied off at all times when getting on, using, or getting off
the suspended access equipment.
Figure 44 Roll-out
20 – 17
SUSPENDED ACCESS
6 Checklists
The following list identifies points which should be
checked before anyone uses suspended access
equipment.
❑ Operator knowledgeable and competent to operate
the equipment involved?
❑ All required components available, properly rigged,
and in good condition?
❑ Failsafe devices such as rope grabs, secondary safety
devices, and overspeed controls installed and
operating?
❑ Power supplies for climbers adequate, grounded, and
secured?
❑ All tiebacks for outrigger beams, parapet clamps, and
lifelines properly secured to adequate anchorage
capable of supporting 10 times the applied load?
❑ Adequate number of counterweights securely
attached to outrigger beams?
❑ Fibre ropes protected from chafing and abrasion?
❑ Emergency rescue arrangements planned, prepared,
and communicated to everyone involved?
❑ Access to and from the work area planned and
arranged?
The answer to each of these questions should be yes.
20 – 18
SUSPENDED ACCESS EQUIPMENT DAILY CHECKLIST WEEK ENDING
20 – 19
Beam Label Overspeed Check CSA Shock Absorber
TIEBACKS GROUND CHECK CSA Body Harness
Through Thimble Fence/Barricades Lifeline
Through Handles Free of Garbage Rope Protection
Through Weights Equipment Secured Locking Snap Hooks
Block/Drop Stops Cladding/Hoarding Trained in Using
Wire Rope Clips Walkthrough Scaffolding Line Ground Protection
Clevises/Shackles SCAFFOLDING Lines Perpendicular
Anchoring Points Lock Pins
Knots Vertical Braces
Clear Path to Edge Horizontal Braces
Edge Protection Guardrails
POWER CABLE Planks
Tied Back Base Plates
Edge Protection Tie-Off
Plugs Secure & Dry Access Ladder
HOUSEKEEPING
Cleanup
Storage
SUSPENDED ACCESS
TRENCHING
21 – 1
TRENCHING
When excavated, the sides of the excavation All backfilled or previously disturbed material
appear smooth and shiny. The sides will remain should be treated as Type 3. Other typical Type
vertical with no water released from the trench 3 soil includes sand, granular materials, and silty
wall. or wet clays.
Type 2 — A pick can be driven into Type 2 Typical Type 4 material includes muskeg or
soil relatively easily. It can easily be excavated other organic deposits with high moisture
by a backhoe or hand-excavated with some content, quicksand, silty clays with high
difficulty. moisture content, and leta clays. Leta clays are
very sensitive to disturbance of any kind.
21 – 2
TRENCHING
Trench open for extended duration may collapse without apparent reason. Many factors such as cracks, water, vibration,
weather, and previous excavation can affect
trench stability (Figure 2). Time is also a critical
factor. Some trenches will remain open for a
long period, then suddenly collapse for no
apparent reason.
Figure 3 shows the typical causes of cave-ins.
Equipment vibration Backfill is
affects stability. less stable than
undisturbed soil.
The main factors affecting trench stability are
soil type, moisture, vibration, surcharge,
previous excavation, existing foundations, and
weather.
Moisture content
The amount of moisture in the soil has a great
Surcharge such as spoil pile puts more pressure on trench walls.
effect on soil strength.
Once a trench is dug, the sides of the open
excavation are exposed to the air. Moisture
content of the soil begins to change almost
immediately and the strength of the walls may
Figure 3
be affected.
The longer an excavation is open to the air, the
Causes of Cave-Ins greater the risk of a cave-in.
Soil properties often vary widely from the top to
the bottom and along the length of a trench.
Rain
Large Load
Vibration
Insufficient Shoring
Settling Cracks
21 – 3
TRENCHING
Figure 4
Figure 6
Previous excavation
Old utility trenches either crossing or running Weather
parallel to the new trench can affect the strength Rain, melting snow, thawing earth, and overflow
and stability (Figure 5). from adjacent streams, storm drains, and sewers
Soil around and between these old excavations all produce changes in soil conditions. In fact,
can be very unstable. At best it is considered water from any source can reduce soil cohesion
Type 3 soil — loose, soft, and low in internal (Figure 7).
21 – 4
TRENCHING
Moisture affects stability, especially where heavy rainfall has occurred GOOD SOIL Type 1 & 2 Soil
Minimum
Maximum Bank Slope
1.2 m (4 ft.)
Figure 8
Figure 7
Cave-Ins
Minimum
There are three basic methods of protecting Bank Slope
workers against trench cave-ins:
Figure 10
• sloping
• trench boxes For Type 3 soil, cut walls back at a gradient of 1
• shoring to 1 from the trench bottom (Figure 9).
Most fatal cave-ins occur on small jobs of short For Type 4 soil, slope the walls at 1 to 3. That’s
duration such as service connections and 3 metres back for every 1 metre up from the
excavations for drains and wells. Too often trench bottom (Figure 10).
people think that these jobs are not hazardous
enough to require safeguards against collapse. Although sloping can reduce the risk of a cave-in,
the angle must be sufficient to prevent spoil not
Unless the walls are solid rock, never enter a only from sliding back but also from exerting too
trench deeper than 1.2 metres (4 feet) if it is not much pressure on the trench wall (Figure 11).
properly sloped, shored, or protected by a
trench box. Spoil piles can exert too much pressure on sloped trench wall.
Sloping
One way to ensure that a trench will not
collapse is to slope the walls.
Figure 11
Where space and other requirements permit
sloping, the angle of slope depends on soil
conditions (Figures 8, 9 and 10). Sloping is commonly used with shoring or
trench boxes to cut back any soil above the
For Type 1 and 2 soils, cut trench walls back at
an angle of 1 to 1 (45 degrees). That's one protected zone. It is also good practice to cut a
metre back for each metre up. Walls should be bench at the top of the shoring or trench
sloped to within 1.2 metres (4 feet) of the (Figure 12).
trench bottom (Figure 8).
21 – 5
TRENCHING
It is good practice to cut a bench at top of shoring As long as workers are in the trench they
should remain inside the box and leave only
when the box is being moved. A ladder must be
set up in the trench box at all times.
Excavation should be done so that the space
between the trench box and the excavation is
minimized (Figure 14).
The two reasons for this are
Figure 12
1) allowing closer access to the top of the
If sloping is to be used above a trench box, the box
top portion of the cut should first be sloped 1 to
2) limiting soil movement in case of a
1. Then the box should be lowered into the
cave-in.
trench (Figure 13).
Keep space between trench box and excavation as small as possible.
Backfill
if necessary
Figure 13 to prevent a
cave-in.
Trench boxes
Trench boxes are not usually intended to shore Figure 14
up or otherwise support trench walls. They are
meant to protect workers in case of a cave-in. Shoring
They are capable of supporting trench walls if Shoring is a system which “shores” up or
the space between the box and the trench wall supports trench walls to prevent movement of
is backfilled and compacted. soil, underground utilities, roadways, and
foundations.
Design drawings and specifications for trench
boxes must be signed and sealed by the Shoring should not be confused with trench
professional engineer who designed the system boxes. A trench box provides worker safety but
and must be kept on site by the constructor. gives little or no support to trench walls or
existing structures such as foundations and
Boxes are normally placed in an excavated but
manholes.
unshored trench and used to protect personnel.
A properly designed trench box is capable of The two types of shoring most commonly used
withstanding the maximum lateral load expected are timber and hydraulic. Both consist of posts,
at a given depth in a particular soil condition. wales, struts, and sheathing.
Trenches near utilities, streets, and buildings Figures 15 and 16 identify components,
may require a shoring system. dimensions, and other requirements for timber
shoring in some typical trenches.
21 – 6
TRENCHING
Access/egress
Whether protected by sloping, boxes, or shoring,
trenches must be provided with ladders so that
workers can enter and exit safely (Figure 17).
Ladders must
• be placed within the area protected by the
shoring or trench box
• be securely tied off at the top
• extend above the shoring or box by at
least 1 metre (3 feet)
Figure 16
21 – 7
TRENCHING
• be inspected regularly for damage. Check timber shoring before installation. Discard
damaged or defective lumber. After installation,
Ladders should be placed as close as possible to
inspect wales for signs of crushing. Crushing
the area where personnel are working and
indicates structural inadequacy and calls for
never more than 7.5 metres (25 feet) away.
more struts (Figure 19).
Anyone climbing up or down must always face
Bowed sheathing Cracked sheathing
the ladder and maintain 3-point contact. This and wales
means that two hands and one foot or two feet
and one hand must be on the ladder at all
Loose or
times. missing
cleats
Inspection
Inspection is everyone's responsibility. Whatever
the protective system, it should be inspected
regularly. Inspect wales
for crushing at struts. Strut off level
cylinders, bent bases, broken or cracked Inspect trench boxes for structural damage,
nipples, and other damaged or defective parts cracks in welds, and other defects (Figure 20).
(Figure 18). During use, check the box regularly and often
to make sure that it is not shifting or settling
Check hydraulic much more on one side than the other. If it is,
shoring
for leaks. leave the trench and ask the supervisor to check
for stability.
Check ground surface for tension cracks which
may develop parallel to the trench at a distance
one-half to three-quarters of the trench depth
(Figure 21). If cracks are detected, alert the crew
and check all protective systems carefully.
Check areas adjacent to shoring where water
may have entered the trench. A combination of
water flow and granular soils can lead to
undermining of the trench wall. Such conditions
have caused fatalities.
Finally, make sure that tools, equipment,
material, and spoil are kept at least 1 metre
(3 feet) back from the edge of the trench to
Figure 18 prevent falling objects from striking workers.
21 – 8
TRENCHING
Sidewall
• materials handling and housekeeping
• heavy equipment
• traffic control
• confined spaces.
Check for
tension cracks Strut
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment is an important
defence against certain types of injury.
Injuries from falling and flying objects, for
Knife edge instance, can be reduced by wearing hard hats
Figure 21
and eye protection.
Everyone on a construction project must wear
Grade 1 safety boots certified by the Canadian
Standards Association (CSA) as indicated by the
CSA logo on a green triangular patch (Figure 22).
Under the wet, muddy conditions often
encountered in trenching, you may also require
rubber safety boots displaying the same CSA
logo on a green triangular patch.
21 – 9
TRENCHING
Underground utilities
Locates — Services such as gas, electrical,
telephone, and water lines must be located by
the utility before excavation begins.
The contractor responsible for the work must
contact the owners of any underground utilities Have existing
that may be in that location or phone Ontario utilities located
before
One Call. Request locates for all the excavating.
underground utilities in the area where
excavation will be taking place.
Figure 24
21 – 10
TRENCHING
21 – 11
TRENCHING
the constructor must have written procedures in 5) If possible, the operator (while remaining
place to prevent the equipment from encroaching on the machine) can try to break contact
on the minimum distance. by moving the machine clear of the wires.
Voltage Rating of Powerline Minimum Distance Warning: Beware of time relays. Even
750 or more volts, but not 3 metres (10') after breakers are tripped by line
more than 150,000 volts damage, relays may be triggered to
more than 150,000 but 4.5 metres (15') restore power.
not more than 250,000 volts
more than 250,000 volts 6 metres (20') 6) If the operator can’t break contact by
moving the machine (while remaining on
it), do not move the machine until the
If equipment touches a high-voltage line,
utility shuts down the line and confirms
the operator should take the following
that power is off.
precautions.
7) If an emergency such as fire forces you to
1) Stay on the machine. Don’t touch
leave the machine, jump clear (Figure 27).
equipment and ground at same time.
Never step down. If part of your body
Touching anything in contact with the
contacts the ground while another part
ground could be fatal.
touches the machine, current will travel
2) Anyone operating accessory equipment through you.
should also remain on that equipment.
8) Jump with feet together and shuffle away
They should also avoid making contact
in small steps. Don’t take big steps. With
with the ground and the equipment at the
voltage differential across the ground, one
same time.
foot may be in a higher voltage area than
3) Keep others away. Warn them not to touch the other. The difference can kill you
the load, load lines, boom, bucket, or any (Figure 28).
other part of the equipment (Figure 26).
4) Get someone to call the local utility to shut
off power.
21 – 12
TRENCHING
Materials handling
Voltage differential
across the ground can Many lost-time injuries in trenching involve
injure or kill you.
materials handling. Moving rock and soil, lifting
pipe and manhole sections, laying down
bedding material, or lowering pumps and
compactors into the trench can all be hazardous.
Figure 29
21 – 13
TRENCHING
Back injuries can occur when small-diameter ground for any length Dead end
pipe is being homed into position (Figure 29). of time in damp or
The worker pushing the bar should place his wet conditions. Live end
STEP 1 - Apply first clip one base width from
feet directly in front of the pipe with one foot dead end of rope. U-bolt is placed over dead
Eyes in wire rope
ahead of the other. end and live end rests in clip saddle. Tighten
nuts evenly to recommended torque.
slings should be fitted
Large-diameter pipe should be placed with pipe with thimbles. To
pullers (Figure 30). make an eye with
clips, put the U-bolt STEP 2 - Apply second clip as close to loop
as possible. U-bolt is over the dead end. Turn
section on the dead or nuts firmly but do not tighten.
short end of the rope
and the saddle on the
live or long end
(Figure 31). STEP 3 - Apply all other clips, spaced
Figure 30 equally between the first two. They should be
Remember — never 6-7 rope diameters apart.
Bedding material — Personnel shovelling saddle a dead horse.
bedding material in the trench are usually
At least three clips are
working in a confined area where footing is Apply
required for wire rope Tension
muddy and uneven. STEP 4 - Apply tension and tighten all nuts
up to 5/8" diameter, to recommended torque.
The result can be overexertion or slips and falls and four are required
leading to back and other injuries. Mechanical for wire rope greater
equipment can significantly reduce this hazard. than 5/8" up to and Apply
Tension
For instance, bedding material can be put in the including 7/8" STEP 5 - Check nut torque after rope has
been in operation.
excavator bucket with a front-end loader, then diameter. Figure 31
spread evenly along the trench bottom.
Avoid binding the eye section of wire rope
Rigging — Rigging is essential to safe, efficient slings around corners. The bend will weaken
materials handling since pipe, manhole sections,
the splice or swaging.
and equipment are lowered into the trench by
cranes or other hoisting devices. When using choker hitches, do not force the
eye down towards the load once tension is
Rigging these loads properly can prevent injury.
applied.
Inspect slings and rigging hardware regularly
and replace any damaged or worn devices. When using chain slings, inspect for elongated
links. A badly stretched link tends to close up
With nylon web slings, damage is usually (Figure 32).
easy to spot: cuts, holes, tears, worn or distorted
fittings, frayed material, broken stitching, heat Look for bent, twisted, or damaged links that
burns. Damaged web slings should be replaced. can result when chain has been used to lift a
load with unprotected sharp edges.
When using wire rope slings, inspect for
broken wires, worn or cracked fittings, loose Inspect for cracks. Although sometimes hard to
seizings and splices, flatening, and corrosion. detect, cracks always indicate that the chain
Knots or kinks indicate that wire rope slings are should be removed from service. Also look for
permanently damaged and should not be used. gouges, chips, cuts, dents, peen marks, and
Damage most often occurs around thimbles and corrosive wear at points where links bear on
fittings. Don't leave wire rope lying on the each other.
21 – 14
TRENCHING
New link
Proper housekeeping is especially important
Figure 32
around ladders. The base and foot of the ladder
Rigging Tips should be free of garbage and puddles. Ladders
should be tied off at the top, placed in
• Wherever possible, lower loads on protected areas, and inspected regularly for
adequate blockage to prevent damage to damage (Figure 33).
slings.
• Keep hands away from pinch points Heavy equipment
when slack is being taken up. Excavators, backhoes, and other heavy
• Stand clear while the load is being lifted equipment can cause injuries and fatalities to
and lowered or when slings are being operators and personnel on foot.
pulled out from under it. Excavator handsignals — Communicate
• Use tag lines to control swinging, clearly with your co-workers. Use the following
swaying, or other unwanted movement of
handsignals.
the load.
Housekeeping
Accident prevention depends on proper
housekeeping at ground level and in the trench.
At the top of the trench, sections of pipe,
unused tools and timber, piles of spoil, and
Ladders should be placed within shored
area and tied off to prevent slipping.
Figure 33
21 – 15
TRENCHING
Operators — Improperly climbing on and off and recommended for all moving equipment.
equipment has caused injuries to operators for Where vehicles have to operate in reverse,
many years. The best prevention is to maintain warning signs must be conspicuously posted.
3-point contact (Figure 34).
Ground rules for truck drivers
Use 3-point contact
• Understand and obey the signaller at all
on steps and rails. times.
• Remain in the cab where possible.
• Ensure that mirrors are clean, functional,
and properly adjusted.
• Do a circle check after being away from the
truck for any length of time (walk around
the truck to ensure the area is clear before
moving).
• Stop immediately when a signaller, worker,
or anyone else disappears from view.
Figure 34
Equipment should be fitted with steps, grabs, Workers on foot — Personnel on foot are
and rails that are repaired or replaced when frequently stuck by machine attachments such
damaged. as excavator buckets and bulldozer blades when
they stand or work too close to operating
equipment, especially during unloading and
excavation.
Workers on foot are also injured and killed by
equipment backing up.
Try to push backfill into
excavation rather than
dumping it.
Ground rules for workers on foot
Figure 35
• Beware of common operator blind spots.
See chapter on Backing Up in CSAO’s
Operators have also suffered serious injuries Construction Health and Safety Manual
when equipment upsets because of soil failure (M029).
near excavations (Figure 35), improper loading
• Stay alert to the location of equipment
on floats, or inadvertently backing into
around you.
excavations.
• Avoid entering or standing in blind spots.
Moving equipment — Signallers are required
• Always remain visible to the operator.
by law
Make eye contact to ensure that you
• if the operator's view of the intended path are seen.
of travel is obstructed, or
• Never stand behind a backing vehicle.
• if a person could be endangered by the
• Remember — the operator may be able to
moving equipment or its load.
see you while you are standing but not
Back-up alarms are required on dump trucks when you kneel down or bend over.
21 – 16
TRENCHING
• Use standard hand signals (Figure 37). Supervisors must train TCPs on site and explain
• Stand where you can see and be seen. the nature of the project, where construction
equipment will be operating, and how public
• Stay in full view of the operator and the traffic will flow. TCPs must wear a fluorescent
intended path of travel. or bright orange safety vest.
• Know where the operator's blind spots Training must also include the proper use of the
are. STOP/SLOW sign, where to stand, how to
• Warn other workers to stay clear of signal, and communication with other TCPs.
equipment. (See chapter on Traffic Control in CSAO’s
Construction Health and Safety Manual (M029).)
After presenting this information, the supervisors
must give TCPs written instructions in a
language they can understand.
Back up Stop Confined spaces
A confined space is defined as a place
Clearance
a) that is partially or fully enclosed
Change
Direction b)that is not both designed and constructed
for continuous human occupancy, and
Figure 37
c) where atmospheric hazards may occur
because of its construction, location, or
Traffic control
contents, or because of work that is done
On trenching projects along public roadways, in it.
the construction crew must be protected from
traffic. Regulations specify the following All three critera have to be met before a space
methods for protecting personnel: is defined as a confined space.
• traffic control persons (TCPs) using signs In the sewer and watermain industry, confined
(Figure 38) spaces can be locations such as excavations,
manholes, valve chambers, pump stations, and
• warning signs catch basins. The atmosphere in these spaces
• barriers may be
21 – 17
TRENCHING
21 – 18
TRENCHING
Ensure that plugs are secure. No one should be prevented by placing a backhoe bucket
in a manhole when the upstream line is being against the suspected area or excavating it.
filled. Plugs that are not properly installed can
3) Rescue workers should enter the trench
let go, causing injury and letting a manhole fill
with ropes and wear rescue harnesses if
quickly, depending on the size of the line.
possible.
Flooding is another reason why no one should
4) To prevent further injury, remove the
be in a manhole without a rescue harness and a
casualty by stretcher whenever possible.
worker outside ready and prepared for an
Tarps or ladders can be used as a
emergency.
makeshift stretcher.
General
Emergency telephone numbers — ambulance, Breathing — Ensure that the casualty is
fire, police, local utilities, senior management, breathing. If not, open the airway and start
Ministry of Labour — should be posted in the artificial respiration immediately. Mouth-to-
field office for quick reference. mouth is the most efficient method.
If someone is seriously injured, take the Bleeding — Control external bleeding by
following steps. applying direct pressure, placing the casualty in
a comfortable position, and elevating the injured
1) Protect the area from hazards.
part if possible.
2) Prevent further injury to the casualty.
Unconsciousness — This is a priority because
3) Administer first aid. it may lead to breathing problems. An
unconscious person may suffocate when left
4) Call an ambulance or rescue unit.
lying face up. If injuries permit, unconscious
5) Have someone direct the ambulance or persons who must be left unattended should be
rescue unit to the accident scene. placed in the recovery position (Figure 41).
All projects must have a person qualified and Recovery position
certified to provide first aid.
Cave-ins
It is natural to try to rescue casualties caught or
buried by a cave-in. But care must be taken to
prevent injury and death to rescuers, whether Figure 41
21 – 19
BACKING UP
22 BACKING UP
Reversing vehicles and equipment on construction
projects pose a serious problem for personnel on
foot.
Fatal accidents resulting from workers being
backed over by dump trucks and other equipment
occur all too frequently.
Anyone on foot in the vicinity of reversing vehicles
and equipment is at risk. More then 20 deaths
have occurred on construction sites over a ten-
year period as a result of reversing vehicles.
Blind Spots
The main problem with reversing vehicles and
equipment is the driver or operator's restricted view.
Around dump trucks and heavy equipment such
as bulldozers and graders there are blind spots
where the operator has no view or only a very
limited view.
The operator may not see someone standing in
these blind spots. Anyone kneeling or bending over
in these areas would be even harder to see.
Consequently the driver or operator must rely on
mirrors or signallers to back up without running over
someone or into something. Figure 1 shows the
blind spots for common types of construction
equipment.
Dump trucks and cranes are the kinds of equipment
that hit overhead powerlines most often. Beware of
powerline contact whenever a crane, dump truck, or
other vehicle is going to be operated near an
overhead electrical conductor. If equipment operates
within reach of (and could therefore encroach on)
the minimum permitted distance from an overhead
powerline (see the chapter on Electrical Hazards in
this manual), the constructor is required to have Figure 1 – Dark areas indicate operator blind spots.
written procedures in place to prevent the equipment
from encroaching on the minimum distance.
Accident Prevention
To prevent injuries and deaths caused by vehicles and
equipment backing up, there are four basic approaches:
1) site planning
2) signallers
3) training
4) electronic devices.
Site planning
Wherever possible, site planners should arrange for drive-
through operations to reduce the need for vehicles to back
up (Figure 2).
Foot traffic should be minimized where trucks and
equipment operate in congested areas such as
excavations. Where feasible, a barricade can help to
Figure 2
22 – 1
BACKING UP
Training
Instruction for drivers,
operators, signallers, and
workers on foot is essential to
reduce the hazards created by
reversing vehicles and
equipment.
For example, all construction
Figure 5
personnel must be made
familiar with blind spots – the
areas around every vehicle
that are partly or completely
invisible to the operator or
driver, even with the help of
mirrors (Figure 1).
Back up Stop Specific training can then focus
Clearance on the following points.
22 – 2
BACKING UP
Workers on Foot
• Know how to work safely around
trucks and operating equipment.
• Understand the effect of blind
spots (Figure 7).
• Avoid entering or standing in
blind spots.
• Make eye contact with the
driver or operator before
approaching equipment.
• Signal intentions to the driver or
operator.
• When possible, use separate Figure 7 - This illustration shows how some personnel on foot are visible to the driver while others are not.
The driver cannot see the dark figures because they are passing through blind spots at the front and rear
access rather than vehicle of the truck.
ramps to enter and exit the site.
• Avoid standing and talking near vehicle paths, grading • Stand where you can see and be seen by the driver
operations, and other activities where heavy or operator.
equipment is moving back and forth. • Make eye contact with driver or operator before
signalling or changing location.
Drivers and Operators
• Always obey the signaller or spotter. If more than one
Electronic Equipment
person is signalling, stop your vehicle and determine Since 2000, automatic audible alarms that signal when a
which one to obey. vehicle is being operated in reverse have been required
• If possible, remain in the cab in areas where other on dump trucks.
equipment is likely to be backing up.
Alarms offer the greatest benefit when traffic is limited to
• Make sure that all mirrors are intact, functional, and
only one or two vehicles. The warning effect of the alarm
properly adjusted for the best view.
is greatly reduced, however, when it simply becomes part
• Blow the horn twice before backing up.
of the background noise on-site.
• When no spotter is present, get out and quickly walk
around your vehicle. If the way is clear, back up at This is a common shortcoming with devices that sound
once (Figure 8). continuously when the transmission is put in reverse,
• Stop the vehicle when a spotter, worker, or anyone especially in areas where several vehicles are operating
else disappears from view. at once.
Newer devices using a type of radar to sense objects or
people within a pre-set radius appear to be more effective
but are not readily available or widely used.
Other technologies such as infrared or heat sensors and
closed-circuit television are limited by the effects of
vibration, dust, and dirt — conditions all too common on
construction sites.
Figure 8
Signallers
• Stay alert to recognize and deal with dangerous
situations.
• Know and use the standard signals for on-site traffic
(Figure 6).
• Wear a reflective fluorescent or bright orange vest
and a bright hard hat for high visibility.
• Use a signalling device such as a bullhorn in
congested excavation areas.
• Understand the maneuvering limitations of vehicles
and equipment.
• Know driver and operator blind spots.
22 – 3
TRAFFIC CONTROL
23 – 1
TRAFFIC CONTROL
23 – 2
TRAFFIC CONTROL
• Hold your sign firmly in full view of oncoming traffic. be downloaded for free from www.mto.gov.on.ca through a
• Give the motorist plenty of warning. Don't show the library search for the Ontario Traffic Manual.
STOP sign when the motorist is too close. The average
The information applies to traffic control by any persons or
stopping distance for a vehicle travelling at 50 kilometres
agencies performing construction, maintenance, or utility
per hour (30 miles per hour) is 45 metres (150 feet).
work on roadways in Ontario.
Higher speeds require more stopping distance.
• When showing the SLOW sign, avoid bringing traffic The Construction Regulation under the Occupational
to a complete halt. When motorists have slowed Health and Safety Act makes it mandatory that traffic
down, signal them to keep moving slowly. control persons be protected from hazards. This includes
• When showing the STOP sign, use firm hand signals not only personal protective clothing and equipment but
and indicate where you want traffic to stop. When the measures and devices to guard against the dangers of
first vehicle stops, step into the centre of the road so vehicular traffic. Safety should receive prime consideration
the second vehicle can see you. in planning for traffic control. Regulations under the
• Before moving traffic from a stopped position, make Occupational Health and Safety Act are enforced by the
sure the opposing traffic has stopped and that the last Ministry of Labour.
opposing vehicle has passed your post. Then turn Traffic control persons have no authority under the
your sign and step back on the shoulder of the road. Highway Traffic Act and are not law enforcement officers.
• Stay alert, keep your eyes on approaching traffic, If problems arise, follow these steps.
make your hand signals crisp and positive.
• Coordinate your effort with nearby traffic signals to • Report dangerous motorists to your supervisor.
avoid unnecessary delays, tie-ups, and confusion. • Keep a pad and pencil to jot down violators' licence
• Do not use flags to control traffic. numbers.
• In some situations, two-way traffic may be allowed • Ask your supervisor for assistance from police in
through the work zone at reduced speed, with a traffic difficult or unusual traffic situations.
control person assigned to each direction. Since • Never restrain a motorist forcibly or take out your anger
motorists can be confused or misled by seeing the on any vehicle.
STOP side of the sign used in the opposite lane, the • Always be alert to emergency services. Ambulance,
signs must be modified. The STOP side must be police, and fire vehicles have priority over all other traffic.
covered to conceal its distinctive shape and command.
This should prevent drivers from stopping unexpectedly.
Remember
• Always face traffic.
How can I improve safety for myself • Plan an escape route.
and others? • Wear personal protective clothing.
• Maintain proper communication with other traffic
• Don't be distracted by talking to fellow workers or control persons.
passing pedestrians. If you must talk to motorists, stay • Stay alert at all times.
at your post and keep the conversation brief. • Be courteous.
• When using two-way radios to communicate with another
traffic control person, take the following precautions: Traffic control is a demanding job, often a thankless job,
- Establish clear voice signals for each situation and but always an important job. How well you succeed will
stick to them. depend largely on your attitude.
- Be crisp and positive in your speech.
- Test the units before starting your shift and carry
spare batteries.
- Avoid unnecessary chit-chat.
- Don't use two-way radios in blasting zones.
• When two traffic control persons are working together,
you should always be able to see each other in order
to coordinate your STOP-SLOW signs. Signals
between you should be understood. If you change
your sign from STOP to SLOW or vice-versa, you
must signal the other person by moving the sign up
and down or sideways. This will ensure that traffic
control is coordinated. Two-way radios are the best
way of communicating.
When you can't see the other traffic control person, a
third should be assigned to keep you both in view.
23 – 3
RIGGING
24 – 1
RIGGING
– Electrical contact. One of the most lines. If the hoist line is not plumb during
frequent killers of riggers is electrocution. load handling, side loads are created
An electrical path can be created when a which can destabilize the equipment and
part of the hoist, load line, or load comes cause structural failure or tip-over, with
into close proximity to an energized little warning.
overhead powerline. When a crane is
operating near a live powerline and the Factors that Reduce Capacity
load, hoist lines, or any other part of the The working load limits of hoisting and rigging
hoisting operation could encroach on the equipment are based on ideal conditions. Such
minimum permitted distance (see table ideal circumstances are seldom achieved in the
below), specific measures described in the field. Riggers must therefore recognize the
Construction Regulation must be taken. For factors that can reduce the capacity of the hoist.
example, constructors must have written – Swing. The swinging of suspended loads
procedures to prevent contact whenever creates additional dynamic forces on the
equipment operates within the minimum hoist in addition to the weight of the load.
permitted distance from a live overhead The additional dynamic forces (see point
powerline. The constructor must have below) are difficult to quantify and account
copies of the procedure available for every for, and could cause tip-over of the crane
employer on the project. or failure of hoisting hardware. The force
– Hoist line not plumb. The working load of the swinging action makes the load drift
limits of hoisting equipment apply only to away from the machine, increasing the
freely suspended loads on plumb hoist radius and side-loading on the equipment.
The load should be kept directly below the
boom point or upper load block. This is
best accomplished by controlling the load’s
movement with slow motions.
– Condition of equipment. The rated
working load limits apply only to
equipment and hardware in good
condition. Any equipment damaged in
service should be taken out of service and
Wrong. The hoist line must be plumb at all times. repaired or destroyed.
Beware:
The wind can blow powerlines, hoist lines, or your load.
This can cause them to cross the minimum distance.
This crane boom could reach within
the minimum distance.
24 – 2
RIGGING
Figure 1
24 – 3
RIGGING
All fibre ropes conduct electricity when wet. When Manila Rope
dry, however, polypropylene and polyester have
Manila rope is not recommended for
much better insulating properties than nylon.
construction use and is illegal for
Inspection lifelines and lanyards.
Inspect fibre rope regularly and before each Dusty residue Wear from inside out.
use. Any estimate of its capacity should be when twisted open Overloading. If extensive,
based on the portion of rope showing the most replace rope.
deterioration. Broken strands, Replace rope.
fraying, spongy
Check first for external wear and cuts, variations
texture
in the size and shape of strands, discolouration,
and the elasticity or “life” remaining in the rope. Wet Strength could be reduced.
Frozen Thaw and dry at room
Untwist the strands without kinking or distorting
temperature.
them. The inside of the rope should be as bright
and clean as when it was new. Check for broken Mildew, dry rot Replace rope.
yarns, excessively loose strands and yarns, or an Dry and brittle Do not oil. Wash with
accumulation of powdery dust, which indicates cold water and hang in
excessive internal wear between strands as the coils to dry.
rope is flexed back and forth in use.
Polypropylene and Nylon Rope
If the inside of the rope is dirty, if strands have
Chalky exterior Overexposed to sunlight
started to unlay, or if the rope has lost life and
appearance (UV) rays. Possibly left
elasticity, do not use it for hoisting.
unprotected outside. Do
Check for distortion in hardware. If thimbles are not use. Discard.
loose in the eyes, seize the eye to tighten the Dusty residue Worn from inside out. If
thimble (Figure 2). Ensure that all splices are in when twisted open extensive, replace.
good condition and all tucks are done up
Frayed exterior Abraded by sharp edges.
(Figure 3).
Strength could be reduced.
Defective or damaged fibre rope should be Broken strands Destroy and discard.
destroyed or cut up so that it cannot be used
Cold or frozen Thaw, dry at room
for hoisting.
temperature before use.
Size reduction Usually indicates
overloading and excessive
wear. Use caution. Reduce
capacity accordingly.
Design Factors
Fibre rope must have a design factor to account
for loads over and above the weight being
hoisted and for reduced capacity due to
If rope or eye Whip rope to Check for To secure • wear, broken fibres, broken yarns, age,
stretches, tighten up tucks splice, use
thimble will rock. thimble in eye. popping free. whipping. variations in size and quality
Figure 2 Figure 3
24 – 4
RIGGING
Caution: This table contains sample values for the Caution: This table contains sample values for the
purposes of illustration only. Refer to the manufacturer of purposes of illustration only. Refer to the manufacturer of
the equipment you’re using for precise values. the equipment you’re using for precise values.
Figure 5 Figure 6
24 – 5
RIGGING
Polypropylene Rope
1. Change the rope diameter into eighths of
an inch.
2. Square the numerator and multiply by 40.
Example: 1/2 inch polypropylene rope =
4
/8 inch diameter
WLL = 4 x 4 x 40 = 640 lbs.
Figure 7
24 – 6
RIGGING
• Protect fibre ropes from weather, • When coupling wire and fibre ropes,
dampness, and sunlight. Keep them away always use metal thimbles in both eyes to
from exhaust gases, chemical fumes, keep the wire rope from cutting the fibre
boilers, radiators, steam pipes, and other rope.
heat sources. • Make sure that fibre rope used with tackle
• Let fibre ropes dry before storing them. is the right size for the sheaves. Sheaves
Moisture hastens rot and causes rope to should have diameters at least six —
kink easily. Let a frozen rope thaw preferably ten— times greater than the
completely before you handle it. Otherwise rope diameter.
fibres can break. Let wet or frozen rope Knots
dry naturally.
Wherever practical, avoid tying knots in rope.
• Wash dirty ropes in clean cool water and Knots, bends, and hitches reduce rope strength
hang to dry. considerably. Just how much depends on the
knot and how it is applied. Use a spliced end
Use
with a hook or other standard rigging hardware
• Never overload a rope. Apply the design such as slings and shackles to attach ropes to
factor of 5 (10 for ropes used to support or loads.
hoist personnel). Then make further
allowances for the rope’s age and In some cases, however, knots are more
condition. practical and efficient than other rigging
methods, as for lifting and lowering tools or
• Never drag a rope along the ground. light material.
Abrasive action will wear, cut, and fill the
outside surfaces with grit. For knot tying, a rope is considered to have
three parts (Figure 9).
• Never drag a rope over rough or sharp
edges or across itself. Use softeners to The end is where you tie
protect rope at the sharp corners and the knot. The standing
edges of a load. part is inactive. The Bight
End
bight is in between.
• Avoid all but straight line pulls with fibre
rope. Bends interfere with stress Following the right
Standing
distribution in fibres. sequence is essential in Part
24 – 7
RIGGING
Overhand Loop Underhand Loop Turn of double-leg spreaders for lifting pipe. Can also
Figure 10 be used as a sling — sit in one loop and put
the other around the back and under the arms.
WARNING: When tying knots, always
follow the directions over and under Figure-Eight Knot — Tied at the end of a
precisely. If one part of the rope must go rope to keep strands from unlaying. Useful in
under another, do it that way. Otherwise an preventing end of rope from slipping through a
entirely different knot — or no knot at all — block or eye.
will result.
Figure 8 Knot
Once knots are tied, they should be drawn
up slowly and carefully to make sure that
sections tighten evenly and stay in proper
position.
The following illustrations show how to tie
some knots and hitches useful in the mechanical
trades. 2 4
1 3
Bowline — Never jams or slips when properly
tied. A universal knot if properly tied and untied.
Two interlocking bowlines can be used to join Reef or Square Knot
Reef or
two ropes together. Single bowlines can be used — Can be used for tying Square Knot
for hoisting or hitching directly around a ring. two ropes of the same
diameter together. It is 1
Bowline
unsuitable for wet or
slippery ropes and
should be used with
caution since it unties 2
easily when either free
end is jerked. Both the
live and dead ends of the
2 4 3
rope must come out of
1 the loops at the same
3
time.
24 – 8
RIGGING
24 – 9
RIGGING
24 – 10
RIGGING
Inspection
Worn
Wire rope must be inspected regularly and section
Multi-strand rope “bird-cages” due
often. Figure 14 shows some of the more to torsional unbalance. Typical of
obvious warning signs to look for. build-up seen at anchorage end of
multi-fall crane application.
Enlarged
view of
single
strand
A “bird cage” caused by sudden
release of tension and resultant
Where the surface wires
rebound of rope from overloaded
are worn by 1/3 or more
condition. These strands and wires
of their diameter, the
will not return to their original
rope must be replaced.
positions.
24 – 11
RIGGING
24 – 12
RIGGING
24 – 13
RIGGING
Chain Slings
Use only alloy steel for overhead lifting.
Elongated or Return to manufacturer for
stretched links repair.
Failure to hang Return to manufacturer for
straight repair.
Bent, twisted, Return to manufacturer for
or cracked repair.
links
Gouges, chips, Ground out and reduce
or scores capacity according to amount
of material removed.
Chain repairs are best left to the manufacturer.
Chain beyond repair should be cut with torch
into short pieces.
24 – 14
RIGGING
Note that there is no reduction in working load • Should be loaded at the middle of the
limit for the choker hitch. This is because the hook. Applying the load to the tip will
hinge action of the mesh prevents any bending load the hook eccentrically and reduce the
of individual wire spirals. WLL considerably.
Figure 17
Hoisting Hooks
• Should be equipped with safety catches
(except for sorting or grab hooks).
• Should be forged alloy steel with WLL
stamped or marked on the saddle.
24 – 15
RIGGING
Figure 18
If the load shifts, the sling will
Never replace a unscrew the shackle pin
shackle pin with a bolt.
• When tightening a
turnbuckle, do not apply
more torque than you Hook and Hook Combination
would to a bolt of equal Eye Jaw Stub Hook Jaw and Eye Combination
size. (has reduced
capacity) Hook and Eye Combination
• Inspect turnbuckles Figure 23
frequently for cracks in end
Do not use jam nuts End fittings must be secured Lock wire will hold
fittings (especially at the
neck of the shank),
deformed end fittings,
deformed and bent rods Figure 24
Eye Bolts
• For hoisting, use eye or ring
bolts made of forged alloy
steel.
• Use bolts with shoulders or Figure 25
collars. Shoulderless bolts are • Make sure that tapped holes for screw
fine for vertical loading but bolts are deep enough for uniform grip
can bend and lose (Figure 26).
considerable capacity under
angle loading (Figure 25). Swivel eye bolt • Apply loads to the plane of the eye, never
Even with shoulders, eye and in the other direction (Figure 27). This is
ring bolts lose some
capacity when loaded on an Correct for Shoulder-Type Eye & Ring Bolts
angle. Incorrect
Assuming that loads are reduced
to account for angular loading
• Make sure that bolts are at
right angles to hole, make
contact with working
Pack with
surface, and have nuts washers to
properly torqued (Figure ensure that
shoulder is
26). firmly in
contact with
surface
• Pack bolts with washers Nut must be Ensure that Ensure that Shoulder must be
properly bolt is tapped hole in full contact with
when necessary to ensure surface
torqued tightened is deep
firm, uniform contact with into place enough
working surface (Figure 26). Figure 26
24 – 17
RIGGING
24 – 18
RIGGING
Figure 30
24 – 19
RIGGING
STEP 1
STEP 3
Apply
Tension
STEP 5
Apply
Tension
Figure 33
24 – 20
RIGGING
500 LBS
500 LBS
BS
57
Damage is caused by
7L
7L
BS
57
• failure to provide blocking or softeners 60°
between slings and the load, thereby
allowing sharp edges or corners of the
load to cut or abrade the slings 1000 LBS 1000 LBS
• pulling slings out from under loads,
leading to abrasion and kinking
Best Good
• shock loading that increases the stress on
slings that may already be overloaded
• traffic running over slings, especially
tracked equipment.
S 707 1
Because of these and other conditions, as well LB LB LBS 000
7 00 LB
as errors in calculating loads and estimating 70 45° S
10 30° S
24 – 21
RIGGING
24 – 22
RIGGING
Block loose loads before unhooking. Make sure loads are secure.
When legs are not of equal
length, use smallest H/L ratio.
Rules
There are general rules for estimating the WLLs
of common sling configurations. Each rule for a
given configuration, material, and size is based
on the WLL of that sling in a single vertical
Note: Load may be carried by only 2 legs while
hitch. third and fourth legs merely balance it. Therefore:
WLL = WLL (of single vertical hitch) x H/L x 2
Bridle Hitches (2, 3, and 4 leg) — Measure
the length of the sling legs (L) and measure the Determining capacity of 4-leg bridle hitch
24 – 23
RIGGING
Figure 35
24 – 24
Caution: This table contains sample values for the purposes of illustration only. Refer to the manufacturer of the equipment you’re using for precise values.
Figure 36
24 – 25
Caution: This table contains sample values for the purposes of illustration only. Refer to the manufacturer of the equipment you’re using for precise values.
RIGGING
RIGGING
Figure 38
24 – 26
RIGGING
1 2 3 4 5
Boom Down Boom Up Slowly Boom Down Boom Up Boom Down
Slowly Load Down Load Up
6 7 8 9 10
Everything Use Whip Use Main Travel Forward Turn Right
Slowly Line Line
11 12 13 14 15
Turn Left Shorten Extend Hydraulic Swing Load Stop
Hydraulic Boom Boom
16 17 18 19 20
Close Clam Open Clam Dog Everything
No response should be
made to unclear signals.
21 22 23
Figure 41
24 – 27
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
25 SPECIALIZED RIGGING
CONTENTS
• Rigging with hydraulic gantry systems
• Overhead cranes
• Jacks and rollers
• Tuggers
25 – 1
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
CONTROL/POWER UNIT
The track beams are normally tied together at regular
This is a remote control station that provides power to
intervals. The spacing matches the transverse wheel
actuate the cylinders in the jacking units.
spacing of the jacking unit. The track units are usually
On all-hydraulic machines, this unit contains a motor and fabricated in sections short enough to be shipped easily
hydraulic pump that pressurizes the system. It also has and then bolted together end to end.
control valves which the operator uses to control oil flow
Track units can be designed to carry the jacking unit
through hoses to the lift cylinders.
wheel loads over clear spans, such as pits or weak floor
In some machines, the controls at the station used to sections, or they can be designed for full support from an
actuate the operation of the jacking legs are electric. In underlying surface.
these systems there are only electrical connections to the
Hydraulic gantry systems must be solidly supported If
jacking units, which have a self-contained hydraulic
wheeled, they must run on strong, solidly supported track
system composed of the oil reservoir, motor, and hydraulic
systems with minimal deflection to keep them both stable
pump.
and upright.
The header plate is an adapter plate with a swivel fitting, The jacking system must be propelled along the track or
located at the top of the lift cylinder or boom. It is used to floor. There are three basic concepts for the propulsion
attach the header beam to the jacking unit. devices:
1) Built-in: The jacking unit has a motor that drives some
HEADER BEAMS
or all of its wheels using chain or gears.
Header beams are
structural sections— 2) External cylinder(s): For use on free-wheeling units, a
usually rolled wide flange cylinder is pinned close to the bottom of the jacking unit’s
shapes or fabricated box base at one end, and to the track at the other. The
sections. They are cylinder is extended and retracted repeatedly to move the
supported on the header jacking system along the track.
plates. 3) External drive wheels: One or more drive wheels are
Different header beam mounted to the base of the jacking unit. In order to
arrangements are used develop enough friction and tractive force to drive the
with four-leg gantry jacking unit, the wheels must be loaded somehow.
systems. A four-beam header arrangement allows more
LOAD SENSORS/GAUGES
flexibility in positioning lifting links to match the pickup
points on the load, or in putting slings on the load. These are devices used to measure the weight being
Typically the lower two beams span the jack legs while the carried by each jacking unit. They can be installed on the
upper header beams span the lower beams. control panel or on each jacking unit. It is better to install
them on each cylinder directly—not on the hydraulic
CROSS BEAMS pressure line—so that they provide more accurate and
Cross beams are typically used to make up a four-beam individual readings.
header arrangement and are a second set of header
LIFTING LINKS
beams (or one beam), to which the load is attached,
placed across the first set. Lifting links are a means
of attachment between
TRACK SYSTEMS the header beams and the
Track systems consist of two parallel beams, usually wide load rigging. They are
flange shapes or fabricated box sections, that are fitted often made from a piece
with a wheel guide to direct the jacking unit’s wheels. The of flat plate cut to fit
function is to provide a smooth and guided surface for the around the header beam
wheels. with a hole at the bottom
for attaching rigging
25 – 2
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
DRIFT PERSONNEL
This is the horizontal • Fall hazards while rigging
movement of the top of a • Fall hazards while preparing mating surfaces
telescopic lifting boom due to • Fall hazards during assembly and breakdown
clearance between the boom • Overexertion injuries during setup and dismantling
sections. operations
• Pinch points and crush injuries.
PUNCHING
This is the failure of a
structural support, such as a 4. GENERAL PRACTICES
concrete floor, due to
excessive shear stress from a
heavy locally concentrated load. This type of equipment was originally developed for lifting
and moving heavy machinery components inside buildings
where clearances were small and where conventional
cranes were not practical. It remains an effective and
3. HAZARDS economical alternative to cranes for lifting heavy loads.
The majority of gantry lifts are of the basic rig-lift-and-roll
Headings suggest the area of deficiency.
type or straight-up-and-down type for transloading from
PLANNING one carrier to another. Types of lifts will be discussed in
• Inadequate knowledge or training more detail later in this chapter.
• Loading that exceeds floor load capacity or causes The basic procedures for using hydraulic gantry systems
unexpected deflection for lifting are not unlike those for using conventional
• Poor load distribution for weak or irregular structural cranes.
support conditions
• Poor sub-grade conditions. • The supplier provides a set of manufacturer’s
operating instructions and a load chart or charts with
PREPARATION the equipment.
• Excess track deflections • The user is responsible for the selection of rigging,
• Track beam deflection causing “uphill” or “downhill” the preparation of the base on which the equipment
condition, or differential movement of track sections at will be set up, and the safe operation of the
connections equipment.
• Unequal track deflection from side to side, e.g., due to • As a general rule it is advisable to use rigging which
pits, obstacles has excess capacity—some suppliers recommend
• Lack of system manual or load chart information rigging that will support twice the anticipated load.
• Unanticipated loads: rigging misaligned due to This recommendation should definitely be followed if
clearance problems. there is any chance of “cross-cornering”—i.e., when
two slings can end up carrying all the load of a four-
25 – 3
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
5. RESPONSIBILITIES OF
WORKPLACE PARTIES Straight up and down. This type of lift consists of
rigging, lifting, and holding the load, then lowering it when
OWNER/CONSTRUCTOR its new support is in place.
• clearly define the required tasks and schedule A common use is for transferring a heavy piece of
• provide necessary drawings and information about the equipment from one vehicle to another—for instance, from
plant or facility a railcar to a trailer. In this case the gantry might be set up
• cooperate in planning and emphasize that safety must over the rails while the loaded rail car is driven between
be a priority in all operations the gantry tracks. The load is then rigged to the header
• cooperate with other requirements such as limiting beams and the gantry extended to lift the load clear of the
access of nonessential personnel during moves. car. The railcar can be moved out and the trailer moved in
CONTRACTOR under the load. The load can then be lowered to the trailer
bed for transport.
• plan and organize all activities
• work with the supplier and owner/constructor to plan Straight up and down with travel. This type of lift
and schedule the moves consists of rigging the load, lifting it with the gantry,
• make sure that accurate load information has been driving the loaded gantry along a track system, raising
provided and approved, including load weights, sizes, and lowering the load as required, and then finally
shapes, and rigging plans lowering it to its final location.
• perform detailed “risk assessment” activities before
the moves
• have competent supervision on the job
• ensure there is a trained competent operator—
checked out or provided by the supplier
• ensure there are trained competent operators for
other equipment (e.g., forklifts)
• designate crew members for all tasks
• make sure that your crew is trained on the equipment
and given job-specific training
• provide necessary personal protective equipment An example of this kind of lift is placing a large
(PPE) and equipment for the crew. component—such as the crown—on top of a mill or press
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER inside a plant. Some form of motive power is required to
move and control the longitudinal travel of the loaded
• provide the lifting equipment in proper working
gantry along the tracks.
condition
• provide all necessary documentation such as manuals Stand up/lay over. In this lift, the longitudinal axis is
and load charts for the equipment rotated to stand up a tall component which has been
• ensure that the equipment has enough capacity for shipped horizontally, or to lay one over.
the job
This type of lift can be used to place tall vessels or large
• provide a competent, experienced operator if required
castings. More complex than straight lifting, it requires the
• ensure that adequate training is provided on the use
coordination of simultaneous horizontal and vertical
of the equipment.
movement of at least one pair of gantry legs.
25 – 4
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
In operations with a tipping—if only due to the simple rigidity of the load. The
four-legged system, motive power for travel can come from one of the pieces
the gantries of equipment, such as a forklift.
supporting the
Straight up and down with side-shift. The load is lifted,
upper end are
moved
typically stationary
laterally
and lift only. The
along header
gantries controlling
beams, then
the lower end are
lowered. A
rolled along the
more
tracks to bring the
complex
bottom end under
lifting link is
the top of the load,
needed to
similar to the use of a
enable lateral
tailing crane.
travel along
Advance planning is very the header
important, along with beams as
careful coordination well as a means of powering the travel. Even more
during the lift, in order to complex lifting links are necessary for other movements
minimize horizontal such as rotating the load. As the load moves within the
forces being generated gantry framework, the load on each leg changes as does
by out-of-plumb rigging the potential deflection of track beams, which can cause
during such lifts. the legs to lean and drift.
Lifts on top of header
beams. In this lift, the load is carried on the header beam Other configurations: Boom lifters
system rather than being suspended below.
This technique allows the load to be elevated when the
placement location has insufficient headroom for the
headers and rigging to place the load in its final position.
In order to do this the gantry must be able to pass under
the load either by positioning the load in an elevated
pickup location or by using a pit arrangement which
permits the gantry to pass under the load for pickup.
The bearing points or surfaces on which the load is
supported prior to pickup must leave clear access for the
pickup locations on the header beams when the gantry
moves under the supported load. Similarly, at the
placement location, there must be no interference as the Equipment such as “boom lifters” can offer more flexibility
load is moved and placed on its final bearing surfaces. for somewhat lighter loads.
Combination lifts with a crane, forklift, etc. This type of The safety standard to which these units are made is
lift is similar in some ways to a tilt-up or lay-down situation ASME Standard B 56.7 for Industrial Mobile Cranes.
with two gantries. In this case, one of the gantries has These units operate on a counterbalance principle. They
been replaced by a crane, forklift, or other equipment. can have adjustable extendable booms and extendable
Such lifts are both complex and potentially hazardous. counterweighting systems which can be adjusted
They require specialized knowledge and careful planning, depending on the counterbalance moment required.
as in any type of tandem lift.
Several types and capacities of unit are available. Lifting
Care must be taken to keep the rigging vertical in order to features or options may allow the unit to
avoid horizontal loading which can quickly make the whole
system unstable, resulting in rapid tipover. Cranes and • pick and carry suspended loads, as shown above, for
forklifts are not designed to take on and resist horizontal tilt-up or other work in tight areas
loads or components of loads. Tiebacks or holdbacks • be equipped with a fork-type attachment and perform
tied to the structure or other stable anchor points may as a high-capacity forklift
be required to stabilize the load to prevent kickout or • operate as a gantry, lifting on top of the boom, for
swing as the load balance shifts during movement. Take tasks such as installing or removing overhead crane
care that tiebacks don’t introduce unbalanced tipping bridges
forces. • travel with a suspended load, carefully secured or tied
back to control load swing. Follow the manufacturer’s
Ideally, the support structures or vehicles (gantry, crane, directions.
or forklift) should be tied together to minimize the
opportunities for horizontal components of load and
25 – 5
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
7. SYSTEM SUPPORT AND • if a track beam on one side must span a pit or
obstacle, shimming the track beam on the other side
LOAD DISTRIBUTION at locations matching the span supports
• shimming the track beams to provide firm supports at
Qualified professionals should carry out an engineering matching positions on both sides so that expected
assessment and detailed calculation of these factors in deflections will be the same on both sides (but still
advance. It’s valuable, however, for all personnel involved within acceptable limits)
in the lifting process to understand factors that must be • matching the height of adjacent sections of track
considered. beam, and adequately bracing and supporting them,
to prevent height differences when the loaded gantry
Uniformity of settlement or deflection of the track is
travels across the joint.
critical to keep the entire gantry system stable.
The sketch below illustrates some steps to take to help
Any vertical movement under the load must be kept
ensure that track beam deflection is constant on both
uniform to prevent one side or corner of the gantry system
sides.
settling more than others, and to prevent the system from
leaning and becoming unstable. The whole system must
be kept essentially plumb throughout the move in order to
PLATES
avoid the risk of total collapse. Steel plates can provide a hard surface for the jacking
units to bear on and thus distribute loads over a large
SUPPORT COMPONENTS AND enough area to prevent punching through a slab on grade
METHODS or a floor slab. Plates can sometimes reduce the bearing
pressure on a weak subgrade to an acceptable level.
Plates are also used as shims to support the track beams
TRACK SYSTEM at predetermined locations.
The ideal support for the track would allow no deflection
and therefore no tilt or drift. If such conditions can be STANDS
achieved, then levelling the track at the beginning is
adequate. In reality there will always be some deflection. Structural frames can be made to support a jacking unit or
It’s important to remember that track deflection must be a track system and distribute the loads.
predicted and controlled to cause little or no tilt of the
gantry—especially sideways. MATS/TIMBER
Any deflection of the track beams on both sides must be Crane mats, built-up cribbing, or other timbers can be
kept within tight limits. The deflection must also be used to support jacking system legs or track beams in
essentially equal for both tracks to prevent tilting of the order to provide a system of load distribution—spreading
gantry structure. A number of things can be done to help the load over a wider area.
make this happen, including:
• allowing little or no track deflection by laying track on
a solid, strong base
• using very stiff track beams to keep deflections to a
minimum
25 – 6
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
DEALING WITH SITE • risk of off-centre loads tilting a floating platform and
causing tipping forces on the gantry
CONDITIONS • grounding or partial grounding of the barge when
loaded
• tidal and weather conditions
SOIL/STONE/ASPHALT • need to anchor or tie the floating platform to prevent
Poor or weak subgrade conditions might exist at the site. movement.
Compaction may be needed and/or the placement of
timbers, mats, or cribbing to spread the load over a large
OTHER CONDITIONS OR VARIATIONS
area.
All support conditions must be considered and planned for
Whatever method of support or load distribution is
in order to provide a stable and solid foundation and
selected, the deflection must be predictable to prevent
prevent any chance of instability during the lift.
differential settlement of the track beams when loaded.
Inconsistencies in the subsoil or underground
construction, such as buried pipelines or other services,
may require bridging over to provide consistent support. 8. GANTRY COLLAPSE VS.
STAYING PLUMB
SLAB ON GRADE
Slabs on grade need to be checked for strength. The load Lifting using hydraulic gantries can be done safely. It is
must be sufficiently distributed to prevent punching important, however, to understand that gantries can
through the slab or overloading any section. One solution quickly become unstable and topple. Gantry legs have
may be to use steel plates. limited safety factors against tipping because their bases
are small compared to their height.
If heavy loading is applied well away from the centre of a
slab—or especially near the edge—there can be a greater Engineering checks must be done before any lifts are
chance of the slab cracking, deflecting, or tipping. made in the field. Personnel familiar with this type of work
must do the design, planning, and coordination.
FLOOR OR DECK SYSTEMS
Workers must appreciate the critical importance of the
The capacity of existing floor systems must be checked. legs staying vertical or plumb as well as the need to
Floors must be checked for both local and general eliminate any horizontal forces. A sure sign that some
weakness and inspected for deterioration. If loading horizontal forces are beginning to be applied to the
exceeds floor capacity, reinforcing or shoring the floor may top of the jacking leg, at the header plate level, is that
be required to strengthen it. Steel plates are one means the rigging is not vertical, but is out-of-plumb. If not
to distribute the load enough to prevent failure. corrected, these forces can lead to overturning or
collapse.
PITS OR BULKHEADS
Overturning in the direction of the tracks, due to
A typical two-leg gantry has one leg on each of two track longitudinal forces, is avoided by keeping the line of the
beams. Track beams can be designed or selected to be vertical loads within the wheel spread, or wheel base, and
strong enough to span, with limited deflection, support far enough inside the tipping axis to more than balance
points over pits or obstructions. any overturning forces.
Deflection of track beams must be limited. When it does Causes of longitudinal horizontal forces, in the direction of
occur, deflection of both beams must be more or less the tracks, include
equal to prevent the gantry from going out of plumb. Both
track beams can be designed to have equivalent stiffness • off-level setup of track beams causing an
and deflection to keep the gantry level from side to side. uphill/downhill track configuration
To ensure equal deflection of both track beams they can • sway of suspended load due to overcoming inertia or
be shimmed at matching support points on both sides— a change in travel speed along the track
even if only one side has to span a pit. • forces from out-of-plumb rigging during standing up or
laying down of a load
• adjacent sections of track beam that are out of level.
OFFSHORE/WATER SUPPORTED
Another cause is that during standing up or laying down of
If the use of floating platform or barge-mounted gantry
a load using dual two-leg gantries, opposing horizontal
systems is being considered, other factors must be taken
forces can be imposed on each due to tension in out-of-
into account. The transfer of a load onto or off a floating
plumb rigging.
platform will cause the platform to lower in the water as it
receives the weight and to rise in the water as the weight Side-to-side (lateral) overturning comes from sideways
is off-loaded. The floating platform will be raised or forces and is avoided by keeping the line of vertical loads
lowered relative to any adjacent dock or structure. within the wheel span at the top surface of the track and
by the vertical forces staying within the track width at
Load transfers on water require careful assessment
ground level.
because of many factors, including the following:
25 – 7
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
25 – 8
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
Possible causes of sideways (lateral) horizontal loads Preliminary equipment: Assess lift type and make
include preliminary selection of lifting equipment as well as
alternative methods of lifting.
• hangup of a suspended load during side-shift along
the header beams Accurate loads: Knowing the load weight and size is
• uneven deflection of the track beams on each side critical.
due to different size beams or different support Load shape and orientation: The load’s shape, weight
conditions distribution (location of centre of gravity), and pickup
• rotation of single track rails because they are off-level points must be accurately determined in order to select or
or poorly supported design header beams, rigging, etc. Calculations must be
• twin track rails on each side which are not at the completed and must be made available.
same level or poorly supported.
Site Assessment: Do a detailed assessment of the site
Other possible sources of horizontal forces include for track support, obstacles, and inconsistencies that need
to be considered. Do subgrade and/or floor assessments.
• the jacking legs operating at different rates during the
Determine whether cribbing or other support is needed.
jacking (raising or lowering) of a load (Install a tape
measure on each leg to allow for frequent checking.) Lifting equipment: Select gantry system, size, and
• wind on large loads being rigged outdoors capabilities as well as all the components of the system.
• equipment vibration or earthquake forces. Lay out the system to minimize side-loading. Confirm that
the gantries can lift the load high enough for clearances.
Centre loads on the header plate Also confirm the clearances above the header beams at
the roof, etc.
Vertical loads should be applied at the centre of each
Shifting loads: If the lift includes such moves as standing
jacking leg on the header plate. If the jacking leg is plumb,
up, laying over, or side-shifting a load, be sure that in the
then the vertical force will pass through the vertical axis to
capacity checks of the equipment you account for the
the ground or supporting structure. Loads applied off-
changing distribution of the load among the jacking units.
centre will make the system less stable. Vertical loads
applied to an already out-of-plumb jacking leg will force it Rigging plans: Have rigging devices and assemblies
more out-of-plumb. designed and approved for each load and type. Have
calculations done and available. Confirm that the load can
A number of conditions can contribute to a jacking leg be raised high enough to clear any obstacles and that the
being non-vertical, including the following: load or rigging clears the roof or other overhead
• There can be lateral drift of the jacking leg in obstacles. This is similar to preventing two-blocking in
telescopic boom gantries. Clearances between boom crane operations.
sections can allow the top of the jack to drift off- Select the pickup location carefully to ensure that the load
centre. Even when on a level track the top can lean aligns accurately when reaching its placement location.
one way or another due to these clearances. Locate any supports or stands accordingly. In a pick-and-
• Off-level track beam or beams, or rotation of a track travel lift, such as placing a crown on a press, attempting
beam, will cause a tilting of the entire jacking leg, to pull over an elevated but misaligned crown is
reducing the line of action of vertical loads which keep dangerous and could cause gantry collapse. If the rigging
the leg upright. is pulled out-of-plumb, the lateral horizontal loads
• The track beam or beams can deflect unequally. introduced at the header beams can quickly tip over the
entire system.
If several conditions are present, then the effect will be
cumulative. When up-ending a load, check that there is clearance
between the load and gantries in all positions and confirm
The figure below illustrates these effects and their that the rigging can be kept plumb during the operation.
possible combined result. If the jacking leg is not plumb,
any vertical load that is applied will reduce its resistance When planning a four-point lift, consider the possible
to overturning and could lead to a collapse of the entire effects of “cross-cornering”— when two slings and lift
gantry system. points might be carrying all or most of the load.
Assignments: Provide and communicate clear
assignments to personnel for each task.
9. PLANNING THE MOVE Training: Ensure that personnel are properly trained for
their assignments.
Planning is the key step in this kind of work, as in most Site safety: Ensure fall prevention and fall protection.
complex rigging. Always keep some basic considerations Protect pits and access openings. Do a complete site
in mind. cleanup. Remove any loose objects. Identify barrier
locations to cordon off the area.
Know the scope: Have a clear definition of what must be
done. System and rigging inspection: Ensure that there are
certificates of test for rigging devices and assemblies and
Preliminary layout: Prepare or use a preliminary that there has been adequate inspection of rigging
equipment layout to define the lift parameters, including components. Ensure compliance with rigging plans, the
the clearances and any potential obstacles. manual, and the load charts for the gantry system.
25 – 9
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
10. SAFE OPERATING ❑ Are jacking unit supports, stands, or track rails still
level? Have they settled under the load?
PRACTICES ❑ Are there signs of horizontal drift of any jacking
leg?
When using a hydraulic gantry system, good operating ❑ Is there excessive header beam deflection,
practices include the following. especially if side-shifting a load?
❑ Is the header beam staying level and not rotating?
• Follow the manufacturer’s directions and load charts
❑ Is the loading on each jacking leg equal or as
Is there a load-equalizing feature in the system?
predicted?
• Confirm that the load, in its pickup location, is ❑ Are the jacking units travelling uniformly and in-
oriented to be properly aligned for final accurate sync (side-to-side, no racking, etc.)?
placement at its destination. ❑ Is there still adequate clearance past obstructions,
including those overhead?
• Mount a tape measure on each jacking leg to monitor
❑ Is the rigging staying plumb? Out-of-plumb rigging
the rate of extension or contraction of each leg while
indicates dangerous horizontal loads being applied
raising or lowering the load in order to ensure that the
at the top of the jacking legs.
system stays level.
❑ Has the travel path been inspected for debris,
• Keep unnecessary personnel out of the work area. obstructions, and signs of track shifting?
Cordon off the area.
• Conduct a site hazard assessment before any gantry
move to make sure that the track is clear of debris or
11. POST-LIFT
objects and that the travel path is obstacle free. When CONSIDERATIONS
several lifts are made using the same track setup,
make sure the track has not shifted or suffered Dismantling and removing the equipment must be
damage before each move. planned and carried out in a safe way.
• As in all other heavy rigging, move slowly. This helps Heavy lifts using hydraulic gantries are usually a central
prevent unsafe movements such as side-loading, focus of construction activities during their set-up and
pendulum action, jerking, or sudden stops. Operating while they are under way. When the lifts are complete, the
slowly provides more time to notice potential problems pressure is off and participants naturally relax after a job
and take corrective action. well done. It’s easy for a less-than-cautious, complacent
• Keep the load as low as possible—just high enough attitude to develop.
to clear obstacles, especially while moving it along the Safe practices can slip when your attention begins to
track or moving it laterally. focus on the next job. Disassembly and removal of the
• Constantly monitor the pressures in the hydraulic gantries can be seen as a routine job. At times such as
system and in each jacking leg if they have this, it is easy for accidents and injuries to occur. Safety
independent hydraulic systems. Increasing pressures and safe practices must remain in the forefront at all
or a variation in pressure between the jacking legs times. The gantries themselves are large and heavy
can indicate problems such as corner-loading with pieces of equipment. Their breakdown and removal must
two of four legs carrying most of the load instead of it be planned and carried out carefully, as in any other
being shared equally. rigging job.
• Make sure the track beams along the line of travel are
kept clear of objects, debris, or dirt that can obstruct
travel. 12. TRAINING GUIDELINES
• During longitudinal movement of gantries (moving a
load along the track beams) make sure that the two Identify the training requirements for both tradespersons
legs of each gantry move in unison so that one side and supervisors.
does not lag behind. 1) Manufacturers must make training available in the
• When using two two-legged gantries, the leading and operation and servicing of every piece of equipment
trailing gantries must move in unison. they sell. They must also provide the necessary
documentation, including manuals and load charts,
• Monitor the rigging to make sure it stays plumb. An with each piece of equipment.
out-of-plumb condition indicates the presence of
horizontal forces on the system. 2) The division of responsibility between the
supplier/manufacturer and contractor(s) must be
• At any sign of a problem, STOP and find out clearly defined to permit clear accountability for
what’s wrong. adequate training before the job proceeds.
• Periodically—and whenever changing any condition or 3) The contractor providing the lifting services using
direction of lift or travel—stop and check the following hydraulic gantries must ensure that, at all times, only
items: operators trained and competent in the operation of
❑ Are the jacking units plumb and level at their base? the specific equipment are used on the site.
25 – 10
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
EQUIPMENT HAZARDS
• Hoses and electrical cables must be protected from
damage, especially when a gantry is moving a load
along the track. Hoses and electrical cables are also a
constant tripping hazard.
• High-pressure hydraulic systems are the core of
gantry lifting systems. There are ongoing hazards of
injury from hydraulic leaks due to their high pressures.
25 – 11
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
25 – 12
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
• Confirm the load weight. Check the capacity of all • Walk ahead of the load during travel and warn people
equipment including the hardware, rope, and slings. to keep clear. Use a tag line to prevent rotation or
Do not exceed these capacities. other uncontrolled motion. Raise the load only as high
as necessary to clear objects. Do not ride on hook or
• Select the right sling for each lift. Inspect slings and load.
other rigging hardware before use for wear, stretch, or
other damage. Do not use damaged or defective • Set loads down on blocking, never directly on a sling.
slings. Use softeners around sharp corners. Do not Do not pull or push loads out from under the hoist.
splice broken slings. • Do not leave the load (or the crane) unattended while
• When communicating with a crane operator, use the load is suspended.
clear, agreed-upon signals. Except for the stop signal, • Where crane operation by other personnel must be
the crane operator should follow instructions from only restricted, employ lockout and tagging procedures.
one person – a designated signaller. Where a wired or
remote controller is used, the operator should become • Store slings off the floor in a clean, dry location on
familiar with all of its functions before lifting the load. hooks or racks. Do not leave slings, accessories, or
blocking lying on the floor.
• Warn all people in the load lift area before starting the
lift. Ensure that the path of the load is clear of persons
and obstructions. Do not lift loads over anyone.
25 – 13
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
MECHANICAL JACKS
Mechanical jacks work on the same principle as jacks
found in some automobiles. Mechanical jacks are usually
limited to capacities under 20 tons because of the
physical effort required to raise such a load. They do,
however, have a much longer travel than hydraulic jacks
and can therefore lift loads higher without having to
reblock. Most mechanical jacks have a foot lift or “toe”
near the base for lifting loads that are close to the ground.
Lifts can be made from either the “head” or the “toe” of the
jack.
Two types of mechanical jacks are prevalent in
construction, the rack and pinion type and the ratchet
type. These jacks are sometimes called toe jacks or track
jacks.
25 – 14
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
25 – 15
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
The pump powering a hydraulic jack may be contained The handles on jacks or hand-operated pump units are
within the jack itself, or as a separate external power unit designed so that you can get to the rated capacity and
that can be operated at a safe distance from the load. pressure with little physical effort. Do not use extensions
Separate units may be hand-operated or electrically or “cheaters” on the handles If the load cannot be raised
powered. Most external power units are equipped with with the handle supplied, the jack is probably overloaded.
pressure relief valves. One valve is typically factory-set at
With all types of hydraulic jacks it is critical that no further
the absolute maximum pressure, while another will be
force be applied after the ram has run its full travel. The
adjustable to lower settings by the user. Make sure you
resultant high pressure in the hydraulic fluid can damage
are familiar with the operation of this safety feature. Use
the seals and, in the case of external power units, burst
caution around pressure relief valves. The valve can
the hoses.
discharge oil with considerable force—you can be
seriously injured. Place blocking or cribbing under the load as it’s being
raised. When placing blocking under the load, position
Most hydraulic jacks can be fitted with a gauge on the
your body to keep clear of the load and keep hands from
housing or at the pump to monitor hydraulic pressure. The
getting between the load and the blocking. Do not rely on
gauges can be calibrated to measure the approximate
a jack as a permanent support—blocking or cribbing
load on the unit.
should be used whenever you need to hold the load for a
Wear personal protective equipment. At a minimum, wear length of time.
safety glasses, a hardhat, a long sleeve shirt, and long
Never disconnect hydraulic hoses while the jack is under
pants. Failure of any component under pressure can send
load. Release the pressure with the appropriate valves.
metal fragments and oil through the air. Avoid contact with
Depressurized hoses will become less stiff and more
a hydraulic leak—escaping oil can penetrate the skin and
flexible. If your pump has gauges, check them for the
cause serious injury.
amount of pressure.
Support each ram in the jacking system on a solid, firm,
Be extremely careful when using hydraulic jacks around
non-sliding foundation that supports the full base of the
welding or corrosive chemicals. Sparks or acids can pit
jack. Because jack bases are relatively small, ensure that
the ram or damage the hoses.
the floor or ground can withstand the high pressures often
associated with jacking operations. Blocking or matting
under the jacks will distribute the load over a greater area GENERAL
and reduce the bearing pressure. Centre the load on the Both types of jacks are marked with load capacities on
lifting point. Ensure that the point on the load which their nameplates and should not be loaded beyond these.
contacts the ram can withstand the pressures it will take.
Lift loads a little at a time on one end only and follow
Jacks should only be used in a true vertical position for
closely with blocking. The load should be progressively
lifting. Otherwise, side-loading can cause the piston to rub
blocked as jacking proceeds. Always jack loads at the end
against the housing. If this happens, the piston will be
(as opposed to jacking the side)—this will make the lift
scored and allow fluid to leak at the seal which may cause
more stable. The farther apart you place the jacks, the
the jack to slip.
more stable your load.
Where multiple jacks are used, space the jacks to
Using blocks between the jack and the load can avoid
distribute the load evenly between them as much as
damage to the surface. However, ensure the blocking is
possible. Check valves should be incorporated into each
clean, dry, and will not slip. Ensure the floor or ground
branch to protect against pressure loss, and more
under the jack can withstand the high pressures created
importantly to prevent interflow between jacks.
at the base of the jack. Blocking or matting under the jack
Hydraulic jacks are generally not equipped with check can be used to distribute the load over a greater area. The
valves. But it’s good practice to install check valves in the base should be fully supported by a solid, firm foundation
hoses of an external pump. Alternatively, some hydraulic that will not slide.
jacks have retaining nuts that can be screwed against the
Jacks should never be used at an angle.
housing to hold the load for a short time.
Don’t use jacks for long-term support—blocking and
cribbing are much more stable. If you need to work under
a load, or even reach under it while it is on the jacks,
place safety blocking under the load as a precaution.
All jacks should be thoroughly inspected periodically,
depending on how they are used. They should be
inspected more frequently if the lifts approach capacity.
Jacks sent out for special jobs should be inspected when
received on site and when returned to the shop. Jacks
subjected to high loads or shock should be inspected
immediately.
Further information on jacking systems is contained in the
chapter on Rigging with Hydraulic Gantry Systems.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
3. BLOCKING up points in
their lowered
position. One
Blocking timbers are used to support heavy loads or as a end is then
foundation for jacks. They may be used individually or in jacked just
tiers to form cribbing. Timbers should be large enough for enough (2
the load and be a inches for
suitable type of example) to
wood. Often used allow a small
are Douglas fir piece of
and white oak, and blocking to be
in some cases an inserted
exotic African between the load and cribbing. The process is repeated at
hardwood (called the other end. The jacks at the first end are then lowered
“Ipe”) because of and another piece of 2-inch blocking is placed under the
its durability and jack. After jacking the load another 2 inches, the 2-inch
compactness. blocking can be replaced with a 4-inch timber, which
forms part of the cribbing. This process is repeated until
you reach the desired height.
Avoid pinch-points while blocking.
Always jack the load one end at a time and follow closely
with blocking.
4. CRIBBING Never jack a load one side at a time, since this will be far
less stable than jacking the ends.
Cribbing gives you height If you need to work under a load, or even reach under it
and stability and reduces while it is on the jacks, place safety blocking under the
bearing pressure by load as a precaution.
distributing the load over a
greater area.
The two main 5. ROLLERS
considerations in blocking
operations are stability and Rollers can be used for moving loads horizontally or on
bearing pressure. Make slight inclines, provided the surface is firm and even.
sure the timbers used for Rollers may be aluminum or steel round stock, heavy
blocking or cribbing are steel pipe, or a manufactured caster unit.
long enough to distribute
the load over a large enough area to provide sufficient CYLINDER ROLLERS
stability. The height of the cribbing should not exceed the
length of the timbers used. For example, cribs built with 4- Cylinder rollers are useful for short distances or where the
foot timbers should be no more than 4 feet high. Cribbing load will have to negotiate corners. Cylinder-type rollers
and blocking must be are generally 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Cylinder rollers
should be round, true, and smooth to minimize the force
• sufficient to support the load required to move the load. The rollers can be placed on
• set on firm, level ground or floor angles to swing the ends of the load, allowing turns in
• close together tight areas.
• dry and free of grease or oil
• distributed over a large enough area to provide
stability.
Blocking and cribbing should have enough area in contact
with the ground or floor so that you don’t exceed the
bearing capacity and there is no chance of settlement.
Rigged steel or hardwood mats can be used between the
cribbing and the ground surface to distribute the load and
reduce the bearing pressure. For extremely heavy loads,
use solid layers of timbers for the cribbing. This will
distribute the load over more timbers and prevent damage
by crushing.
CASTER ROLLERS
Centre loads on blocking and cribbing to ensure that the
load is transmitted evenly to the ground. Caster rollers are available in a number of configurations
for flat surfaces, tracks, I-beams or channels. They create
Cribbing is frequently used with jacks for lifting loads in minimal friction and allow heavy loads to be moved with
stages. Cribbing is built up so the jacks contact the pick relatively little force.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
7. REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Which is the number-one issue in planning an
operation involving moving large and/or heavy loads?
a) Load calculations
b) Route planning
c) Speed
6. SAFETY ZONES d) Safety
2. List four things to look for when you’re inspecting a
You must establish safety zones before jacks or rollers are mechanical jack before use.
put into operation. Here are two types of safety zones: 3. List five things to look for when you’re inspecting a
Interior zone – This includes areas where immediate hydraulic jack before use.
hazards exist, such as underneath a raised load or 4. What should all jacks be clearly marked with?
downhill on a slope where the load is being raised or
lowered. No one should enter this zone. 5. Stability and floor bearing pressure are two major
considerations in blocking operations. Specify four
Exterior zone – This includes the area where workers additional requirements applicable to cribbing.
involved in moving the load are working. Personnel not
directly involved in moving the load should be restricted 6. Each caster must be inspected before use. List three
from this zone. things to check for.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
ANSWERS
1. d) Safety hydraulically,
electrically, by
2. 1) Wear
2) Improper engagement of pawl and rack compressed air, or by
3) Excessive lubricant internal combustion
4) Cracked or broken rack teeth engine. The most
5) Damage to housing common tuggers in
6) Bent frame construction are
electric tuggers for light
3. 1) Cracked or broken cylinder
lifting and pulling and air-
2) Hydraulic fluid leaks
powered tuggers for
3) Scored or damaged plungers
4) Damaged or improperly assembled accessories heavier loads. Heavy
5) Damaged threads or leaking fittings applications use wire
6) Reservoir oil level rope while lighter ones
7) Frayed or damaged electric cords (on electric use fibre rope.
pumps) Tuggers are used in
8) Dirt or foreign matter in ports construction to
9) Hose damage such as punctures, nicks, cracks,
and kinks • pull electrical cables
• move heavy machinery
4. Load capacity
• lift vessels
5. 1) Sufficient to support the load • install structural steel.
2) Set on firm, level ground or floor
3) Close together Tuggers are often used with other rigging attachments.
4) Dry and free of grease or oil The most common attachments include snatch blocks,
5) Distributed over a large enough area to provide sheaves, and rollers. Snatch blocks and sheaves are used
stability to change the direction of pull while rollers are used to
support the load. Because tugger operations involve
6. 1) Inspect rolls for cracks and/or corrosion.
rigging, users must beware of rigging hazards.
2) Check for pin wear on ends.
3) Check chain linkage for excess freedom of This section of the chapter is intended to foster hazard
movement. awareness and provide a general understanding of safe
4) Ensure chain and chain rolls are moving freely and tugger operation. Personnel should know rigging and
all other parts are functional. have completed training in rigging safety. Further job-
7. b) Two specific planning and equipment training are required.
8. a) True The Ontario Construction Regulation (O. Reg. 213/91)
does not specifically address tugger operation. However,
9. a) 2000 lb.
as a minimum, tugger operation should comply with the
10. 1) Interior sections under “General Equipment” (sections 93-116).
2) Exterior These sections deal with maintenance, inspection, worker
25 – 21
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
competence, and overhead lifting. Training, capacity, and will be subjected to and includes the following:
records are covered under sections 150-156. The rigging
• friction—ground surface (horizontal pulls) and sheave
aspect of tugger operation must comply with sections 168-
• weight of all rigging attachments (mainly on vertical
179. Please refer to the Construction Regulation for
lifts)
details.
• load weight
• additional dynamic forces such as shock, wind, and
snow or ice loads (in some cases, static loads may
2. HAZARDS need to be estimated to free stuck equipment).
Calculation of load weight and potential dynamic forces
Hazards in tugging operations are similar to those in involves adding up each factor and arriving at a total.
rigging operations: Once the total load is calculated, the anchorage method
• Poor communication for the tugger and the capacity of associated rigging can
• Lack of training be determined. The direction in which the load will be
• Overloading moved (pulling or hoisting) must also be determined.
• Failure of assembly
• Failure to incorporate a fall protection system Remember—the strength of your rigging assembly is
only as strong as its weakest link.
• Failure of anchorage points
• Undesired movement under load
• Brake failure under load
• Worker or equipment struck or crushed while handling HORIZONTAL PULL VERSUS
the load
• Hand pinched or crushed at drum or sheaves
VERTICAL LIFT
• Loose clothing or jewellery caught in drum or sheaves Some manufacturers distinguish between hauling
• Electrocution (with electrically powered tuggers) (horizontal pull) and hoisting (vertical lift) tuggers. This is
• Carbon monoxide poisoning from combustion by- because the factor of safety is different for each. Hauling
products capacity is based on a factor of safety of 3:1 while
• Fire or explosion during operation in a combustible hoisting capacity is based on a factor of safety of 5:1.
area or atmosphere When ordering a tugger, tell the supplier whether or not
• Rope jumping off the drum the operation involves hoisting.
• Operational area not isolated from other workers or
public during hoisting or hauling.
When a tugger is under load, it will have stored energy. In HOISTING WITH CAPSTANS
most cases, this stored energy is more than enough to
move the load. For example, a tugger with a 5-ton pull Due to pull of the load, capstans generally do not
capacity can create as much as 15 tons of energy in the reverse. However, that does not prevent the load from
system (larger loads develop larger energy forces). A reversing direction. The load is only held in place by
failure anywhere in the rigging system can result in a the force applied to the fall line and the binding
violent whipping action of the line. friction around the drum. Should the operator fail to
maintain a pulling force on the fall line for any reason
In addition, the hazards of tugger operation are not (such as a fall, distraction, heart attack, etc.) the rope
confined to the tugger. It is absolutely essential to ensure can slip around the drum permitting the load to fall.
that all rigging and all anchorage points can bear not only For this reason, using a capstan for hoisting requires
the load but any potential load they may be subjected to. extreme caution.
All rigging components and anchorage points can be
subjected to forces greater than the force being
generated by the tugger itself.
3. TUGGER SELECTION
LOAD CALCULATION
To plan a rigging application, all load information must be
known. This involves calculating the total load. Total load
determines the selection of the tugger, associated rigging
accessories, and restrictions in travel route. When tugger
selection is limited, total load is also used to determine
the type of reeving needed on the line. Total load
calculation must determine the maximum load the tugger
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF ROPE Where drum speed may be too fast, adding lines in the
reeving of the rigging system will reduce travel speed of
The total load weight calculation determines the minimum the load.
rope diameter required. The distance between the tugger
and the load determines the length of rope required;
however, if the lift involves blocks and multiple reeving,
BRAKING DEVICE
additional rope will be needed. These requirements must Brakes should be self-setting and capable of supporting
be compared with the tugger manufacturer’s all rated loads. The tugger should have sufficient braking
recommendations for rope size and rope construction for power, complete with adjustments to compensate for
the particular tugger being considered. When determining wear and to maintain adequate force in springs where
the length of rope, take into account that there should be used. For hoisting, tuggers should always be equipped
a minimum of three full wraps of rope on the drum at all with a brake (usually electromagnetic) that will activate
times—i.e., the rope encircles the drum three times. automatically in the event of a power failure. A clutch or
power-engaging device should facilitate immediate
DRUM SIZE starting and stopping motions.
Gear reducers used to change drum speed can perform
like a secondary braking system, though the reducer will
not hold the load at a stop.
Lowering a load should not be done using only the
braking system. Tuggers are typically designed to allow
the load to be “powered down.” When “powered down,” the
load is lowered under the power and control of the tugger
in the same way it is hoisted. This feature eliminates the
potential for the load to free-fall and is essential in hoisting
operations.
ROPE TYPE
Tuggers can be designed for either fibre rope or wire rope.
The rope must be compatible with the drum in load
capacity, size, and groove diameter. Tuggers equipped
with wire rope hardware should not be used with fibre
rope is exposed.
rope and vice-versa.
TUGGER SAFETY FEATURES
DRUM SPEED
Some manufacturers provide tuggers with safety features
As the load increases, the hauling or hoisting speed tends
such as
to decrease. If the hauling or hoisting speed is too slow, it
may be necessary to select a tugger with greater capacity. • anti-reversing mechanism
• guards on drive system
Some manufacturers feature variable speed winches. This
• guarded on and off switch
feature not only changes the line speed, but can also
• guard on rope drum
change the capacity of the tugger.
• drive chain limiting internal force
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
D/d RATIO
Other than changing direction of pull, the function of a
sheave is to support the shape of the rope. The bending
action of a wire rope as it runs through a sheave reduces
the rope’s strength. This reduction in capacity is
proportional to the ratio of the diameter of the sheave (D)
to the diameter of the rope (d)— the D/d ratio. As the
sheave diameter is reduced, so too is the capacity of the
rope. The sheave diameter must be compatible with the
rope diameter. The minimum ratio of sheave diameter to
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
Sheaves
SHEAVE BEARINGS
The speed of the line determines the type of sheave
bearing suitable for the application:
The use of sheaves changes the rope’s capacity and the • plain or common bore bearings—designed for very
total friction force. The number of sheaves used is directly low line speeds and very infrequent use
proportional to the decrease in rope capacity and increase • self-lubricating bronze bushings—used for slow line
in friction force. This is true whether the rigging speeds with infrequent use
arrangement uses a multi-part-line configuration or uses • bronze bushings with pressure lubrication—used
several sheaves throughout its layout. for slow line speed and more frequent use at greater
loads
When the groove of a sheave is too large for the diameter
• anti-friction bearings—used for faster speed and
of the rope, the
more frequent use at greater loads.
sheave groove will
not fully support the Some sheave manufacturers provide options for bearing
rope under load. As In properly matched selection with certain models.
a result, the rope will ropes and sheaves,
tend to flatten. the rope should be
supported by the
Continual flattening
sheave over an arc
of the rope will of 120-150°.
eventually lead to
premature failure.
When the groove of
the sheave is too
small, the rope
becomes pinched between the sheave flanges, causing
the rope to rub and wear the flange prematurely.
Check for proper sizing of the rope when selecting blocks
and sheaves. The following diagrams illustrate the
relationship between sheave and rope diameter.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
FLOOR OR SLAB
Floors are supported directly by the ground or by columns
and beams. In both cases, the floor must have enough The anchorage must be able to withstand the direct pull
compressive and bending strength to carry the load. and torsion (twisting) forces when the tugger is under
load. Similarly the bolts must be strong enough to prevent
them from shearing off under load.
When the tugger operation requires working on
recently poured concrete floors, care must be taken to When securing to floors, it is
ensure that the concrete slab has had time to cure important to verify the integrity of
and reach full strength. the floor to prevent the anchor
from pulling out.
The floor surface must be protected from damage by If job conditions necessitate
rollers or movement of the tugger. In some cases, it may reeving the tugger with a straight
be necessary to cover the floor with steel sheets. In such upward pull, the tugger needs to
instances, the weight of the steel sheets must also be be secured to the floor carefully.
taken into account as part of the load on the floor slab. To ensure hold, use only
fasteners with a known pullout value of sufficient strength.
COLUMNS, TRUSSES, AND BEAMS Although all anchors resist some force, the anchors on the
Columns, trusses, and beams are often used as points of pull side will bear most and should be selected
anchorage. Their structural integrity and capacity must be accordingly. Blocks and sheaves are sometimes anchored
verified before designating them as anchorage points. If to the floor, but more practical anchoring methods are
there is doubt about the ability of the structure to take usually available nearby.
expected additional forces, get a written opinion from a
structural engineer.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
COLUMNS Where the first sheave from the tugger changes location,
the line should be pulled slowly to allow the tugger to re-
Columns are generally align itself to the new direction of pull. The choke on the
not designed to column may need to be loosened to facilitate equal
withstand lateral forces. tension on both sides of the sling legs.
Anchorage points The integrity of the column to withstand forces from
should be placed as varying directions must be verified before the operation.
close to the base as Softeners must be used around the column to protect the
possible, near a choker. The floor must be relatively smooth to allow the
connection to a beam tugger to slide to varying orientations.
or other lateral support.
Since columns are
already under load,
additional forces on the
column could overload it, causing it to buckle.
The common way of anchoring to a column includes using
1) welded lugs or plate
2) choking a sling
3) framing.
2) CHOKING
Choking a sling to a column is one of the simplest, BEAMS
quickest, and most common methods of anchoring. Most
blocks are anchored this way for relatively light As with columns, anchorage points to beams should be
applications. Anchoring to columns permits easy installed closest to a connecting column or other vertical
movement of the block (or tugger) when there is a need to support to increase support strength and prevent bending
change the direction of pull. of the beam. To withstand the additional forces, beams
may need to be stiffened by welding a plate to the web.
Securing methods for anchoring to beams commonly
include 1) beam clamps, 2) beam trolleys, and 3) choking
a sling.
25 – 27
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
25 – 28
SPECIALIZED RIGGING
DEAD-ENDING
Always use forged or stainless steel clips made for
LOCATING DRUM ANCHORAGE POINT hoisting and rigging applications. Do not use soft
malleable clips. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for the
correct number of clips, spacing between clips, and
torquing requirements. Please note that wire rope clips
need to be re-torqued after loading, especially when using
new rope. Check tightness of wire rope clips after each
shift.
Although most tugger operations use wire rope clips for
dead-end termination, other methods such as wedge
sockets can be used. When using wedge socket
connections, ensure that the live end of the wire rope is
left unclipped.
8. OPERATIONAL SET-UP
DIRECTION OF PULL
Whenever possible,
direction of pull coming
to the tugger should
either be parallel to the
ground or slope
downwards. When the
pull is upwards, the
force will have a
tendency to lift the
tugger up, possibly
dislodging it from its anchorage. Regardless of the
direction of pull, the anchors located on the side opposite
to the direction of pull may bear most of the pull-out force.
The tugger will want to pivot on the leading anchors
(those closest to the first pulley). Anchors must therefore
be sized to account for this potential effect.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
PULLING ANGLE
Changing the angles of a pull can dramatically change the
force exerted on the anchor point. As the following figures
illustrate, reducing the angle between the load line and
the pull line increases the load on the anchor. A 0° pulling
angle doubles the load force on the anchor.
SAFETY ZONES
Safety zones must be established before the tugger is put
into operation. The following are two examples of safety
zones:
Interior zone—This would include areas such as where
the load is being landed. No personnel should enter this
zone.
Exterior zone—This would include the area where
workers involved in the tugging operation are working.
Personnel not directly involved in the tugging operation
should be restricted from entering this zone.
To keep personnel not directly involved in the work from
entering the work area (exterior zone), the area
When the operation involves load drifting, choose a higher immediately around the tugger operation must be
point to attach a block or sheave. Higher pick points cordoned off and must be signed with wording such as
reduce the lateral forces needed to drift a load, therefore “Danger – Authorized Personnel Only.” The barricade
increasing control, travel distance, and ease in drifting (rope, fence, etc.) must be placed at a distance far
loads. enough from any hazard to eliminate the risk of injury to
personnel outside the barricaded area. Signs must also
be placed on this barricade in sufficient number so that at
least one sign is visible from any point of the barricade.
The other zone (interior zone) is in place to keep all
personnel out, and should have similar signage with
words such as “Danger— No Entry.” Signs are required
under section 44 of the Construction Regulation.
Additionally, it is good practice to post information at the
site describing the nature of the hazard and the name of a
person to contact for more information about the hazard
and for entry, particularly if workers will be away from the
site for any period of time.
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
The risk of injury is greatest during the tugger operation. deformation or movement. If such signs are detected, the
No one should be in an area where failure of a tugging operation must cease immediately. The anchorage
component involved in the operation would create a point should not be reused until it has been re-evaluated
danger. For example, if a beam is used as a point of and shown to be safe.
anchorage, no one should be working or walking under
Inspect anchor bolts and nuts for signs of loosening or
the beam or the rigging attached to it. Workers involved in
shearing. Check for signs of loose concrete around the
the tugger operation should be positioned to minimize
anchorage.
their exposure to danger while handling the load.
When anchorage involves a plate welded to a column,
When a tugger is under load, “potential” energy is stored in
check for cracking around the weld and signs of the plate
the tugger and the rigging. Failure of any component can
bending. Make sure the column has not moved or
result in a quick, violent release of energy causing a sudden
deformed. Check the hole in the lug for signs of fatigue.
whipping of the line, movement of other components, or
movement of the load. Therefore every person involved must When beam clamps are used, inspect clamps and beam
be made aware of such hazards and warned to avoid areas for deformation. Check that the clamp has not moved from
where the tugger is operating. Access to such areas should its original position.
be prevented wherever practical. When using a choker on a beam
• check for horizontal movement
• make sure that softeners around the column remain in
INSPECTION place
Inspect the tugger and rigging before use. Ensure the • make sure that the sling is in good condition
integrity of all components before the operation gets • check for kinks
under way. • look for broken wires in strands
• pay particular attention to areas that have been
subjected to sharp bends (these areas are under the
TUGGER POWER SOURCE
greatest stress).
• Electrically powered units—check the power cord.
• Gas-powered units—check the gas tank for fuel and
for leaks; make sure ventilation will be adequate to
remove products of combustion and vapours from the
fuel tank.
• Air-powered units—check hoses and fittings; make
sure connections are secure and cannot work loose.
Ensure hoses are out of the way of traffic and
protected from damage. Ensure there is an
uninterrupted air supply at a pressure high enough to SHACKLES AND BLOCKS
power the tugger. Blocks must be
inspected for sheave
TUGGER BRAKES wear and seized
bearings. Before
Brakes should be checked on the first lift:
using blocks that can
• Lift the load slightly off the ground and apply the be opened, ensure
brakes for a few minutes. that the pins are in
• The load should remain in position. place. Blocks
equipped with a hook
• Any load movement may signal that the brakes are and/or shackles must
failing or that the tugger is too small for the load. be inspected for hook
and shackle wear
ROPE and deformation.
• Wire rope must be checked for wear and defects. Hooks must have a working safety latch with positive lock.
Look for kinks, birdcaging, knots, and broken wires in Shackle bolts or pins must also be inspected for tightness.
strands.
• Fibre rope must be inspected for tear in the weave
and any other signs of damage or degeneration. With WORK AREA
fibre rope, it is recommended that a new rope be
used at the start of a new project. Before and during the tugger operation, safety zones must
be respected. Ensure that barricades and warning signs
are in place and that signallers are in position.
ANCHORAGE
All anchorage points must be inspected before use.
During use they must be inspected for signs of
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SPECIALIZED RIGGING
6. Complete the following sentence. Rope diameter 9. c) Slightly down from the tugger.
should be: 10 c) 15 times the drum width.
a) just larger than the groove in the sheave. 11. a) 2000 lb.
b) equal to the groove in the sheave.
c) just smaller than the groove in the sheave. 12. 1) Tugger
2) Shackles
7. Aside from the rigging hardware and the tugger, name 3) Blocks
at least two other things that may be subject to stress 4) Rope
or weight from the tugger operation. 5) Work area
8. When using beam clamps, drifting a load is not
advisable.
a) True
b) False
9. Ideally, the direction of pull off the tugger should be:
a) Slightly upward from the tugger
b) Parallel to the tugger
c) Slightly down from the tugger
10. Generally, the distance to the first sheave from the
tugger should be no less than:
a) 10 times the drum width
b) 10 feet
c) 15 times the drum width
d) 15 feet
25 – 32
HELICOPTER LIFTING
The operation and control of helicopters requires highly • The ground activity must be under the control of the
trained and experienced personnel. Helicopter lifting signaller and the pilot.
demands careful planning. The work must be organized • The pilot needs direction from the ground signaller.
around the aircraft and the factors that govern its The signaller has a clear view of the load and its
operation such as load limitations, surrounding terrain position as well as a clear view of the personnel and
and structures, and weather conditions. The prime situation on the ground.
movers and key personnel during lifting operations are • The pilot generally cannot see the hook location from
the pilots and the mechanics or marshallers who normally the cockpit. It’s difficult even with plexiglass side
work for the helicopter rigging subcontractor. bubbles on the cockpit or with removable doors. The
This chapter provides information on hazard awareness pilot must rely on the signaller for communication.
and control. The information can be used to facilitate • Hover time with a load should be kept as short as
general introductory training for construction trades possible. It’s a difficult and potentially dangerous
involved in helicopter lifts. To work safely on a particular activity, requires high concentration by pilots, and is
lift, further job-specific planning and training will always fatiguing.
be required.
• The air crew controls a remote electric hook release
Contractors who hire specialized companies for at the bottom end of the load line.
helicopter lifting have responsibilties before and during
• In case of an emergency, the air crew also has a
operations. This chapter outlines those responsibilities so remote electric hook release and access to a manual
that contractors can better understand the planning, release at the aircraft end of the load line for cutting
procedures, and coordination required. This information everything loose.
will also help tradespeople work safely and effectively on
helicopter lifting jobs.
26 – 1
HELICOPTER LIFTING
Under the aircraft • static build-up and discharge on contact with the
load (This can occur when there is no non-conductive
• Downwash from aircraft rotors produces high winds
and turns dust, dirt, and loose objects into airborne element in the load line or no static discharge
projectiles. procedure. The discharge can give a ground worker a
high-voltage jolt. The result can be injury to those at
• Noise and high wind under a hovering helicopter risk—workers with heart problems, for instance—or
contribute to tense working conditions that can be loss of balance, slips, and falls.)
tiring for the ground crew.
• untrained or inexperienced ground crew (Unprepared
• Constant concentration, safe practice, and vigilance for high winds and noise, they can be injured by
are required. flying objects or distracted from their jobs and
• High wind conditions require extra protective injured.)
clothing, especially in winter.
• poorly equipped ground crew (for instance, with
unsecured hard hats or inadequate eye protection)
• poor communications (confusion over signals,
inaudible radio messages, etc.)
• ground crew too small or poorly organized
• no pre-flight briefing
• unsecured loads overhead
• fall hazards: unprotected roof openings, hatches off
or open, roof edges
• long tether or tag lines that can blow into rotors
• weighted tag lines (such as shackles) that become
dangerous when they blow around
• loose garments or PPE worn by ground crew
• injury from blown objects, unsecured structures, or
obstacles on the ground
26 – 2
HELICOPTER LIFTING
Rigging plans
Rigging devices and assemblies must be selected or Simplified pickup/laydown sequence & orientation plan
designed, and plans drawn up and approved, for
each load or type of load. Nylon slings are lighter and
less damaging to weaker loads than wire rope but are Risk assessment
more susceptible to abrasion and cuts. Identify, assess, and eliminate or provide protection
against risks posed by
Lifting equipment • powerlines
The lifting contractor must be selected and the • cranes in the area
helicopter type and capacity determined.
Considerations include load line, hook-up device and • structures, roof and structure profiles
configuration, cable and sling lengths and type, and a • loose, unsecured material in staging or roof landing
device or procedure to protect against static area
discharge. One possible procedure is to clamp one
end of a jumper cable to the roof structure and • temporary, unsecured structures in staging or
discharge each load by touching the other end of the landing area
cable to it before it contacts the laydown location. • roof openings and roof access—cover both to
Static buildup is greater with larger aircraft. prevent building pressurization and to eliminate fall
hazards
Flight plan • unprotected roof edges
• Locate and plan the staging area. • pinch, crush, and similar danger points in the
• Designate a refuelling area. load/lift/land sequence
• Plan the load lifting sequence. Inspect, record, and have certificates of testing for
rigging components and assemblies.
• Do alternate day planning.
Site safety
Lifting plan
• Follow up on all points identified during the risk
Prepare a lifting plan to cover load identification, assessment.
lifting sequence, and load orientation marks or tags.
Loads that don’t require upending should be oriented • Provide fall prevention and protection.
in the same direction in the staging area that they will • Do a complete site cleanup.
require in the laydown area. Plan the layout of the
staging area to avoid flying over any light or unstable • Remove any loose, unsecured material.
material that may blow around. Plan the lifting and • Secure temporary structures.
flight path to avoid flying over workers and any
• Make sure that roof structures are secure as well
material still being installed or not yet secure in the
as cladding, decking, etc.
laydown area.
• Where necessary, wet down the staging area to
minimize dust.
Security and notification
• Notify workplace parties of where and when
helicopter lifts will be conducted.
• Prohibit access to non-essential personnel.
26 – 3
HELICOPTER LIFTING
6. Responsibilities of
Workplace Parties
Owner/constructor
• Clearly identify and define needs, tasks, and
schedule.
• Work with the lifting subcontractor to locate and size
an appropriate staging area, develop lift and flight
plans, and make lift and laydown arrangements.
• Cooperate with other workplace parties to make
safety a priority in planning and carrying out
helicopter lifts.
• Comply with other requirements such as security
along flight path and limiting access of non-essential
personnel.
Trade contractor
• Work with the lifting subcontractor and owner/general
Ground crew to plan and schedule moves.
• Determine crew size. • Make sure that accurate information about load
weight, size, and shape has been provided and
• Plan crew cycling or rotation.
approved.
• Assign individual assignments and responsibilities. • Make sure that rigging equipment is selected and
• Provide training in personal protective equipment, approved and plans are prepared and approved.
fall hazards and safeguards, pinch points, etc. • Coordinate risk assessment activities, including site
Hoisting communications visits at staging area, along flight path, and at
laydown area.
Arrange for radio, hand signals, emergency signals,
and warning signals. Air horns can be useful when • Make sure that necessary local, provincial, and
signallers/marshallers need to alert ground crew. federal authorities have been notified.
Emergency preparedness • Designate crew members for all tasks.
• Arrange and communicate designated emergency • Make sure that ground crew is trained and receives
telephone contacts. pre-job briefing.
• Prepare and communicate an emergency plan in • Take direction from the lifting subcontractor. Don’t
case of accidents, including signals in case of pressure pilots to push limits or take chances.
emergency, exits, and escape routes for ground • Provide required personal protective and other
crews. equipment for ground crew.
• Determine whether helicopter is equipped with
warning siren and advise ground crew accordingly.
26 – 4
HELICOPTER LIFTING
• Conduct and review risk assessment. Clothing is important for protection and
identification.
• Make sure all parties are well briefed.
• Clothing should be appropriate to weather—in cold
• Be well-rested before job. conditions, for instance, balaclava and snowsuit.
• Don’t put yourself or others at unnecessary risk. • The signaller should wear apparel distinctive in
• Inspect all equipment before job—rigging, hooks colour—vest, coveralls, hard hat—which can be
(electric and manual release). identified from the aircraft.
• Confirm communication methods, signals, and • Other ground crew involved in the lifts should be
equipment. distinctively dressed but be readily distinguishable
from the signallers.
• Confirm load sequence and orientation markings.
2) Signalling
• Prepare and communicate emergency plans.
• Signalling is the job of lifting contractor personnel
Ground crew—loadmasters, signallers
because of their experience in working with the
• Know and check out communication equipment and aircraft and its crew.
signalling methods.
• Helicopter signals are different from the
• Know the procedures for emergency preparedness. international hand signals used in hoisting
• Know the loads and all lift requirements. operations with cranes.
• Brief the ground crew at your location and make sure • Emergency signals must be confirmed in the
they know their tasks. pre-flight briefing.
Ground crew—contractor employees 3) Hooking up
• Be sure there is a briefing on load rigging, load The procedures to be used for hooking up must be
sequence, and flight plan (direction of approach). confirmed during the pre-flight briefing.
• Know and follow load-handling procedures. • There must be no loose wrapping, packing, or
objects on the load.
• Know the load orientation requirements and
markings. • The hook-up person stands with back to the wind
while the aircraft approaches into the wind.
• Know the procedures for emergency preparedness.
• The hook-up person stays with the load.
• Wear appropriate protective clothing and safety
equipment. • The aircraft will approach and hover over the
hook-up person.
• If the downwash is too strong, or the load is large
and flat, or catches the wind, it can be blown
around dangerously and the aircraft will be harder
to control. The load line may have to be
lengthened. Load lines will have to be longer for
larger aircraft.
26 – 5
HELICOPTER LIFTING
26 – 6
HELICOPTER LIFTING
9. Placement Area
Requirements
26 – 7
HELICOPTER LIFTING
❑ loads as specified
A pre-flight briefing should be held immediately prior to
the lift commencing. By this time the ground crew and the ❑ loads within aircraft’s safe lifting capacity
lifting contractor should have had training and received
final information for the lift as well as confirmation that all ❑ loads inspected by lifting contractor and pilot
inspections have been carried out.
❑ pilot/marshaller’s confirmation that slings,
lanyards, swivels, cables, tethers, and other
PROCEDURES CHECKLIST rigging arrangements are correct
❑ weather and wind check, corresponding actions ❑ pilot/marshaller’s confirmation of methods and
required markings used to indicate load orientation
❑ review of emergency disconnect procedure for Some loads or load conditions are dangerous and need to
hook(s) be treated with extreme care. All workplace parties—
owner, constructor, contractor, ground crew, lifting
❑ confirmation that fall prevention and protection contractor—must be warned accordingly.
measures are in place Loads with a moving centre of gravity
One example is a tank filled, or partially filled, with liquid.
Liquid moving around or surging in the tank as it’s lifted
and carried in flight will change the load’s centre of gravity.
The pilot must always be informed of such a load. If it can
be carried at all, a single-point suspension should be
used. Even a relatively small amount of liquid can have an
effect on load stability.
Loose materials in containers
Downwash and turbulence can cause spillage and danger
on the ground. Make sure sheet coverings such as
shrinkwraps or tarpaulins are securely lashed down or—
better—removed altogether.
Large loads
Very large loads carried flat or loads that trap downwash
can increase their effective weight and create problems.
They are also prone to oscillation and aerodynamic
effects.
Environmental effects
• Under cold conditions, loads can freeze to the ground
and require unpredictable force to break them free.
26 – 8
HELICOPTER LIFTING
12. General Precautions around • Never approach downslope—the main rotor can kill
Helicopters you.
Approaching
• Rotors can kill.
• Pilot’s blind area is anywhere around the rear of the
aircraft.
• Stay in view of pilot and keep your back to the wind.
Leaving
• Exit straight out the door. Don’t change direction until
well clear of the helicopter.
• Stay away from rear of aircraft.
• Crouch low under main rotors.
• Don’t carry objects extending above body height.
• Never walk away upslope—the main rotor can kill you.
Boarding
• Note if engine will be running.
• Note location of door(s).
• Approach aircraft from the side—never from the rear.
• Crouch low under main rotor.
• Don’t carry objects extending above body height.
• Remove loose headgear.
26 – 9
HELICOPTER LIFTING
13. Exercises 10. What documentation must be available for all rigging
equipment?
______________________________________________
1. Which two workers must control load-handling
activities during helicopter lifting? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________ 11. Which workplace party generally has primary
responsibility for providing accurate load weights and
______________________________________________
rigging plans?
2. When a loaded helicopter is hovering over a pickup
______________________________________________
or laydown location, the pilot needs direction from
the ground signaller because ______________________________________________
- the signaller has a clear view of the load and its 12. As the helicopter approaches to pick up the load,
position how should ground crew stand in relation to the
wind?
- the signaller has a clear view of personnel and the
ground situation, and ______________________________________________
- the pilot generally cannot see the ______________ ______________________________________________
and the ________________________location. 13. When working with a load suspended from a
3. What special features are required for head helicopter, never turn your _________ to the load.
protection and eye protection during helicopter 14. When a load is being picked up from the staging
lifting? area, where should the hookup person stand after
hard hat with ____________________________________ hooking up the load and before the signal is given for
the load to clear the ground?
eye protection consisting of ______________________
______________________________________________
4. Why are these features required?
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
15. Cross out the item of PPE which is NOT adequate for
______________________________________________
use by ground personnel during a helicopter lift?
5. What is the one safe practice activity which must be
protective work gloves
carried out at both the staging and laydown areas
before any helicopter lift and to which all site safety glasses
personnel can contribute? green-patch workboots
______________________________________________ hard hat with chin strap
______________________________________________
6. In helicopter lifting, why do long tag lines present a
hazard?
For answers, see next page.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
7. During a helicopter lift, static electricity can build up
and discharge through the load line to a rigger on the
ground. What two precautions can be taken against
this hazard?
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
8. Identify two purposes served by rat tails in helicopter
lifting.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
9. Identify at least four points to know about a load to
be lifted by helicopter.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
26 – 10
HELICOPTER LIFTING
Answers
1. pilot; signaller/marshaller
2. load hook; pickup or laydown location
3. chin straps; goggles
4. high winds generated by rotor downwash
5. site hazard assessment
6. tag lines may drift or blow into rotors
7. install a non-conductive element in load line; follow a
static discharge procedure to prevent shocks to
ground crew touching load or load line
8. orienting load in relation to base; aligning load on
base
9. accurate weight; size; location of centre of gravity;
pickup points; shape
10. certificate of test
11. trade contractor
12 with backs to the wind
13. back
14. out from under the helicopter
15. safety glasses
26 – 11
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
27 HAND AND POWER TOOLS examples of the mistakes which commonly lead to
accidents and injuries.
3) Use tools as recommended by the manufacturer.
Employers are responsible for maintaining in good repair For example, don’t use cheaters on handles. This will
any tools and equipment supplied to workers. Workers exert greater forces on the tool than it was designed
must use tools and equipment properly and report any for and is likely to cause breakage and possible injury.
defects to supervisors. 4) Damaged or broken tools should be removed from
service. Chisels with mushroomed heads, hammers
The Construction Regulation (O.Reg. 213/91) requires
with cracked or loose handles, wrenches with worn
that tools and equipment be used according to
jaws, damaged extension cords, and ungrounded
manufacturers’ operating manuals, that operating manuals
tools are all unsafe and should be removed from
for tools and equipment rated at more than 10 horsepower
service and be either repaired or destroyed.
be kept readily available on the project, and that tools and
5) Maintain tools in safe operating condition.
equipment be inspected regularly.
Prevent mushrooming. Tools which are struck by
Our finest tools are our hands. Too often they are hammers, such as chisels or punches, should have
damaged by tool accidents. Hands can be caught in the head ground periodically to prevent mushrooming.
machines, crushed by objects, or cut by sharp-edged See Figure 21.1
tools such as chisels, knives, and saws. Hands can also
be damaged by being burned, fractured, or sprained
unless you stay alert.
Eyes are highly susceptible to injury from tool use but eye
injuries are almost always preventable. Use the guards
and personal protective equipment which we all know are
needed but sometimes tend to overlook.
Figure 21.1
Noise is a hazard inherent in construction. Tools and the
working environment can both be noisy, particularly for Keep handles secure and safe. Don’t rely on friction
construction trades operating in plants and mills. tape to secure split handles or to prevent handles
Exposure to excessive noise can impair hearing. from splitting. Check wedges and handles frequently.
Prolonged excessive exposure can result in permanent Be sure heads are wedged tightly on handles. Keep
damage to the hearing and eventually deafness. Hearing handles smooth and free of rough or jagged surfaces.
protection should be worn whenever there is a risk of Replace handles that are split, chipped, or that cannot
excessive exposure. be refitted securely.
Common Causes of Accidents Keep hand tool cutting edges sharp. Sharp tools
make work easier, improve the accuracy of your work,
Typical causes of hand and power tool accidents include save time, require less effort, and are safer than dull
the following: tools.
• using the wrong tool for the job 6) Never climb ladders with tools in your hand. Tool
• tools falling from overhead holders and pouches (Figure 21.2) free the hands
• sharp tools carried in pockets while workers are climbing or working on ladders,
• using cheaters on tool handles scaffolding, and other areas where access may be
• excessive vibration difficult. When carrying tools up or down from elevated
• using tools with mushroomed heads places, put them in substantial bags or boxes and
• failure to support or clamp work in position raise and lower them with strong ropes.
• carrying tools by hand up or down ladders
• using damaged electrical cords or end connectors
• failure to use ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs),
especially outdoors.
Safe Practices
Basic hazard awareness and common sense can prevent
serious injuries with hand and power tools. As a general
rule follow the safe practices listed below.
1) Always wear eye protection. There is always the risk
of flying particles and dust with hand and power tools.
Figure 21.2
Appropriate eye protection is essential and must be
worn by the user and others nearby. For eye
protection see the Personal Protective Equipment 7) Spark-resistant tools (non-ferrous tools) are
chapter in this manual. recommended where flammable materials or
2) Use the right tool for the job. Using a screwdriver explosive dusts or vapours might be present. These
as a chisel, using a cheater on a wrench handle, or tools, such as brass or copper hammers or mallets,
using pliers instead of a proper wrench are typical should still be used with caution; remember, they may
not guarantee safety in all explosive situations such
27 – 1
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
as in the presence of gasoline vapours. It is always When redressing the cutting edge on a tool, ensure that
safer to eliminate the hazard by ensuring a safe the tool is supported firmly. Use only a hand file or
atmosphere through isolation, ventilation, or purging. whetstone—not a grinding wheel. (If a grinder is used, it
8) Protect the cutting edges of tools when carrying can destroy the temper of the cutting edge.) Be sure to
them. Carry them in such a way that they won’t be a restore the original contour of the cutting edge.
hazard to yourself and others. Carry pointed or sharp-
Cold chisels, for example, are hardened on the cutting
edged tools in pouches or holsters.
edge. Use only a hand file or whetstone for redressing. Be
9) Keep your hand tools clean. Protect them against
sure to restore the cutting edge to its original shape and
damage caused by corrosion. Wipe off accumulated
angle of approximately 70 degrees (Figure 21.3).
dirt and grease. Dip the tools occasionally in cleaning
fluids or solvents and wipe them clean.
10) Lubricate adjustable and other moving parts to
prevent wear and misalignment.
11) When swinging a tool, be absolutely sure that no
one else is within range or can come within range of
Figure 21.3
the swing or be struck by flying material.
12) Falling tools are a dangerous hazard for workers
below. Keep track of tools, especially when working at Handles
heights on scaffolds or other access equipment. An Hand tools such as hammers and sledgehammers should
unnoticed file or chipping hammer, if accidentally have handles of straight-grained hickory, ash, or maple
kicked off the work platform, is a deadly missile as and be free from slivers. It is important to ensure that
well as a tripping hazard for you. If practical, tie handles are attached and properly fitted to tools by an
tools off when working at heights. experienced person. Poorly fitted handles can be very
13) Hearing protection should be worn whenever there dangerous and make the tool difficult to control.
is a chance of excessive noise exposure. Noise from
tools and equipment is an inherent hazard in Constant inspection is necessary for handles. Even
construction. Exposure to excessive noise can impair though they are received in good condition, handles can
hearing. Prolonged excessive exposure can result in loosen with use and shrinkage. In some cases, tapping
permanent damage to hearing and eventually the wedges may take up the shrinkage. In other cases the
deafness. Although the tools being used are only one head of the tool can be driven back on the handle and the
of several possible sources of noise, efforts should be wedges reset and any protruding piece of the handle cut
made to provide the least noisy power tools that will off.
still do the job. Most wooden handles will need replacement eventually. A
replacement handle should be of correct specifications for
Inspection and Repair a tight fit and be properly wedged.
Tools should be inspected by a person qualified through
training and experience to determine the safe condition of Safety Tip
the tool.
Whenever possible, pull on an adjustable wrench. Do not
Worn or damaged tools should be tagged “DEFECTIVE – push. Force should be exerted on the fixed rather than the
DO NOT USE” and returned to the shop for repair or adjustable jaw.
replacement.
Fixed Jaw
Regular inspection of all tools is necessary and should
cover tool maintenance and service as outlined in the
operator’s manual. Observing proper handling and storage
of tools should also be a part of the inspection process.
Responsibility for inspection is usually left to the Adjustable Jaw
supervisor. However, tools should be checked by those
who use them daily.
Direction of Pull
Hand tools that get the heaviest use and abuse, such as
chisels, hammers, and wrenches, should be inspected
frequently and regularly.
To maintain and repair tools properly requires the right
facilities and equipment. A good workbench, repair tools,
Hand Tools
vises, and good lighting are necessities. Only persons Use
skilled in the repair of tools should be allowed to do the
repairs. Otherwise tools should be sent out to a qualified The misuse of hand tools is a common cause of injury in
repair depot. construction. In many cases, the injury results because it
is assumed that everyone knows how to use most
Redressing Tools common hand tools. This is not the case.
Follow the tool manufacturer’s recommendations to repair,
shape, or maintain tools.
27 – 2
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
It is the responsibility of the supervisor and employer to Basic rules for safe hammer use
ensure that workers are trained in the safe and proper use
• Always wear eye protection.
of hand tools. This section is intended to provide an
• Make sure the handle is tight. Never use a hammer
overview of hazards and safe practices in selecting and
with a loose or damaged handle.
using hand tools.
• Always strike the work surface squarely with the
Hammers, Sledges, and Mauls hammer face. Avoid glancing blows.
• Hold the hammer with wrist straight and hand tightly
Hammers are made in various shapes and sizes for
wrapped around the handle.
specific jobs. They should be selected and used only for
• Look behind and above before swinging the hammer.
the purpose intended.
• Never use a hammer to strike another hammer.
Ballpeen hammers • Discard any hammer with dents, cracks, chips, or
These come in a variety of weights up to 3 pounds. mushrooming. Redressing is not recommended.
Ballpeen hammers are designed for striking cold chisels • When striking another tool (chisel, punch, wedge,
and punches and for riveting, shaping, and straightening etc.), the striking face of the hammer should have a
metal (Figure 21.4). diameter at least 1/2 inch (1 cm. +) larger than the
struck face of the tool.
Sledges • Never weld or reheat-treat a hammer.
All patterns of this Struck or Hammered Tools
heavy-duty striking tool
These include chisels, punches, drift pins, and wedges.
have a crowned face
General safety measures for their use include:
with bevelled edges.
Figure 21.4
Sledges are forged from Standard ballpeen hammer
1) Always wear eye protection. If other people are close
high-carbon or alloy by, put up a screen or shield to protect them from
steel and are heat- flying chips.
treated. The types most 2) Strike the tool squarely and in the centre, as called for
commonly used are: by the crow or beveled-face design. Off-centre blows
can misdirect the tool and increase the rate of wear
Double-face — head
on the head.
weights from 4 to 20
Figure 21.5 3) Never use a tool with a mushroomed or chipped
pounds and handle
Double or maul-faced sledge head. Remove it from service and destroy or repair it.
lengths from 15 to 36
4) Keep cutting edges sharp. A dull edge increases
inches. The 8-pound
labour and decreases tool durability. Failures can be
sledge is heavy enough
caused by dullness.
for most boilermakers’
work, although heavier Cold chisels have a
sledges may be required cutting edge that will cut,
for fairing tank seams or shape, or remove metal
for driving wedges on which is softer than the
heavy plate work. The 4- cutting edge. Such metals
pound maul or sledge is include cast iron, wrought
a favourite with fitters iron, mild steel, bronze,
and is often carried on and copper. The hardened
their belts. With a Figure 21.6
cutting edge should be
shorter handle (10 to 12 Straight and cross-peen sledges
kept sharp at a 60- to 70-
inches) permitting heavy blows with a limited swing, its degree angle. The
weight makes it ideal for driving in full pins for lining up selection of chisel is Figure 21.7
shelf plates (Figure 21.5). determined by the material Metal cutting chisel types
Straight or crosspeen sledges — head weights are from to be cut and the size and
2 to 16 lbs. and handle lengths from 14 to 36 inches. depth of cut. The most
These peens are used for shaping (fullering) and bending commonly used type is the
metal (Figure 21.6). flat chisel. It is used to cut
rivets, split nuts, chip
Chipping hammers — come in a variety of styles and castings, cut thin plate,
handles and are designed for chipping slag off welds or remove burn slag and weld
burned edges. These hammers have long, slender or Figure 21.8
spatter, and cut off small rods
tapered points or edges and can be resharpened many and wire. Other varieties of cold
times. chisels include: cape – for
Other types of hammers — are used when required by keyways, grooves, square
the tradesperson. They include carpenter’s or claw corners; half round and round
hammers for nailing; various soft-faced mallets, when a nose – for round grooves and
steel head might damage the work; and brass or copper to chip inside corners; and
heads, when non-sparking tools are required. diamond point – for V-grooves
to remove tubes from sheets Figure 21.9
27 – 3
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
and for chipping tack welds and square corners. See twist — chips can break off and fly,
Figure 21.7. causing injury or damaging the blade.
A sponge rubber pad forced down over the chisel provides Snips
a protective cushion that reduces shock for the hand, but
a protective guard such as the one shown in Figure 21.8 Snips (Figure 21.13) are
is more effective. generally used to cut light-
gauge galvanized
Bull chisels held by one worker and struck by another sheet metal, copper
require the use of tongs or a chisel holder to guide the sheet, and tin. Flying
chisel so that the user will not be injured (Figure 21.9). metal particles are always
Figure 21.12 Bolt Cutter
Punches and Pins a hazard. Safety glasses or
a face shield should be worn
• Select punches or pins heavy enough for the work. to protect against eye injury.
• Avoid jamming tapered parts of punches in openings.
• Avoid bending or breaking pins. Always be sure to select the
• Make sure pins or punches are held firmly in position right size and type of snips
before hitting them, especially on rounded surfaces. for the job. Don’t cut
wire with snips —
Hand punches have a use wire
variety of configurations for cutters.
various purposes. When
using punches, hold them
at right angles to the
work surface to prevent Hacksaws
side-slipping. Be sure to Although power tools will
strike the punch squarely Figure 21.13 Snips
be used whenever
with the hammer to prevent possible, hacksaws
Figure 21.9a
its slipping off and hitting Types of Punches deserve mention. They fill a gap by cutting metal too
fingers. Figure 21.9a shows heavy for snips or bolt cutters. The main danger from
some types. In addition, hacksaws is hand injury due to blade breakage. To
there are blacksmith-type prevent this danger:
punches (not shown),
mounted on hammer style • install and keep the blade taut but not too tight
handles; a tapered round • make sure that the material is held firmly in a vise or
point, for drifting and by other devices such as clamps.
Figure 21.10
aligning; and a straight Drift Pins: A Standard; B Barrel Files
punch for backing out bolts,
rivets, and pins. There are three standard
American-pattern metal file cuts
Drift pins are used as shown in Figure 21.14.
to align holes in
metal. They come in Make sure that a handle is
two types: standard installed on a file before use. This
Figure 21.11 will prevent the chance of an
and barrel (Figure Special Boilermaker Pins
21.10). A: Poker and B: Bull
uncovered tang being jammed into
your hand. A firmly attached
There are also special pins used largely by boilermakers handle will also improve control of
Figure 21.14 Metal file cuts:
(Figure 21.11) for heavy-duty steel plate. These include A) single cut, B) double cut,
the tool. C) curved cut
the poker pin, a large diameter punch for aligning holes
in steel plate; and the bull pin, a heavy-duty pin used in Taps and Dies
the fit-up of steel plate. They are inserted into holes in fit- • Keep taps and dies clean and
up clamps (welded temporarily to the side of the plates) to well oiled when not in use.
align the plates for welding. Taper Pipe
• Store taps and dies so that they
Cutting Hand tools don’t contact each other or other
tools. For long term storage coat Taper Hand
Chamfer
Bolt Cutters them with rust preventive Length
compound and store in a dry
Bolt cutters (Figure 21.12) typically come in lengths of 18"
place.
to 36" with the larger ones able to cut mild-steel bolts and
• Don’t attempt to sharpen taps or Plug Hand - National Course
rods up to 1/2" diameter, as well other materials such as
dies. Precise cutting is required
wire rope. With these tools, observe the following.
to maintain the correct thread-
• Wear eye protection. cutting characteristics and Bottoming Hand
• Keep fingers clear of jaws and hinges. chamfer. This work must only be Figure 21.15 Types of
• Cut ends can fly and cause injury. Try wrapping burlap done by experienced personnel. common taps.
or a rag around the jaws while cutting. • Don’t use diestocks or tapwrenches as hammers or
• Keep jaws at right angles to material. Don’t pry or prybars.
27 – 4
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
Always use the correct size of • Don’t use pliers as hammers — they might crack,
socket and make sure it fits break, or be nicked.
snugly. An oversize or sloppy fit • Don’t use cheaters to extend the handles. This can
can cause slippage and injury as damage or spring the tool, or slip and cause injury.
well as wear to both the socket • Pliers should not be used to tighten nuts or bolts. Use
and the fastener. a wrench.
Never use “hand” sockets on Locking Wrench Pliers
a power drive or impact Sometimes referred to by the trade names vise grips or
wrench. Hand sockets are Figure 21.22 Useful socket items: grip-locks, these can be locked onto a wide variety of
normally brightly finished while A) Universal socket objects, leaving the hands free for other work. They are
power and impact sockets have B) crowfoot attachment
useful as a clamp, a speed wrench, or as a portable vise.
a dull finish and usually thicker Standard types of locking wrench pliers are shown in
walls. Figure 21.23 while Figure 21.24 displays speciality styles.
Two useful socket items are illustrated in Figure 21.22 — • Don’t use them to replace wrenches since they can
a universal joint with an extension and a crowfoot damage fittings or fasteners.
attachment. They allow access into otherwise inaccessible • Don’t hammer or use cheaters to increase force to
locations. tighten jaws or to cut wire or bolts.
Pipe wrenches have been the cause of serious injuries • Don’t expose to heat
when used on overhead jobs. Wrenches can slip on pipes from torches or contact
or fittings, causing the worker to lose balance and fall. with welding electrodes.
Pipe wrenches, whether straight or chain tong, should • Severe vibration can
have sharp jaws and be kept clean to prevent slipping. cause release of the
jaws accidentally; wire or
tape them shut when
necessary.
• Never clamp them or
Figure 21.23 Locking wrench pliers with
attempt to use as a step A) straight jaws; B) curved jaws; and
or climbing device. C) curved jaws with wire cutters
Pliers
Considered a general purpose tool, pliers are frequently
misused. Pliers are meant for gripping and cutting
operations and are not to be used as a wrench because
their jaws are moveable and may slip.
Basic safety rules Figure 21.24 Some special locking wrench pliers: A) C-clamp;
B) sheet metal clamp; C) pinch off tool; D) welding clamp; and E) chain clamp
• Choose pliers with enough space between the
handles to prevent pinching of the palm or fingers.
• Select pliers that have a grip span of 6 cm to 9 cm Clamps
(2-1/2"–3-1/2").
• Pull on pliers — do not push. Clamps are another
• Side cutting pliers may cause injuries when ends of useful holding tool
wire are cut and fragments fly into a worker’s eye. Eye and the C-clamp
protection should be worn when using side cutters. (Figure 21.25) is the
• Always cut at right angles. Never rock from side to most widely used
Figure 21.25 Typical C-clamp
side against the cutting edges. style. C-clamps, like
• Pliers used for electrical work should be insulated. other tools, require some maintenance; lubricate
Power must still be shut off first. Remember — periodically, keep threads clean and free of rust, and
cushion grips on handles are for comfort only and are make sure the swivel head rotates freely.
not intended to protect against electrical shock. For larger clamping jobs there are bar clamps and pipe
• Never expose pliers to excessive heat; this may draw clamps, which offer a reach limited only by the pipe length
the temper and ruin the tool. used.
The following points should be considered when using
clamps.
• Choose a clamp size suited to the job; too small and
the clamp can be overloaded and bend or break the
body; too large and it can be an obstruction.
• Overextending the screw can bend it.
27 – 6
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
27 – 7
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
27 – 8
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
27 – 9
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
Electric current can travel from the hand holding the tool Power Saws
through your heart to the hand holding the pipe. A minor
Used on construction sites, power saws of all types are a
shock can make you lose your balance. A major shock
regular source of injury. Basic safety considerations with
can badly burn or even kill you.
any power saw include the following points.
Always be sure that the switch is off before plugging in the
• Wear protective clothing and equipment. Eye
drill.
protection is essential — a full face shield is
Make sure the shank of the attachment is tight and square recommended because of the potential for flying
in the chuck and running true before starting the drill. pieces, not just small particles. Hearing protection
should also be worn.
Punch or drill a pilot hole
• Where ventilation is inadequate, wear a dust mask for
in the work so that the bit
protection against dust. Exposure to dust from cutting
won’t slip or slide when
metal, concrete, or other materials may cause
you start drilling. Align the
respiratory problems over time.
drill square with the hole
• Electric saws operated outside or in wet locations
— Figure 21.42.
must be protected with a ground fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI).
Impact or • Never wear loose clothing, neck chains, scarves, or
Hammer Drill anything else that may get caught in the saw.
Using an impact or • Leave all safety devices and guards in place and
hammer drill (Figure properly adjusted on the saw.
21.43) requires • Change and adjust blades with the power OFF.
considerable control. Disconnect the saw from the power source.
Feed the attachment Chop saws are becoming more popular among many
slowly and carefully trades in construction (Figure 21.45). They provide quick,
into the material or the drill may jam and stop suddenly, economical cutting of various materials.
severely twisting or breaking your arm. When drilling into
floors, ceilings, and walls, beware of plumbing — and
wiring!
Drill Presses
On many jobs, either conventional drill presses or the
more mobile electromagnetic drill presses are used. They
permit more accurate drilling.
• Make sure no loose hair or loose or torn clothing can
be caught in the drill bit and cause serious injury.
• Before doing any drilling on a workpiece on a
conventional drill press, make sure the work is
securely clamped to the drill table. As with all power equipment, chop saws pose a serious
• Electromagnetic (“mag”) drills are only “attached” if hazard for the unwary or untrained operator. Most of these
switched on. saws are equipped with abrasive wheels for quick cutting
• “Mag” drills if “attached” on vertical or overhead through metal and other materials.
ferrous surfaces must also be secured by safety chain
in case of power loss. • Select the proper abrasive cutting wheel for the
material being cut. For metals, use aluminum oxide.
For masonry, stone, and concrete, use silica
carborundum.
• Position material to be cut at 90 degrees to the blade.
Support the other end to prevent the blade from
binding.
• Do not rush cutting. Let the wheel cut without burning
or jamming.
• When cutting is complete, let the blade stop before
moving material.
• Keep the saw in good repair with the blade guard in
place and working properly. Tighten any loose parts
and replace any broken or damaged components.
Quick-cut saws are widely used for cutting sheet metal,
light steel angles, and channels as well as aluminum,
concrete, and masonry products (Figure 21.46). They are
high-powered compared to similar tools. Hazards include
high-speed rotation, blade exposure during operation, and
exhaust from the internal combustion engine — the usual
power source.
27 – 10
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
Starter Handle
Stop Switch
Choke
Rear Handle
Muffler Starter
Carburetor Adjustment
Cover Prefilter Screws
Front Handle Fuel Tank
Cylinder Cover
Throttle Latch
Throttle
Trigger Belt Tensioner
Lockout
Cutting Arm
Throttle Trigger Belt Cover Figure 21.46
Quick-cut saws also create clouds of dust and hot sparks gas — odourless, colourless, and highly toxic.
when dry-cutting metal products, especially steel.
For safe starting, set one foot on the rear handle, put one
Injuries can result from cuts, kickback, exposure to carbon hand on the top handle to lift the blade off the surface,
monoxide fumes, dust exposure, burns, flying particles in and use the other hand to pull the starter cord (Figure
the eye, and other injuries from flying material when work 21.47).
is not secured for cutting or when blades fly apart.
Once the saw is running, release the throttle and make
Hazards with quick-cut saws can be controlled by sure the engine drops to idle without the disk or blade
moving.
• operators trained to use the saws properly and to
wear the right protective equipment (full face shield Run the engine at full throttle and let the disk or blade run
and hearing protection.) freely to make sure it turns on the arbor without wobbling
• saws kept in good working condition, equipped with or vibrating.
the proper blades or abrasive disks, and used with all
The saw is powerful enough to throw material around
guards in place
unless it is securely held and supported. Standing on
• work secured to keep it from shifting during cutting.
material to hold it down is not recommended.
Operators of quick-cut saws should be instructed in the Kickback can happen extremely fast and with tremendous
care, maintenance, and operation of the tool. The power. If the segment of the disk or blade shown in Figure
operating manual should be kept on the job and read by 21.48 contacts the work, the disk or blade starts to climb
users. Time spent on instruction will reduce accidents and out of the cut and can throw the saw up and back toward
injuries as well as extend the service life of the saw. the operator with great force.
As a minimum, the operator of a quick-cut saw should be
instructed in
• care of the saw
• installing disks and blades
• mixing fuel and fuelling the saw
• starting the saw
• supporting and securing the work
to be cut
• proper cutting stance and grip
• proper cutting techniques for
different material
• respiratory protection against
dust Take the following precautions
• inspection and storage of • Run the saw at full throttle.
abrasive disks. • Do not cut above chest height.
• When re-entering a cut, do so without causing the
In confined areas, make sure that
blade or disk to pinch.
ventilation is adequate. Gasoline-
• Secure and support material at a comfortable position
driven saws release carbon monoxide
for cutting. Make sure that material will not move,
27 – 11
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
shift, or pinch the blade or disk during cutting. When using a power hacksaw, observe the following.
• Keep steady balance and solid footing when making
• Wear eye protection.
cut.
• When starting a cut with a hand-held saw, hold it
• Use both hands to control the saw. Maintain a firm
above the work, turn it on, and lower it carefully onto
grip with thumb and fingers encircling the handles.
the work (avoid plunge cuts).
• Never let the upper quarter segment of the blade or
• Always start the cut off an edge, never against it.
disk contact the material.
• Always keep the blade guard in place and the blade
• Select the right blade for the job (Figure 21.49).
sharp.
• Keep hands away from the cutting area.
Abrasive Disks - Types and Uses
• Make sure the material being cut is secure to prevent
Type Uses Materials movement.
Concrete All-around use, most economical Concrete, stone, masonry • Stay clear of end pieces that may fall after being cut off.
cutting concrete and masonry. products, cast iron, • If using the tool as a portable unit, take extreme
Water-cooling is recommended aluminum, copper, brass,
caution when cutting conduit or pipe blindly. Make
to increase disk life and cables, hard rubber,
reduce cost. plastics.
sure it doesn’t contain electrical wires, gases, or
chemicals that could produce a hazard.
Metal Primarily for steel, not suited Steel, steel alloys, other
for masonry products. Water- hard metals such as
cooling is not recommended monel and iron. Portable Nibblers
with metal abrasive disks. Portable nibblers, or
Figure 21.49 power metal shears, will
In addition to the protective equipment that is mandatory on cut sheet metal up to
construction sites, operators of quick-cut saws should wear about 1/4" thick. Either
snug-fitting clothing, hearing protection, eye and face electric or pneumatic,
protection, and heavy-duty leather gloves (Figure 21.50). they have one
stationary blade and one powerful shearing
blade. Stationary tools will cut heavier
sheet or plate. Always secure
material tightly before cutting
and check for clearance
under the work. See
Figure 21.53.
Portable Grinders
Grinding wheels,
portable buffers, and wire
brushes are a constant
source of flying
particles and require
special caution. The
storage, mounting,
and operation of grinding wheels calls for thorough
training. Figure 21.54 shows types of portable grinders in
common use: straight grinders, with stones half an inch
wide or more, by 4 to 8 inches in diameter; and angle, or
Figure 21.50 vertical, grinders with abrasive or sanding disks or cup
stones.
For general dust hazards, a
half-mask cartridge Safety in using a portable grinder
respirator with NIOSH • Always wear eye protection.
approval for dust, mist, and • Ring-test abrasive wheels before use.
fumes should provide
adequate protection when
properly fitted and worn. Ring Test
Power Hacksaws • Clean material from wheel.
• Let wheel dry before testing.
Power hacksaws • Tap wheel with something non-metallic such as the
come in two types; handle of a screwdriver.
straight blade • Tap 1/2" from outside edge.
(reciprocating saw) • Rotate wheel 45 degrees and repeat test.
and continuous blade • A sound, undamaged wheel will give off a clear
(portable band saw) metallic ring. A cracked wheel will give off a dull
as are shown in sound with little or no ring.
Figures 21.51 and
21.52.
27 – 12
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
• Never exceed the safe grinding in rpm for a stone or wheels on soft materials can cause build-up and
disk, which should be specified on the manufacturer’s excessively load the wheel, with the possibility of
label. Make sure the maximum rpm of the grinder wheel disintegration.
doesn’t exceed the stone speed. Excessive speed can • Never over-tighten the collet; it can damage the collet,
cause disks and stones to disintegrate with the cutter or wheel. If the tool doesn’t run smoothly, the
potential for causing a serious injury. cutter may be out of balance. Replace it.
• Always unplug the tool before making grinder/cutter • Excessive pressure can bend or break the collet,
installations. mandrel, or wheel/cutter. If the grinder runs smoothly
• Make sure that the grinding wheel is installed without load, but not smoothly under load, too much
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Use the pressure is being used.
proper hardware (safety flanges, nuts and blotters) as • Maintain a firm grip
recommended for holding the wheel in position. on all grinding tools.
• Make sure that safety guards are in place and Always keep the
properly adjusted before operating. tool pointing away
• If you drop a portable grinder or a wheel, inspect it from you. Never use
very carefully for damage. a rotary die grinder
• Wear hearing protection, especially for extended with the cutter
operation. Wear respiratory protection. towards you. A slip
• Change disk or stone as recommended by could cause serious
manufacturer. Excessively worn disks and stones can injury.
shatter in use. • Use a vise or clamp to hold the workpiece securely.
• Grind only on the face or outer circumference of the Never hold a small workpiece by hand.
grinding wheel unless it is specifically designed for
Air-Powered Tools
side grinding.
• Gloves, aprons, and foot protection may be advisable Many different types of tools are powered by compressed
for some work, especially if hot sparks are being air. They are fast, powerful, and ideal for repetitive tasks
generated. such as scaling, chipping, and tube shaping or fitting, as
• Always stand aside when starting a grinder, especially well as a variety of general construction tasks such as
with a newly mounted wheel. Hold it away from you breaking concrete or nailing. There are pneumatic
until the tool has run at operating speed before equivalents for most electrical tools, including grinders,
contacting the work. This can prevent injury from a drills, and impact wrenches. Some pneumatic tools have
faulty wheel blowing apart. no electrical equivalent, including needle scalers, rotary
• Use light pressure when starting the grinding, impact scalers, and chipping hammers.
especially with a cold wheel — too much pressure on Pneumatic tools can operate (when used with a portable
a cold wheel may cause failure. compressor) in locations remote from another source of
• Don’t wear loose clothing when power. Overloading will stall the tool without damaging it;
grinding. there’s no shock hazard; speed control is variable from
• Do not use grinders in the vicinity of zero to maximum; and fire and explosion hazards can be
flammable materials. reduced in some environments where sparking can be a
Pencil Grinders and Rotary Files problem.
27 – 13
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
protected against damage by running planks along either tightening to avoid injury due to the torque developed by
side of it. Where possible, suspend hoses over walkways, an impact wrench.
traffic routes, and work areas, but take care that hoses do
Some tools have a high noise level — for instance, impact
not get caught on passing vehicles.
drills. To prevent hearing loss, always wear hearing
Occasionally workers suffer injuries when compressed air protection.
is used to blow dust and dirt from the work area or from
Match the speed rating of any attachments to the tool
clothing. Compressed air can enter the skin and
speed. Too fast or too slow a speed can damage
bloodstream with disastrous results. It can also blow
attachments, break off fragments, and cause injury.
particles and dust into the air at high velocity, endangering
eyes and lungs. To clean away dust, use a brush or Before start-up, check the couplings and fittings, open the
vacuum instead. control valve momentarily, connect the hose and blow it
out by opening the valve momentarily to remove moisture
Always secure hose connections
and dirt, then clean the nipple before connecting the tool.
with wire, safety clips, or chain to
Set air pressure according to manufacturer’s
prevent whipping, except when
specifications and open gradually.
automatic couplers are used.
Make sure that attachments on pneumatic tools are
Never kink hose to
secured or locked according to manufacturer’s
stop air flow. Turn off
instructions.
the pressure to
hoses when the Pneumatic impact tools require regular inspection by
system is not in use. qualified persons. Replace worn-out absorption pads and
springs. Too much vibration of the tool can damage
In cold weather, after the system is shut down and bled,
nerves in fingers, hands, and other body parts. This is
air hoses should be stored overnight in a warm place so
called “White Finger disease” or Raynaud’s Syndrome.
that any residual moisture cannot condense and freeze. If
hoses are left out, ice can form inside. On startup they Grinders
may be plugged and ice chips can be fired out of the end For information on the hazards and safe use of pneumatic
of the hose. Injuries have resulted from workers being grinders, refer back to the section on electric grinders.
struck while looking down the plugged line, or being struck Apart from the
by objects used to clear the line. In very cold conditions, a different hazards
spare set of hoses is a good idea so that one set can connected with
always be stored and dry. their power
sources, air- and
electric-powered
Injuries Caused by Compressed Air
grinders present
Air embolism can lead to death. If compressed air the same basic
Figure 21.56 Pneumatic chipping hammer
from a hose or nozzle enters even a tiny cut on the problems.
skin, it can form a bubble in the bloodstream with
Chipping hammers and chisels
possibly fatal results.
Physical damage – compressed air directed at the
body can cause injuries, including damage to the
eyes and ear drums.
Flying particles can accelerate to well over 70 mph
when compressed air is used to blow off dust, metal
shavings, or wood chips. These particles carry
enough force to penetrate the skin.
Airborne contaminants can include silica and other
substances hazardous to the respiratory system.
27 – 14
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
• When working, never point the chipper so that A needle scaler attachment is
anybody might be hit by an accidentally ejected bit. commonly used by boilermakers
• Toward the end of a cut, ease off on the throttle lever (Figure 21.60). Because of its
to decrease the intensity of the blows to reduce the configuration of many needles
possibility of a chip or the tool flying. rapidly impacting individually, it is
• If the hammer has to useful for cleaning all kinds of
be laid down, remove surfaces, including irregular ones,
the attachment to since it automatically fits the irregular
prevent it from being contours.
accidentally ejected if
Besides the needle scaler
the tool is
attachment, there are other
unintentionally
chisels that work well with air
started.
scalers (Figure 21.61). Some of
these chisels have an offset
blade at an angle to enable
access into awkward corners.
These are not intended to cut
and are therefore sharpened
to a dull edge to clean out
slag in corners without
undercutting.
Pipe Power Tools
Power Threading
Machines (Figure 21.62).
These are designed to let
the operator cut, ream,
and thread pipe of
various sizes all in one
power machine. The
Air hammers are small
machine must be treated
multi-purpose tools. Figure
with respect. Potential
21.59 shows some common
hazards include:
air hammer attachments.
- catching clothing,
gloves, or cleaning rag in revolving parts
Safety Tip - being struck by flying metal chips
- using a rag to clean oil from threads while machine is
Choose tools with a trigger
turning
strip rather than a trigger
- wearing loose-fitting clothes
button. This spreads
- pipe wrench locking on pipe while reversing previous
force over a greater area,
operation
reducing muscle fatigue.
- losing grip or footing because of oil and debris
Rivet guns - failure to install and use the deadman switch.
A plunger inside the barrel strikes the rivet tool, causing it Roll Groover
to shape the rivet head. Since the plunger is free to come
This machine forms standard
out, it should be removed to prevent loss or discharge
roll grooves in steel,
when the tool is put aside.
stainless steel, and
Air Scalers aluminum pipe. Figure
21.63 shows a heavy-duty
The air scaling gun is a lightweight, highspeed tool suitable
roll groover designed for
for chipping, scaling, and removing caulking, rust, scale,
2-inch to 8-inch
flux, spatter, etc. from all types of surfaces and shapes.
schedule 40 steel
pipe (up to 12-inch
for schedule 20 or
lighter wall pipe).
Grooves are
formed by a
grooving roll fed into
a drive roll to the
exact specifications
required for
mechanical
27 – 15
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
coupling systems. The roll groover can be mounted on a people unfamiliar with the machine.
power drive or threading machine. • Keep footswitch in working order. When not in use, lock
the switch to avoid accidental start-up (Figure 21.64).
Set-up
• Read and follow the operator’s manual and the Pipe Preparation Tools
information on the machine.
Some power tools are manufactured for specific piping
• Know the location and function of each control before
systems. For
using the machine.
instance, the
• Wear snug-fitting clothes, safety boots, hard hat, and
Vitaulic Pressfit
eye protection. Cover or tie up long hair. Do not wear
System for joining
gloves, unbuttoned jackets, loose sleeve cuffs,
pipe with specially
neckties, scarves, rings, watches, or other jewelry.
designed
• Wear hearing protection — ear plugs or muffs — if
couplings uses a
you use the machine daily or in a noisy area.
power crimping
• Use only an approved three-wire cord with a three-
tool (Figure
prong plug in a grounded receptacle. Replace or
21.65). It is
repair any damaged, frayed, broken, or worn cords.
designed for
• If an extension cord is required, it must be three-wire
schedule 5 black
with three-prong plug and three-pole receptacle. Make
or galvanized steel
sure the cord is large enough to prevent excessive
pipe prepared to
voltage drop. Figure 21.65
meet Victaulic
• Make sure that switch is in the OFF position before
specifications.
you plug in the power cord.
• Connect the machine to an AC power supply that The T-Drill T-Less tube branching system mechanically
matches the nameplate specifications. forms outlets in copper tubing and eliminates the need for
tee and cross fittings. The T-Drill (Figure 21.66) drills the
Operation
required hole in the pipe and forms a collar to accept the
• Clear the roll groover of all objects such as tools and branch pipe. The tube end notcher cuts and dimples the
material before turning it on. branch tube to limit insertion depth. The joint is then
• Keep guards in place. Never operate the machine with brazed.
guards removed or disarmed. Your fingers can get
caught between the grooving and drive rolls.
• Operate the roll groover from the switch side only.
• Keep good footing and balance. Do not operate the
machine when you are tired.
• Do not use the machine in damp or wet conditions.
Do not expose to rain.
• Unplug power cord when you are adjusting or
servicing the machine and changing accessories.
• Use the footswitch. It lets you shut off the motor
simply by removing your foot.
Warning: clothing caught in the roll groover will
continue to wind up, pulling you into the machine.
Because the machine has high torque, the clothing
itself can bind around your arm or other body parts
Victaulic crimpers and T-Drills are being used more and
with enough force to crush or break bones.
more in automatic sprinkler system installation. Take the
• Make sure that you can quickly remove your foot from
following precautions.
the footswitch.
• Keep other workers out of the work area. Keep the • Read and understand all instructions in the
area clean, dry, and well lighted. manufacturer’s operating manual before operating or
• Do not reach across the machine. servicing the tools.
• Properly support the work on a pipe stand. • Inspect all movable parts before starting the tools.
Check for obstructions and proper installation of
Maintenance components.
• Follow manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning, • Disconnect tools from power source before changing
servicing, and inspection. accessories or servicing. Be sure switch is off before
• Keep handles dry, plugging in the tools.
clean, and free • Use only replacement parts supplied by the
of grease. manufacturer.
• When not in • Keep work area clean.
use, store the • Guard against shock. Prevent body contact with
roll groover in grounded surfaces. Always use a ground fault circuit
a locked area Footswitch
interrupter.
secure from • Do not carry live tools with your finger on the switch.
27 – 16
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
• Keep unauthorized personnel out of the work area. Explosions and fires are always a risk when the tools
• Store tools in a dry location in a locked container. are used where atmospheres may be flammable. The
• Do not force or overload the tool. work area must be well ventilated, mechanically if
• Wear adequate eye protection. necessary, as in confined spaces.
• Use the tools only for their intended purpose. Blow-through results when the base material does not
• Do not operate the tools while wearing loose clothing, offer enough resistance and the fastener passes
jewelry, or anything else that could get caught in completely through and flies out the other side. This is
moving parts. particularly dangerous when fasteners blow through walls,
• Never carry tools by the cord or yank the cord to floors, or ceilings where other trades may be working on
disconnect the tool from the receptacle. Protect cord the opposite side. Check the other side of walls, ceilings,
from heat, pinch points, and sharp edges. and floors before firing and keep people clear if
• Use clamps, vice, or secure pipe hangers to hold necessary.
work in place. Protective equipment for the operator of a powder-
• Do not overreach. Keep proper footing and balance at actuated tool should include hearing protection, eye
all times. protection, and a face shield. Heavy shirts and pants
• Keep tools clean and lubricated. Repairs should be provide some protection against ricochets and fragments
done only by an authorized service shop. Inspect and of material or fasteners.
replace damaged extension cords. Keep handles
clean, dry, and free from oil and grease. High velocity powder-actuated tools use the exploding
• Do not operate tools near flammable liquids or in cartridge to propel the fastener directly rather than by a
explosive atmospheres. piston. These tools are rarely used in construction, except
in special cases to penetrate thick steel or very hard
Powder-Actuated Tools material. These applications are usually military, salvage,
Referred to as explosive-actuated or powder-actuated, or underwater. No one should operate high-velocity tools
these tools use a powder charge to fire a fastener into without special training.
hard materials such as concrete, mild steel, and masonry Low velocity tools are the most common for construction.
(Figure 21.67). They provide a fast, efficient means of The explosive charge drives a piston which in turn drives
fastening certain combinations of materials. the fastener (Figure 21.69).
27 – 17
HAND AND POWER TOOLS
Figure 21.71
27 – 18
WELDING AND CUTTING
28 WELDING AND CUTTING around the wire transports an inert gas such as argon,
helium, or carbon dioxide from an outside source to the arc
zone to prevent oxidation of the weld (Figure 20.2).
Welding is a process which uses heat and/or pressure to
join metals. Flux Cored Arc
Welding (FCAW) Gas Nozzle
Arc welding is by far the most commonly used in
is a variation of
construction. Molten metal from the workpiece and a filler Current-Carrying
MIG welding. It
metal from an electrode form a common puddle which Contact Tube
uses a hollow
cools to form a weld.
consumable wire Flux-Cored
Flame cutting is an allied process that requires the use of whose core Electrode Gas Shielding
a torch, fuel gas, and oxygen to cut metals — primarily contains various Molten
steel. chemicals that Weld Metal
generate Solidified
For some of the information in this chapter, the Weld Metal
shielding gases to
Construction Safety Association of Ontario gratefully
strengthen the
acknowledges its use of the Canadian Standards Figure 20.3
weld (Figure
Association standard CAN/CSA-W117.2 Safety in
20.3).
Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes, copyright CSA.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert
Welding Methods Gas Welding (TIG) uses a non-consumable tungsten
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is the most common electrode that maintains the arc and provides enough heat
arc welding process in construction (Figure 20.1). to join metals (Figure 20.4). Filler metal is added in the
form of a rod held close to the arc. The rod melts and
SMAW uses a short length of consumable electrode deposits filler metal at the weld. Shielding gases may or
which melts as it maintains the arc. Melted metal from the may not be used, depending on the metal being welded.
electrode is carried across the arc to become the filler
metal of the weld. Gas Shielding
Types of Base Metals Welded Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation can result directly
from the arc or from a reflection off bright objects such as
Mild Steel (an alloy of iron, carbon, silicon, and
shiny metal or white clothing. It can cause “arc eye” when
occasionally molybdenum or manganese).
sight is not adequately protected. Eyes become watery
Stainless and High Alloy Steels (containing iron, and painful anywhere from 2 to 24 hours after exposure.
nickel, chromium, and occasionally cobalt, vanadium, The condition may last 1–5 days but is usually reversible
manganese, and molybdenum). with no lasting effects. However, repeated exposure may
result in scar tissue that can impair vision.
Aluminum (either pure or as an alloy containing
magnesium, silicon, and occasionally chromium). UV exposure may also cause a temporary loss of visual
sharpness called “fluorescence.”
Galvanized steel (steel that has been coated with a
layer of zinc to prevent corrosion). Skin reddening, commonly known as sunburn, is another
hazard of UV exposure. Blistering may occur in extreme
cases. Although excessive exposure to UV radiation from
Welding Hazards the sun has been linked to skin cancer, there are no
Welders in construction are exposed to a wide range of reports of increased skin cancer rates from welding
hazards such as inhalation of toxic fumes and gases, exposure.
serious burns from hot metal, and electric shocks from The intensity of UV radiation varies with the type of
welding cable. welding. Generally, the higher the temperature of the
Welding Hazards welding process the higher the UV radiation.
Physical - ionizing radiation (x-rays, gamma rays) Infrared radiation is hazardous for its thermal or heating
- non-ionizing radiation (ultraviolet, infrared) effects. Excessive exposure to the eye may cause
- visible light damage.
- temperature extremes Visible light is released at high intensity by welding.
- noise Short-term exposure can produce “flash blindness” in
- electrical energy which vision is affected by after-images and temporary
Chemical - flammable/combustible products blind spots. Repeated exposure to high-intensity visible
- welding fumes light can produce chronic conjunctivitis, characterized by
- toxic gases red, tearful eyes.
- dust
Biological- bacteria X-rays and gamma rays are invisible forms of ionizing
- fungi radiation used to inspect welds and can be extremely
- viruses damaging to unprotected parts of the body. Keep well
away from any area where this type of testing is under
Eye protection is a must for welders and others who may way. X-rays are also produced during electron beam
be exposed to the welding process. welding. The welding chamber must be completely
shielded to confine the x-rays and protect the operator.
Once a chemical from welding has entered the body it
may have a toxic effect. Effects can range from mild Extreme Temperatures
irritation to death and are influenced by a number of Very high temperatures are caused by the welding
factors. Different organs may also be affected, such as the process. Gas flames may reach 3,300°C. Metals melt in a
lungs, kidneys, and brain. range from 260°C to 2,760°C. Welded materials, the work
The two major types of effects are acute and chronic, as environment, and weather may all be sources of
described in the Basic Occupational Health chapter in this excessive heat which can cause muscle cramps,
manual. dehydration, sudden collapse, and unconsciousness.
Welders may suffer frostbite and hypothermia when
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
working in extreme cold climates or with welding gases
Radiation stored at temperatures as low as -268°C. Exposure to
Both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation may be freezing temperatures can lead to fatigue, irregular
encountered by welders and their helpers. Ionizing is breathing, lowered blood pressure, confusion, and loss of
more hazardous because it can contribute directly to consciousness. Heat stress and cold stress are both life-
cancer. threatening and, if not treated in time, can be fatal.
28 – 2
WELDING AND CUTTING
grinding and hammering. Gasoline power sources may and the shielding gas. Toxicity depends on the
lead to sound exposures over 95 dBA. Arc gouging may concentration of the contaminants and the physiological
produce sound levels over 110 dBA. Grinding, machining, response of individual workers.
polishing, hammering, and slag removal all contribute to
Fumes
high levels of noise. Substantial hearing loss has been
observed in welders. Some of the metal melted at high temperates during
Electrical Energy welding vaporizes. The metal vapour then oxidizes to form
a metal oxide. When this vapour cools, suspended solid
Electrical shock is the effect produced by current on the particles called fume particles are produced. Welding
nervous system as it passes through the body. Electrical fumes consist primarily of suspended metal particles
shock may cause violent muscular contractions, leading to invisible to the naked eye.
falls and injuries. It may also have fatal effects on the
heart and lungs. Metal fumes are the most common and the most serious
health hazard to welders. Fume particles may reach deep
Electrical shock may occur as a result of improper into the lungs and cause damage to lung tissue or enter
grounding and/or contact with current through damp the bloodstream and travel to other parts of the body. The
clothing, wet floors, and other humid conditions. Even if following are some common welding fumes.
the shock itself is not fatal, the jolt may still cause welders
to fall from their work positions. Beryllium is a hardening agent found in copper,
magnesium, and aluminum alloys. Overexposure may
Electrical burns are an additional hazard. The burns often cause metal fume fever. Lasting for 18–24 hours, the
occur below the skin surface and can damage muscle and symptoms include fever, chills, coughing, dryness of
nerve tissue. In severe cases, the results can be fatal. mouth and throat, muscular pains, weakness, fatigue,
The extent of injury due to electrical shock depends on nausea, vomiting, and headaches. Metal fume fever
voltage and the body’s resistance to the current passing usually occurs several hours after the exposure and the
through it (see the Electrical Hazards chapter in this signs and symptoms usually abate 12–24 hours after the
manual). Even low voltages used in arc welding can be exposure with complete recovery. Immunity is quickly
dangerous under damp or humid conditions. Welders acquired if exposure occurs daily, but is quickly lost during
should keep clothing, gloves, and boots dry and stay well weekends and holidays. For this reason, metal fume fever
insulated from work surfaces, the electrode, the electrode is sometimes called “Monday morning sickness.”
holder, and grounded surfaces. Long term (chronic) exposure to beryllium fumes can result
Stray Current in respiratory disease. Symptoms may include coughing
and shortness of breath. Beryllium is a suspected
Stray welding current may cause extensive damage to carcinogen — that is, it may cause cancer in human tissue.
equipment, buildings, and electrical circuits under certain It is highly toxic. Prolonged exposure can be fatal.
conditions.
Cadmium-plated or cadmium-containing parts resemble,
CHEMICAL HAZARDS and are often mistaken for, galvanized metal. Cadmium
Chlorinated solvents for degreasing, zinc chromate-based coatings can produce a high concentration of cadmium
paint for anti-corrosion coatings, cadmium or chromium oxide fumes during welding. Cadmium is also found in
dusts from grinding, and welding fumes are all classified solders (especially silver solder) and brazes.
as chemical hazards. Overexposure to cadmium can cause metal fume fever.
Symptoms include respiratory irritation, a sore, dry throat,
Arc welders are at particular risk since the high
and a metallic taste followed by cough, chest pain, and
temperatures generated by the arc can release heavy
difficulty in breathing. Overexposure may also make fluid
concentrations of airborne contaminants.
accumulate in the lungs (pulmonary edema) and may
Chemical hazards may injure welders through inhalation, cause death. The liver, kidneys, and bone marrow can
skin absorption, ingestion, or injection into the body. also be injured by the presence of this metal.
Damage to respiratory, digestive, nervous, and
Chromium is found in many steel alloys. Known to be a
reproductive systems may result. Symptoms of
skin sensitizer, it may cause skin rashes and skin ulcers
overexposure to chemicals may include nosebleeds,
with repeated exposure. Chromium also irritates mucous
headaches, nausea, fainting, and dizziness.
membranes in areas such as eyes and nose and may
Read the manufacturer’s material safety data sheet cause perforation of the nasal septa. Inhaled chromium
(MSDS) for information on protective measures for any may cause edema and bronchitis.
chemical you encounter in the workplace.
Lead can be found in lead-based paints and some metal
The most common chemical hazards from welding are alloys. Lead poisoning results from inhalation of lead fumes
airborne contaminants that can be subdivided into the from these lead-based materials. The welding and cutting of
following groups: lead or lead-coated materials is the primary source of lead
poisoning for welders. Symptoms include loss of appetite,
- fumes
anemia, abdominal pains, and kidney and nerve damage.
- gases/vapours
Under Ontario law, lead is a designated substance
- dusts.
requiring special precautions for use and handling.
The amount and type of air contamination from these
Nickel is found in many steel alloys including stainless
sources depends on the welding process, the base metal,
steel and monel. It is a sensitizing agent and in certain
28 – 3
WELDING AND CUTTING
forms is toxic and carcinogenic. Nickel fumes can also lightheadedness, buzzing in the ears, and rapid heartbeat.
produce cyanosis, delirium, and death 4 to 11 days after Chemical asphyxiants interfere with the body’s ability to
exposure. transport or use oxygen. Chemical asphyxiants can be
Zinc is found in aluminum and magnesium alloys, brass, produced by the flame-cutting of metal surfaces coated,
corrosion-resistant coatings such as galvanized metal, for instance, with rust inhibitors. Hydrogen cyanide,
and brazing alloys. Inhaling zinc fumes during the cutting hydrogen sulphide, and carbon monoxide are examples of
or welding of these metals may cause metal fume fever. chemical asphyxiants — all highly toxic.
Vapours/Gases Dusts
A gas is a low-density chemical compound that normally Dusts are fine particles of a solid which can remain
fills the space in which it is released. It has no physical suspended in air and are less than 10 micrometres in
shape or form. Vapour is a gas produced by evaporation. size. This means they can reach the lungs. Dusts may be
produced by fluxes and rod coatings which release
Several hazardous vapours and gases may be produced phosphates, silicates, and silica. The most hazardous of
by welding. Ultraviolet radiation, surface coatings, these is silica which can produce silicosis — a disease of
shielding gases, and rod coatings are primary sources of the lung which causes shortness of breath.
vapours and gases. Overexposure may produce one or
more of the following respiratory effects: BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
• inflammation of the lungs Biological hazards are a relatively minor concern for
• pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs) construction welders. However, exposure to bacteria may
• emphysema (loss of elasticity in lung tissue) occur in sewer work, while air handling systems
• chronic bronchitis contaminated by bacteria and fungi can cause
• asphyxiation. legionnaires’ disease and other conditions. A fungus that
grows on bird or bat droppings is responsible for a disease
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas can be released by the called histoplasmosis, producing flu-like symptoms.
decomposition of rod coatings during welding and irritates Contact may occur where buildings contaminated with
the eyes and respiratory system. Overexposure can injure droppings are being renovated or demolished.
lungs, kidney, liver, and bones. Continued low-level
exposures can result in chronic irritation of nose, throat, Fires/Explosions
and bronchial tubes.
There is always a threat of fire with welding. Fires may
Nitrogen oxide (NOx) gas is released through a reaction result from chemicals reacting with one another to form
of nitrogen and oxygen promoted by high heat and/or UV explosive or flammable mixtures. Many chemicals by
radiation. It is severely irritating to the mucous membranes themselves have low ignition points and are subject to
and the eyes. High concentrations may produce coughing burning or exploding if exposed to the heat, sparks, slag,
and chest pain. Accumulation of fluid in the lungs can or flame common in welding. Even sparks from cutting
occur several hours after exposure and may be fatal. and grinding may be hot enough to cause a fire.
Ozone gas is formed by the reaction of oxygen in air with In welding, oxygen and acetylene present the most
the ultraviolet radiation from the welding arc. It may be a common hazards of fire and explosion.
problem during gas-shielded metal arc welding in confined
Pure oxygen will not burn or explode but supports the
areas with poor ventilation. Overexposure can result in an
combustion of other materials, causing them to burn much
accumulation of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema)
more rapidly than they would in air.
which may be fatal.
Never use oxygen to blow dust off your clothing. Oxygen
Phosgene gas is formed by the heating of chlorinated
will form an explosive mixture with acetylene, hydrogen,
hydrocarbon degreasing agents. It is a severe lung irritant
and other combustible gases.
and overexposure may cause excess fluid in the lungs.
Death may result from cardiac or respiratory arrest. The Acetylene cylinders are filled with a porous material
onset of symptoms may be delayed for up to 72 hours. impregnated with acetone, the solvent for acetylene.
Because acetylene is highly soluble in acetone at cylinder
Phosphine or hydrogen phosphide is produced when
pressure, large quantities can be stored in comparatively
steel with a phosphate rustproofing coating is welded.
small cylinders at relatively low pressures.
High concentrations irritate eyes, nose, and skin.
Asphyxiants are chemicals which interfere with the Preventive Measures
transfer of oxygen to the tissues. The exposed individual Welding hazards must be recognized, evaluated, and
suffocates because the bloodstream cannot supply controlled to prevent injury to personnel and damage to
enough oxygen for life. There are two main classes of property.
asphyxiants — simple and chemical.
The WHMIS chapter in this manual explains the information
Simple asphyxiants displace oxygen in air, thereby leaving on hazardous materials that can be provided by WHMIS
little or none for breathing. In welding, simple asphyxiants symbols, labels, and material safety data sheets.
include commonly used fuel and shielding gases such as
acetylene, hydrogen, propane, argon, helium, and carbon Once a welding hazard has been identified, controls can be
dioxide. When the normal oxygen level of 21% drops to implemented at its source, along its path, or at the worker.
16%, breathing as well as other problems begin, such as
28 – 4
WELDING AND CUTTING
28 – 5
WELDING AND CUTTING
airborne contaminants from entering the welder’s Ventilation guidelines for different welding processes are
breathing zone. spelled out in Canadian Standards Association standard
CAN/CSA-W117.2 Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied
Local exhaust ventilation is recommended for welding
Processes, copyright CSA.
where toxic airborne contaminants are produced and/or
where a high rate of fume is produced — for instance, Other Controls
during GMAW in confined areas with little ventilation
An isolation chamber is a metal box with built-in sleeves
where the shielding gases can build up to toxic levels.
and gloves. The work is welded inside the box and viewed
There are three types of local exhaust ventilation systems through a window. This method is used to weld metals
for welding: that produce extremely toxic fumes. The fumes are
extracted from the isolation chamber and ducted outdoors.
1) portable fume extractor with flexible ducting
(Figure 20.6) Respiratory protection
2) fume extraction gun (Figure 20.7) will not be required for Facepiece
3) welding bench with portable or fixed hood most welding operations if Replaceable Strap
(Figure 20.8). proper ventilation is Filter
Fume provided. However, when
Extraction ventilation or other
Gun
measures are not
adequate, or when the
welding process creates
toxic fumes (as with Inhalation
Valve
stainless steel and Exhalation
Figure 20.9 Valve
beryllium), respiratory
Portable protection must be worn.
Fume Figure 20.7
Extractor Select respiratory protection
based on estimated Reserve
Figure 20.6
Bench with exposure and the toxicity of Cylinder
Portable Hood
the materials. Disposable
fume respirators are
Local Exhaust Airline
Systems adequate for low fume levels
and relatively non-toxic
fumes. For higher exposures
or for work involving toxic
fumes, a half-mask
Figure 20.10
respirator with cartridges
suitable for welding fume
Figure 20.8 should be used (Figure 20.9).
In areas where fume or gas concentrations may be
The effectiveness of local exhaust ventilation depends on immediately dangerous to life and health, a self-contained
the distance of the hood from the source, air velocity, and breathing apparatus (SCBA) or a supplied-air respirator
hood placement. Hoods should be located close to the with a reserve cylinder should be used (Figure 20.10).
source of airborne contaminants. The hood is placed Use only supplied air or self-contained respirators in areas
above and to the side of the arc to capture airborne where gases may build up or where there can be a
contaminants. reduction in oxygen.
Warning: In all processes that use shielding gas, air A welder required to wear a respirator must be instructed
velocities in excess of 30 metres/minute may strip in its proper fitting, use, and maintenance. For more
away shielding gas. information, refer to the Personal Protective Equipment
chapter of this manual.
Ventilation Requirements
FIRE PREVENTION
There are two methods for determining ventilation
requirements. Sparks and slag from cutting, grinding, and welding can
travel great distances and disappear through cracks in
One uses air sampling to measure the welder’s exposure walls and floors or into ducts. They may contact flammable
to airborne contaminants and to determine the materials or electrical equipment. Fires have started in
effectiveness of the ventilation provided. Monitoring is not smoldering materials that went undetected for several
well suited to construction because site conditions are hours after work was done.
constantly changing.
Take the following steps to prevent fires and explosions.
The other method uses tables to select the type of
ventilation according to the process, materials, production • Obtain a hot work permit through the safety officer if
level, and degree of confinement used in the welding required.
operation. • Keep welding area free of flammable and explosive
material.
28 – 6
WELDING AND CUTTING
• Use a flammable gas and oxygen detector to surfaces of the jaws of the holder, should be fully
determine whether a hazardous atmosphere exists. insulated against the maximum voltage encountered to
• Provide fire barriers such as metal sheets or fire ground.
blankets and fill cracks or crevices in floors to prevent
Arc welding and cutting cables should be completely
sparks and slag from passing through.
insulated, flexible, and capable of handling the maximum
• Provide fire extinguishers suitable for potential types
current requirements of the work as well as the duty cycle
of fire. Know where the extinguishers are and how to
under which the welder or cutter is working.
use them.
• Provide a firewatch where necessary — a worker to Avoid repairing or splicing cable within 10 feet of the cable
watch for fires as the welder works and for at least end to which the electrode holder is connected. If
thirty minutes afterward. The person must be fully necessary, use standard insulated connectors or splices
trained in the location of fire alarms and the use of which have the same insulating qualities as the cable
fire-fighting equipment. Some situations may require being used. Connections made with cable lugs must be
more than one firewatch, such as on both sides of a securely fastened together to give good electrical contact.
wall or on more than one floor. The exposed parts of the lugs must be completely
insulated. Do not use cables with cracked or damaged
Cutting torches should be equipped with reverse flow insulation, or exposed conductors or end connectors.
check valves and flame arrestors to prevent flashback and
explosion (Figure 20.11). These valves must be installed A welding cable should have a safe current carrying
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. capacity equal to or exceeding the maximum capacity of
the welding or cutting machine.
28 – 7
WELDING AND CUTTING
• Before moving an arc welding or cutting machine, or • Never store flammable and combustible materials
when leaving machine unattended, turn the power such as oil and gasoline in the same area.
supply OFF. • Do not store cylinders near elevators, walkways,
• Report any faulty or defective equipment to your stairwells, exits, or in places where they may be
supervisor. damaged or knocked over.
• Read and follow the equipment manufacturer’s • Do not store oxygen cylinders within 20 feet of
instructions carefully. cylinders
• Prevent shock by using well-insulated electrode containing
holders and cables, dry clothing and gloves, rubber- flammable gases
soled safety boots, and insulating material (such as a unless they are 1.5m
board) if working on metal. separated by a
• All arc welding and cutting operations should be partition at least
shielded by non-combustible or flame-proof screens to 5 feet high and
protect other workers from direct rays of the arc. having a fire-
• Keep chlorinated solvents shielded from the exposed resistance rating
arc or at least 200 feet away. Surfaces prepared with of at least
chlorinated solvents must be thoroughly dry before
30 minutes Figure 20.14
being welded. This is especially important when using
(Figure 20.14).
gas-shielded metal-arc welding, since it produces high
• Store empty and Cylinder
levels of ultraviolet radiation. Outlet Contents
full cylinders Pressure Gauge
• Check for the flammability and toxicity of any Gauge
separately.
preservative coating before welding, cutting, or
• Prohibit smoking Cylinder Valve
heating. Highly flammable coatings should be stripped
from the area to be welded. In enclosed spaces, toxic in the storage
Pressure
preservative coatings should be stripped several area. Adjusting
Screw
inches back from the area of heat application or the USING CYLINDERS
welder should be protected by an airline respirator. In
• Use oxygen and
the open air, a suitable cartridge respirator should be
acetylene Hose Check
used. Generally, with any preservative coating, check Fire
cylinders (non-return) Extinguisher
the manufacturer’s MSDS for specific details Valves
in a proper
regarding toxicity and personal protection required.
buggy equipped
• Shut off the power supply before connecting the
with a fire
welding machine to the building’s electrical power. Figure 20.15
extinguisher
(Figure 20.15). Secure cylinders upright.
Oxyacetyelene Welding
• Keep the cylinder valve cap in place when the cylinder
and Cutting is not in use.
HANDLING CYLINDERS • Do not force connections on cylinder threads that do
not fit.
• Do not accept or use any • Open cylinder valves slowly. Only use the handwheel,
compressed gas cylinder which does spindle key, or special wrench provided by the
not have proper identification of its supplier.
contents. • Always use a pressure-reducing regulator with com-
• Transport cylinders securely on a pressed gases. For more information see the box
hand truck whenever possible. Never below.
drag them. • Before connecting a regulator to a cylinder, crack the
• Protect cylinders and any related cylinder valve slightly to remove any debris or dust
piping and fittings against damage. that may be lodged in the opening. Stand to one side
• Do not use slings or magnets for of the opening and make sure the opening is not
hoisting cylinders. Use a suitable Figure 20.13 pointed toward anyone else, other welding operations,
cradle or platform (Figure 20.13) or sparks or open flame.
• Never drop cylinders or let them strike each other • Open the fuel gas cylinder valve not more than 11/2
violently. turns unless marked back-seated.
• Chalk EMPTY or MT on cylinders that are empty. • Do not use acetylene pressure greater than 15 psig.
Close valves and replace protective caps. • Never allow sparks, molten metal, electric current, or
• Secure transported cylinders to prevent movement or excessive heat to come in contact with cylinders.
upset. • Never use oil or grease as a lubricant on the valves or
• Always regard cylinders as full and handle attachments of oxygen cylinders. Do not handle with
accordingly. oily hands, gloves, or clothing. The combination of
• For answers about handling procedures, consult the oxygen and oil or grease can be highly combustible.
manufacturer, supplier, or the MSDS. • Never bring cylinders into unventilated rooms or
enclosed areas.
STORING CYLINDERS
• Do not use oxygen in place of compressed air for
• Store cylinders upright in a safe, dry, well-ventilated pneumatic tools.
location maintained specifically for this purpose. • Release pressure from the regulator before removing
it from the cylinder valve.
28 – 8
WELDING AND CUTTING
• When gas runs out, extinguish the flame and connect • Attach regulators to respective cylinders. Tighten nuts
the hose to the new cylinder. Purge the line before re- with a proper wrench.
igniting the torch. • Release pressure adjusting screws on regulators.
• When work is finished, purge regulators, then turn • Connect green hose to oxygen regulator and red
them off. Use a proper handle or wrench to turn off hose to fuel gas regulator.
cylinders. • Connect hoses to the torch — green to oxygen inlet
and red to fuel gas inlet.
Pressure Regulators • Connect mixer and welding tip assembly to torch
Pressure regulators must be used on both oxygen and handle.
fuel gas cylinders to maintain a uniform and controlled • Open oxygen cylinder valve slowly and fully.
supply of gas to the torch. • Open fuel gas cylinder 3/4 to 11/2 turns.
The oxygen regulator should be designed with a safety • Open oxygen torch valve. Turn oxygen regulator
pressure adjusting screw to desired pressure.
relief valve so that, should the diaphragm rupture,
Continue oxygen purge for about 10 seconds for
pressure from the cylinder will be released safely and
each 100 feet of hose. Close oxygen torch valve.
the regulator will not explode.
• Open fuel gas torch valve. Turn fuel gas regulator
Each regulator (both oxygen and fuel gas) should be pressure adjusting screw to desired pressure and
equipped with a high-pressure contents gauge and purge for about 10 seconds for each 100 feet of
working pressure gauge. Always stand to one side of hose. Close fuel gas torch valve.
regulator gauge faces when opening the cylinder valves. • To light torch, follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
DO NOT USE MATCHES.
To prevent regulators from being installed on the wrong • Adjust to desired flame.
cylinders, oxygen cylinders and regulators have right-
hand threads while most fuel gas cylinders and Closedown
regulators have left-hand threads.
• Close torch valves according to the manufacturer’s
Internal and external threads and different diameters instructions.
also help to prevent wrong connections. • Close fuel gas cylinder valve.
• Close oxygen cylinder valve.
Hoses and hose connections for oxygen and acetylene • Drain fuel gas cylinder line by opening torch fuel gas
should be different colours. Red is generally used to valve briefly. Close valve. Drain oxygen line in the
identify the fuel gas and green the oxygen. The acetylene same way.
union nut has a groove cut around the centre to indicate • Re-open both torch valves.
left-hand thread. • Release pressure adjusting screws on both
• Protect hoses from traffic, flying sparks, slag, and regulators.
other damage. Avoid kinks and tangles. Regulators and torches can now be disconnected.
• Repair leaks properly and immediately. Test for leaks
by immersing hose in water. SILVER SOLDER BRAZING
• Use backflow check valves and flame arrestors Silver solder brazing is used for joining metals and steel
according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Figure and disimilar metal combinations where it is necessary to
20.11). perform the joining of these metals at low temperatures.
• Do not use a hose which has been subject to Applications include medical and laboratory systems,
flashback or which shows evidence of wear or refrigeration, aerospace, and electronic equipment. In
damage without proper and thorough testing. brazing, the major hazards are heat, chemicals, and fumes.
Backfires occur when the flame burns back into the torch Fumes generated during brazing can be a serious
tip, usually accompanied by a loud popping sound. hazard. Brazing fluxes generate fluoride fumes when
Backfires usually are caused by touching the tip against heated. Cadmium in silver brazing alloys vaporizes when
the work or by using pressures that are too low. overheated and produces cadmium oxide, a highly toxic
Flashback is much more serious. The flame burns back substance. Cadmium oxide fumes inhaled into the
inside the torch itself with a squealing or hissing sound. If respiratory tract can cause pulmonary distress,
this happens, follow the torch manufacturer’s instructions shortness or breath, and in cases of severe exposure
to extinguish the torch in proper sequence. may cause death.
Many different makes, models, and designs of torches are The most serious cause of cadmium oxide fumes is
available. There is no single procedure or sequence to overheating the silver brazing filler metal. Care must be
follow in igniting, adjusting, and extinguishing the torch taken to control the temperature of the silver brazing
flame. Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions. operation. The torch flame should never be applied directly
to the silver brazing filler rod. The heat of the base metal
Oxyacetylene Summary should be used to melt and flow the brazing filler metal.
Startup Cadmium-plated parts can be an even more hazardous
source of cadmium fumes, since in brazing these parts
• Keep cylinders away from sources of heat or damage
and secure them upright. the torch flame is applied directly to the base metal.
• Stand to one side and slightly crack cylinder valves to Cadmium plating should be removed before heating or
blow out dust. brazing. When in doubt about a base metal, check with
the supplier of the part.
28 – 9
WELDING AND CUTTING
Safe Silver Solder Brazing do it quickly. See the Confined Spaces chapter in this
manual.
• Do not heat or braze on cadmium-plated parts.
• Read warning labels on filler metals and fluxes and Personal Protective Equipment
follow instructions carefully.
• Work in a well-ventilated area or use a supplied-air In addition to the protective equipment required for all
respirator. construction workers, welders should wear flame-proof
• Apply heat directly to the base metal–not to the gauntlet gloves, aprons, leggings, shoulder and arm
brazing filler metal. covers, skull caps, and ear protection.
• Do not overheat either the base metal or the brazing Clothing should be made of non-synthetic materials such
filler metal. as wool. Woollen clothing is preferable to cotton because
• Wash hands thoroughly after handling brazing fluxes it is less likely to ignite. Keep sleeves rolled down and
and filler metals. collars buttoned up. Wear shirts with flaps over pockets
and pants with no cuffs. Remove rings, watches, and
Confined Spaces other jewelry. Never carry matches or lighters in pockets.
Welding in enclosed or confined areas creates additional Clothing should be free from oil and grease.
hazards for the welder. The employer must have a written Wear high-cut CSA grade 1 footwear laced to the top to
rescue procedure for confined spaces. keep out sparks and slag.
In addition to the procedures outlined in the chapter on Protective screens or barriers should be erected to protect
confined spaces in this manual, take the following people from arc flash, radiation, or spatter. Barriers should
precautions. be non-reflective and allow air circulation at floor and
• Inspect all electrical cables and connections that will ceiling levels. Where barriers are not feasible or effective,
be taken into the confined space. workers near the welding area should wear proper eye
• Perform leak tests on gas hoses and connections to protection and any other equipment required.
eliminate the risk of introducing gases into the Signs should be posted to warn others of welding
confined space. hazards.
• Check for live electrical systems and exposed
conductors. EYE AND FACE PROTECTION
• Use inspection ports, dipsticks, and the knowledge of Welding helmets provide radiation, thermal, electrical, and
plant personnel to evaluate hazards from any liquids, impact protection for face, neck, forehead, ears, and eyes.
solids, sludge, or scale left in the space. Two types are available — the stationary plate helmet and
• Isolate the space from any hydraulic, pneumatic, the lift-front or flip-up plate helmet.
electrical, and steam systems which may introduce
hazards into the confined area. Use isolation methods The lift-front type should have a fixed impact-resistant
such as blanks, blinds, bleeding, chains, locks, and safety lens or plate on the inside of the frame next to the
blocking of stored energy. Tag isolated equipment. eyes to protect the welder against flying particles when
• A competent person must test and evaluate the the front is lifted. All combination lenses should have a
atmosphere before workers enter a confined space, clear impact-resistant safety lens or plate next to the eyes.
and at all times during work there. A hazardous There are also special models incorporating earmuff
atmosphere may already exist or gases and vapours sound arrestors and air purification systems. Special
may accumulate from cutting or welding. Oxygen prescription lens plates manufactured to fixed powers are
content may become enriched or depleted. available for workers requiring corrective lenses.
• Ventilate space with clean air before entry and
maintain ventilation as long as necessary to prevent The typical lens assembly for arc welding is shown in
the accumulation of hazardous gases, fumes, and Figure 20.16.
vapours. The filtered or shaded plate is the radiation barrier. It is
• Different gases have different weights and may necessary to use a filter
accumulate at floor, ceiling, or in between. Air plate of the proper lens The arc welding lens assembly consists of
monitoring should be done throughout the confined 3 parts. The outside lens is clear plastic or
shade to act as a barrier tempered glass. It protects the shade lens
space. to the harmful light rays from damage. The centre lens is a shade
lens that filters out the harmful light. The
• Keep compressed gas cylinders and welding power and to reduce them to a inner lens is clear and must be plastic.
sources outside the confined space. safe intensity. Guidelines
• Where practical, ignite and adjust flame for oxy-fuel for selection are shown in
applications outside the space, then pass the torch Figure 20.17. 1st: Clear Glass
inside. Similarly, pass the torch outside the space, or Plastic Lens
then extinguish it. In addition to common
green filters, many special 2nd: Shade
• When leaving a confined space, remove the torch and Lens
hoses and shut off gas supply. filters are available. Some
• If adequate ventilation cannot be maintained, use a improve visibility by 3rd: Clear
suitable supplied-air respirator. reducing yellow or red Plastic Lens
flare. Others make the
It is the responsibility of the employer to have a written
colour judgment of
emergency rescue plan and communicate the plan to all
temperature easier. Some Figure 20.16
involved. Each person should know what do to and how to
have a special gold
28 – 10
WELDING AND CUTTING
coating on the filter lens to provide additional protection by Lens Shade Selection Guide for Welding
reflecting radiation.
Shade numbers are given as a guide only and may be
Welding hand shields are designed to provide radiation varied to suit individual needs.
and impact protection for the eyes and face. They are Electrode Arc Minimum Suggested1
similar to welding helmets except that there are no lift- Size Current Protective Shade No.
front models. Operation mm (32nd in.) (Amperes) Shade (Comfort)
Shielded Metal Arc less than 2.5 (3) less than 60 7 –
Spectacles with full side shields designed to protect Welding 2.5-4 (3-5) 60-160 8 10
against UV radiation and flying objects and suitable filter (SMAW) 4-6.4 (5-8) >160-250 10 12
lenses should always be worn in conjunction with full more than 6.4 (8) >250-550 11 14
welding helmets or welding hand shields. Gas Metal Arc Welding less than 60 7 –
and Flux Cored 60-160 10 11
Where only moderate reduction of visible light is required (GMAW) >160-250 10 12
(for instance, gas welding) use eyecup or cover goggles >250-500 10 14
with filter lenses for radiation protection. Goggles should Gas Tungsten Arc Welding less than 50 8 10
have vents to minimize fogging and baffles to prevent (GTAW) 50-150 8 12
>150-500 10 14
leakage of radiation into the eye cup.
Air Carbon (light) less than 500 10 12
Arc Cutting (heavy) 500-1000 11 14
Welders should not wear contact lenses because
Plasma Arc Welding less than 20 6 6 to 8
airborne dust and dirt may cause excessive irritation (PAW) 20-100 8 10
of the eyes under the lenses. >100-400 10 12
>400-800 11 14
28 – 11
WELDING AND CUTTING
Radiographic and X-Ray Testing Specific requirements for radiographic camera users are
the responsibility of the certified persons operating the
Some construction trades will encounter situations in equipment.
which welds, metals, or special coatings require on-site
non-destructive testing. • The survey meter must be checked to ensure that it is
working and calibrated properly.
Methods include • Barrier ropes should be set up around the area where
1) radiography using a radioactive source for general testing will be carried out unless this area is isolated
materials and access can be controlled. Barriers must be set up
according to the strength of the source.
2) x-rays for testing thicker sections. • Warning signs must be posted along the barriers.
Radiography is federally regulated across Canada by the • A patrol must be provided to ensure that no
Atomic Energy Control Board. Users must be licensed and unauthorized persons enter the testing area.
operators must be trained according to a Canadian • Before the camera shutter is opened and testing is
Government Standards Board (CGSB) program. conducted, the area must be properly shielded.
• Personnel working within the testing area should carry
X-ray testing is provincially regulated—in Ontario by personal dosimeters. Dosimeters may also be
Regulation 632/86. advisable for workers in the immediate vicinity outside
While many requirements apply to licensed users in both the barriers.
situations, this section will only cover the basic health and
X-RAY TESTING
safety guidelines for field use.
Certain basic health and safety precautions are required
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING for the x-ray testing of welds and metals.
Licensed users of radiographic testing systems are • There must be suitable means to prevent
responsible for general safety in the field, transportation, unauthorized persons from activating the equipment.
emergency procedures, and record-keeping. • There must be some device to indicate when the x-ray
Radiographic testing must be carried out in the presence tube is energized.
of persons certified to CGSB Standard 48GP4a. In • The housing must adequately shield the equipment
general these people are employees of a recognized operator.
testing agency. • Employers using X-ray equipment must advise the
Ministry of Labour that they have such equipment.
Radiographic materials and equipment must be kept
• Employers must designate certain persons to be in
locked up in shielded storage containers accessible only
charge of x-ray equipment who are trained and
to certified personnel. The containers must be
competent to do so, and must give the Ministry of
conspicuously marked and kept in an area not normally
Labour the names of these designated persons.
occupied by the workforce. There may be other special
requirements which apply, depending on the strength of Measures and procedures at the x-ray testing site are
the radioactive source and the location. similar to those required for radiographic testing. The
following are the employer’s responsibilities.
Radiographic cameras in the field must be used in
conjunction with pocket dosimeters, survey meters, • Test during off-shifts.
directional shields, barrier ropes, radiographic warning • Cordon off the test area if it cannot be isolated or if
signs, and an emergency source container. entry cannot be controlled.
• Post warning signs along the barrier or at the
General Safety Precautions
entrance to the room where testing is taking place.
• Radiographic testing should be conducted, whenever • Have a patrol to prevent unauthorized entry.
possible, on an off-shift with as few workers as • Install shielding as required before any equipment is
possible in the work area. The radiographic source activated.
should be no stronger than is required for the job. • Ensure that employees in the controlled area wear
Determining the strength of the source is not personal dosimeters.
generally the responsibility of construction site • Keep dosimeter records.
personnel. • Keep at least one radiation survey meter of a suitable
• Equipment should be checked before use. The type with each portable x-ray machine and calibrate it
regulation includes a list of items to be checked, but at least once each year.
doing so is not usually the responsibility of site
personnel. Training
• After taking tests where the camera will be moved, Welders, fitters, and welding supervisors should be
the area should be checked using a survey meter. trained in both the technical and safety aspects of their
• Licensed users are required to keep records work. Health and safety training should include but not be
regarding the use of sources, including dates, times, limited to the following:
locations, and other details. These records must be
made available to inspectors from the Atomic Energy • hazard identification
Control Board. Users are also responsible for advising • safe welding, brazing, and cutting practices
the local fire department when radioactive material • fire and safety precautions
will be in a municipality for longer than 24 hours. • control methods for welding hazards
28 – 12
WELDING AND CUTTING
28 – 13
LOCKOUT AND TAGGING
29 – 1
LOCKOUT AND TAGGING
PLANNING STEPS
Specific lockout procedures will vary depending on the work and the processes which must be shut down.
The following chart can help you develop specific procedures.
No
29 – 2
LOCKOUT AND TAGGING
29 – 3
LOCKOUT AND TAGGING
SUMMARY
Signs must be placed on the system indicating that
Lockout can ensure the safety of a single mechanic
• it must not be energized or operated working alone or of hundreds of workers in a factory. In
• guards, locks, temporary ground cables, chains, tags, either situation, a procedure for safe lockout and tagging
and other safeguards must not be tampered with or must be written, implemented, and followed step by step.
removed until Lockout and tagging procedures help to ensure that
a) the work is complete, and
• all energy sources are identified and locked out
b) each worker has removed his or her personal
lock. • energy is not inadvertently restored while work is
proceeding
A record must be kept of all equipment locked out or
otherwise rendered inoperable so that all of these devices • maintenance, repair, installation, and other jobs can
can be reactivated once the work is complete. be carried out safely
• records are kept.
29 – 4
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
30 – 2
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Clothing
Whether or not the day’s planned work involves
Ω
working near an electrical hazard, workers that CSA logo omega
do electrical work should choose everyday
clothing that offers some flame resistance Eye protection
properties. When work must be done in the The Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
presence of an electrical hazard, ensure that all standard CAN/CSA Z94.3-99 Industrial Eye and
clothing is chosen to provide adequate Face Protectors can assist you in classifying
hazards and recommending protectors.
30 – 3
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Appropriate protection chosen according to this circuit has many times the current needed to
standard meets with the intent of the cause death.
Construction Regulation regarding eye
Rubber gloves and leather protectors are the
protection worn on the job.
most common personal protective equipment
In any case, eye protection should be of used for shock protection. These must be
industrial quality eye protection in the form of adequate to protect the worker from electrical
safety glasses incorporating side-shields or a shock or burn. The rubber gloves must have
wrap-around style. Arc flash protection requires been tested and certified.
a face shield that is rated for arc flash, with
Class 0 and Class 00 gloves must be air-tested
safety glasses underneath.
and visually inspected for damage and adequacy
Regular plastic face shields do not to immediately before each use. Class 0 and Class
provide arc flash protection. They can burn 00 are exempt from regular re-certification unless
and melt in an arc flash incident. Use a face work is carried out under the Electrical Utility
shield that is designed and rated for arc Safety Rules. Rubber gloves rated for use with
flash protection. voltages above 5,000 volts AC must be regularly
tested and certified to ensure that they can
Hearing protection withstand the voltages for which they are rated,
Hearing protection is important at work since
continuous exposure to excessive noise can lead • at least once every three months if they
to hearing loss and tinnitus. Hearing protection are in service, or
is required for some arc flash hazards. Hearing • once every six months, if they are not in
protection is available in three general types: service.
1. Disposable ear plugs made of pliable Workers must be trained in the proper use, care,
material. One size fits all, but they should and storage of rubber gloves and leather
only be used once. protectors.
2. Reusable custom-fit ear plugs are available Rubber mats and shields can also be used with
to provide protection for specific standard personal protective equipment to
frequencies of noise. These provide a good protect the worker from electric shock or burn.
seal and can be washed and reused. The rubber mat must have been tested and
3. Earmuffs. They need to be fitted to certified.
provide maximum protection. The best shock protection is afforded by turning
off or isolating the electrical power from the
Shock protection
worker. The Construction Regulation requires all
The passage of electricity through the body is work to be done with the system de-energized
called shock. Effects can range from a tingling unless certain specified conditions are met. See
sensation to death. A shock that may not be “Working on Energized Systems” in this chapter.
enough to cause injury can nonetheless startle a
worker, causing an involuntary reaction that can Flash hazard (arc flash) protection
result in serious injuries or death. A flash hazard is defined as a dangerous
A household 125-volt circuit can deliver 15 condition associated with the release of energy
amps. Current as low as 30/1000 of 1 amp (30 caused by an electric arc (NFPA 70E 2004). The
mA) can cause breathing to stop. A 15-amp release of energy is often referred to as an arc
flash.
30 – 4
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
An arc flash produces thermal energy which is It may be possible to eliminate the electrical
measured in calories/cm². Adhering to arc flash hazard with equipment
protection calculations can still expose a worker designed to offer flash
to second degree burns, or 1.2 calories/cm². protection. The plug in
the picture below is
One calorie is the amount of heat needed to
designed for flash
raise the temperature of one gram of water
protection and can be
by 1°C.
used as a disconnect
Second degree burn results from exposure switch.
to 1.2 cal/cm² for more than 0.1 second.
1.2 calories/cm² is equivalent to holding
your finger in the blue part of a butane
lighter flame for one second.
These conditions can lead to arc flash:
• accidental contact between two conductors
• wiring errors
• insulation deterioration or failure
• corrosion of equipment
• contamination of the equipment (e.g., dust,
moisture)
Mechanical workers that are potentially exposed
• animals, tools, or fallen parts that short-
to arc flash should always wear clothing that
circuit the equipment
provides for some level of arc-flash protection.
• poor maintenance Clothing made of synthetic fibres can be readily
• workers using improper or non-rated tools. ignited by arc flash and melt to the workers
skin. Cotton or wool fabrics are more flame-
If a worker is close to energized electrical retardant and are therefore recommended as
equipment, the worker may be exposed to a outer-wear and inner-wear for work clothes.
flash hazard, even if the source of the arc flash Clothing that is flame resistant (FR) and rated to
is not being worked on. Employers and provide protection up to a specified hazard
supervisors need to ensure these workers are category must be worn when there is a flash
protected from flash hazards, and should hazard.
educate workers on flash hazard recognition.
Protection from an arc flash is afforded by
protective clothing and equipment such as
• wearing flame-resistant clothing
• flame-resistant eye protection (flame-
resistant face shield is often required as
well)
• hand protection
• hearing protection.
30 – 5
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
• Standing as far away as possible from the • the work consists only of diagnostic
hazard lowers the calorie intensity of an testing.
arc flash. Note: Testing with a meter is working on
• Standing to the side when opening energized equipment, and requires
electrical-box doors can reduce exposure appropriate protection including personal
to the full force of a blast. protective equipment.
Information is available to assist with arc-flash Unless the work consists only of diagnostic
energy calculations. Here are some sources: testing or involves a nominal voltage under 300
volts, an adequately equipped competent
• The (US) National Fire Protection worker who can perform rescue operations,
Association’s Standard for Electrical Safety including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR),
in the Workplace (NFPA 70E). Contact the must be stationed where he or she can see the
NFPA: 1-800-344-3555, www.nfpa.org. workers performing the live work.
30 – 6
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Work on energized equipment nominally rated The constructor must ensure that written
greater than 400 amperes and greater than 200 procedures for work on or near live equipment
volts, or greater than 200 amperes and greater are produced and implemented to protect
than 300 volts, can only be done if workers from electrical shock and burn. The
constructor must have copies of the procedures
1) the owner of the equipment provides the
available for employers on the project.
employer and the constructor with a
record showing that it has been maintained The employer must provide and explain the
according to the manufacturer’s written procedures to workers before they start
specifications work on or near live equipment. The
constructor and the employer both have a
2) a copy of the maintenance record is
general duty to ensure that the health and safety
readily available at the project
of workers are protected.
3) the employer has determined from the
maintenance record that work on the Operating equipment near
equipment can be performed safely energized powerlines
without disconnecting it, and Incidental powerline contact happens too often,
especially considering the potential severity of
4) before beginning live work, the worker
the consequences. The Ministry of Labour
has verified that requirements 1), 2), and
reported 108 powerline contacts in 1998. That
3) have been met.
number rose to 196 in 2005. See Table 1.
Repair or permanently disconnect
Constructors must be aware of electrical hazards
defective equipment.
when equipment such as a crane, dump truck,
Section 2-300 of the Ontario Electrical Safety or other vehicle is going to be operated near an
Code requires operating electrical equipment energized overhead electrical conductor, or
to be kept in safe and proper working when excavating equipment such as a backhoe
condition. will be operated near underground powerlines.
Table 1: Summary of Powerline Contacts
Overhead Lines Buried Cables
Dump Tree
Year Crane Other Digging Other Total
truck felling
2005 19 21 9 87 45 15 196
2004 11 16 5 57 53 9 151
2003 16 19 9 63 35 6 148
2002 16 20 4 50 36 6 132
2001 16 22 5 43 27 7 120
2000 15 10 3 59 32 3 122
1999 11 26 2 48 27 1 115
1998 10 17 8 39 27 7 108
TOTALS 114 151 46 446 282 54
(Source: Ontario Ministry of Labour)
30 – 7
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Safety measures
Written measures and procedures required by
the Construction Regulation include the
following:
• Place enough warning devices in the area
When equipment operates within reach of, and of the hazard so at least one is always
could therefore encroach on, the minimum visible to the operator. The warning
permitted distances from live overhead devices must be visible to the operator
under any conditions in which the
Table 2
Normal phase-to-phase voltage rating Minimum distance
750 or more volts, but no more than 150,000 volts 3 metres
More than 150,000 volts, but no more than 250,000 volts 4.5 metres
More than 250,000 volts 6 metres
The wind can blow powerlines, hoist lines, or your load. This can cause them to cross the minimum
distance.
30 – 8
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
equipment may be operating (night, rain, of the Construction Regulation also applies
fog, etc.), and must be specific about the with respect to the designated signaller.
hazard. Provide a sign meeting the
An exemption to these measures is only allowed
requirements of the Construction
if under the authority of the owner of the
Regulation’s section 44, stating, for
electrical conductor (typically the local utility),
example, “Danger! Electrical power lines
protective devices and equipment are installed,
overhead.” We recommend that you
and written procedures are implemented (for
include the voltage.
example, using the Electrical & Utilities Safety
• Ensure the equipment operator has been Association (E&USA)’s Electrical Utilities Safety
provided with written notification of the Rules) that are adequate to protect the equipment
electrical hazard before beginning the work. operator from electrical shock and burn.
• Ensure there is a sign warning of the Prevention
hazard that is visible to the operator at the Ensure that contractors
operator’s station. This may come as a and workers understand
sticker with the machine. Check to ensure that work should be
the sticker is still legible. planned to avoid
• Before the operator starts work, ensure powerlines. Prepare for
that the employer of the equipment work that must be done
operator provides and explains the in close proximity to
procedures to the equipment operator. energized powerlines by
developing written procedures ahead of time.
• A competent worker must be designated as
Have overhead powerlines moved, insulated, or
a signaller to warn the operator when any
de-energized where possible. Insulating or
part of the equipment, load, or hoist line
“rubberizing” powerlines offers some protection
may approach the minimum distance. The
against brush contact in some circumstances.
signaller must then be in full view of the
The local utility may provide this service.
operator and have a clear view of the
equipment and the conductor. Section 106 Identify the voltage of the service by checking
markings on the utility pole and calling the
utility. If material must be stored under
powerlines, hang warning flags and signs to
inform workers about the hazard and the need
to obtain written procedures if hoisting.
Provide instruction as part of site orientation:
• Advise operators of large equipment where
overhead and buried powerlines are and
where overhead powerlines may be lower
than expected.
• Remind workers not to let a ladder,
scaffold, or elevated work platform lean or
drift toward overhead powerlines. Always
maintain minimum allowable clearances.
Inside the limit of approach to the powerline.
30 – 9
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
• Inform all workers how powerline hazards Touching the ground at different points
are identified on site and that written can also be fatal. Shuffle slowly away from
procedures are required prior to operating the equipment using very small steps to
near them. minimize the contact area with the ground.
• Review an appropriate emergency 6. Report the contact. See “Reporting
response for equipment operators and Electrical Accidents/Incidents” in this
workers assisting operators, in case contact chapter.
should occur.
Hidden power supplies
In the event of contact between Digging into buried cable resulted in 282
equipment and overhead powerlines: powerline contacts between 1998 and 2005 (see
1. Stay on equipment. Don’t touch Table 1). A great many of these resulted from
equipment and the ground at the same excavating prior to getting a locate on the
time. Touching anything in contact with service. If the electrical power cannot be shut
the ground can be fatal. Stay on the off during excavation, the owner (of the service)
equipment unless forced off because of a must be present to supervise the uncovering of
life-threatening hazard such as fire. the powerline.
2. Keep others away. Warn everyone not The following are some prevention measures for
to touch the equipment or its load. That hidden powerlines.
includes buckets, outriggers, load lines, For underground powerlines:
and any other part of the machine. Beware
of time-delayed relays. After line damage • Before excavating, request that the owner
trips a breaker, relays may still try to of the service locate and mark
restore power. They may reset underground powerlines.
automatically two or three times. • Contact the utility through Ontario One
3. Break contact. If possible, break contact Call to locate all underground services.
by moving the equipment clear of the • Locate and mark underground lines on
wires. This may not be feasible where drawings that will be used for excavating.
contact has welded conductors to
equipment, the hoist line, or the load. • Post warning signs along the route of
underground powerlines.
4. Call the local utility. Get someone to
call the local electrical utility for help. Stay • When operators of excavation equipment
on the equipment until the utility shuts arrive on site, advise them where
down the line and confirms that power is underground services are located and how
off. Report incidents of powerline contact they are identified.
so that the utility can check for damage
that could cause the line to fail later.
5. Jump clear. If forced to leave the
equipment, jump carefully off the
equipment onto the ground landing only
on your feet, with your feet together.
Touching the equipment and the
ground at the same time can be fatal.
30 – 10
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
For powerlines embedded in concrete: The IEC 1010 standard defines categories I through
IV that are abbreviated as CAT I, CAT II, CAT III,
• Ensure various trades provide sleeving
etc. The higher-numbered categories represent an
when concrete is poured to reduce the
electrical environment that is susceptible to higher-
need to drill.
energy spikes. For example, multimeters that are
• Try to have powerlines laid along designed to the CAT IV standard provide the
dedicated sections of flooring and walls. worker more protection from high transient voltage
spikes than do CAT III, CAT II, or CAT I designs.
• Mark powerline locations on drawings that
See the accompanying diagram and Table 3 for an
will be referenced for drilling.
explanation of each category.
• Use a location service to ex-ray the
Be sure that the multimeter model has been
concrete and locate embedded powerlines.
tested. Simply being designed to the CAT III
MULTIMETERS standard, for example, does not mean the
multimeter was also tested to that standard.
In the process of troubleshooting, electrical Look for proof of independent testing by
workers face the risk of injury from improper an organization accredited by the
multimeter selection or use. Multimeters that are Standards Council of Canada, such
designed to meet the International Electro- as the CSA (Canadian Standards
technical Commission (IEC) 1010 and Association) International logo,
overvoltage category standards, when properly along with the appropriate
used, offer the electrician an acceptable level of category rating on the equipment. Test
protection that is recognized by the electrical
industry. The use of fused leads Table 3
provides additional protection
for the worker.
A failed multimeter Reprinted in part with permission of Fluke Electronics Canada Inc.
30 – 11
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
leads should also be rated at the same or face protection; long sleeve shirts;
greater voltage than the multimeter. dielectric safety boots; rubber gloves with
leather protectors; and mats, blankets, or
Understanding overvoltage installation shields as required. Do not wear
categories synthetic inner or outer clothing that
The division of a power distribution system into can melt if an arc flash occurs.
catagories is based on the fact that a dangerous
• Check the manufacturer’s manual for
high-energy transient such as a lightning strike
special cautions. Moisture and cold may
will be attenuated or dampened as it travels
affect the performance of your meter.
through the impedance (AC resistance) of the
system. A higher CAT number refers to an • Wipe the multimeter and test leads clean
electrical environment with higher power to remove any surface contamination prior
available and higher-energy transients. to use.
Therefore, a multimeter designed to the CAT III
• Use fused test leads. Ensure fused leads
standard is resistant to much higher-energy
and internal probe fuses are rated as high
transients than one designed to the CAT II
as or higher than the equipment you are
standard. Categories I through IV apply to low
going to work on. A minimum of 30 kA is
voltage (less than 1000 V) test equipment.
recommended (200 kA is desirable).
• Ensure that test leads are in the correct
input jacks.
• When the values to be measured are
uncertain, start testing with high ranges of
the multimeter, then move to the lower
ranges.
• Connect to the ground first, and disconnect
from ground last.
• Test the multimeter on a known power
source to verify that the meter is
functioning properly before and after
Safe use of multimeters testing the suspect circuit, using the same
• Use only multimeters that display both the power function for all three tests.
CSA logo (or equivalent) and the CAT (I,
Using a meter to confirm zero energy
II, III, or IV) designation. Categories I
for a lockout
through IV apply to low voltage (less than
1000 V) test equipment. Set the meter to the power function to be used
for validating the zero energy. Test to ensure
• Check to ensure that the meter’s voltage
the meter is functioning correctly by testing on
rating is appropriate for the work being
a known power source, then test the locked
done. Be aware of multimeters with
out circuit to verify the power has been
maximum voltage ratings typical of other
effectively isolated, and finally re-test on the
countries (550 V for example).
same known power supply to verify the
• Use personal protective equipment such as meter’s fuse has not blown and the meter is
arc flash fire-resistant clothing; eye and still functioning correctly on that power setting.
30 – 12
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
30 – 13
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
30 – 14
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
connection), a metal water pipe, a ground in a fire must be inspected by the electrical
electrode, or other acceptable grounding medium. utility inspector before being reactivated.
Ground all phases. Attach a temporary ground
cable to the system and keep it in place until REPORTING ELECTRICAL
work is completed. ACCIDENTS/INCIDENTS
All accidents, regardless of severity, must be
Connecting and disconnecting conductors
reported promptly to management and the
Disconnect devices used to isolate electrical immediate supervisor, and a record should be
equipment must be certified by CSA kept at the jobsite. When a serious or fatal
International or another certification body injury involves a union member, the union
accredited by the Standards Council of Canada. office and steward must be notified
It is important that the device has the immediately. Labour and management should
appropriate rating for the available current and cooperate fully in conducting an investigation.
load it is serving. Never assume a circuit has
Part VII of the Occupational Health and Safety
been de-energized when the disconnect is in the
Act specifies the requirements for notification in
open position. Check for power in all the event of fatalities, injuries, and accidents. In
conductors, then follow prescribed lockout and the event of an accident that requires reporting
tagging procedures before beginning work. and investigation, care should be taken not to
Capacitors disturb the accident scene, nor should equipment
or tools involved in the accident be removed.
Isolate the capacitor by opening the circuit
breaker or the isolation device connecting it to Contact with an overhead powerline
the circuit. Drain off the accumulated charge for Contact with an overhead powerline must be
five to ten minutes with the system device. Short reported to multiple parties.
circuit and ground the capacitor using a hot
If accidental contact occurs with an energized
stick and required personal protective
powerline carrying 750 V or more, report the
equipment.
contact to the inspection department of the
Electrical fires Electrical Safety Authority (ESA), and provide
written notice to the Ministry of Labour, joint
Never put water on fires in live electrical
health and safety committee or health and safety
equipment or wiring. Water is a conductor and
representative, and trade union.
increases the risk of arc flash and electrocution.
An electrical fire in a confined space can rapidly Fatality or critical injury
deplete oxygen and may release toxic fumes. If A written report is required under subsection
possible, switch off power. Avoid inhaling fumes 51 (1) of the Act, respecting an occurrence in
and vacate the area at once. If necessary, which a person is killed or critically injured.
breathe through a damp cloth and stay close to (See box on next page.)
the floor. Use a Class C fire extinguisher.
Section 53 of the Act: Where a notice or report
Intended for electrical fires, Class C
is not required under section 51 or 52, and an
extinguishers employ a non-conductive
extinguishing agent. An ABC fire extinguisher • accident
may also be used on an electrical fire. Every • premature or unexpected explosion, fire,
worker who may be required to use a fire flood or inrush of water
extinguisher must be trained in its use. Report • failure of any equipment, machine, device,
fires immediately. Wiring or equipment involved article, or thing
30 – 15
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
30 – 16
PROPANE
31 PROPANE
INTRODUCTION
Packaged under pressure, propane gas presents three
hazards if misused:
1. high flammability and explosive potential
2. displacement of breathable air in confined spaces
(also, being heavier than air, propane will collect in
low areas)
3. contact injury from accidental exposure to a
substance under high pressure.
We will not cover the use of propane in the roofing
industry.
31 – 1
PROPANE
Safe Handling of Cylinders • Keep cylinders upright. Use a hand cart (Figure 3).
Never roll cylinders.
In construction, most propane applications dispense the • Use a hoisting cradle to move
fuel in a vapour form. For this reason it is essential that cylinders from one level to another
portable cylinders be transported, stored, and used in an (Figure 4).
upright position. Propane liquid must never come in • Never use a sling. This practice is
contact with the cylinder relief valve. If liquid escapes prohibited by the Construction
through the valve, large volumes of gas will be released. Regulation under the
On a construction heater, for example, this can cause a Occupational Health and Safety
serious overburn with flames extending many feet past the Act.
burner tip. • Never hook onto the protective
The simplest way to avoid the problem is to fasten collar around the valve. Figure 4
cylinders in an upright position with rope, wire, or other • Keep cylinders away from heat sources.
means. When transporting by truck, take extra care to
keep cylinders upright and stationary. Cylinders should not Heaters
be transported in an automobile trunk or in a closed van.
You must have a record of training (ROT) recognized by
Because propane is heavier than air, escaping gas can
the Technical Standards and Safety Authority (TSSA)
collect in a confined space and create an explosive
before you can hook up and light a propane-fired heater.
atmosphere, as well as threaten life by displacing
breathable air. When hooking up and using construction heaters, observe
the following precautions.
Store cylinders safely on the jobsite. They should be
stored away from buildings, preferably in a separate • All connections must be made by a
compound out of traffic areas and where they are in no competent worker.
danger of being struck by falling materials or moving • Inspect burner, controls, regulator, and
equipment. A simple compound can be constructed using hose for defects. Have any damaged parts
a length of snow fence and a few T-bars (Figure 2). When repaired or replaced. Gas-burning
properly constructed, this barrier provides a means of equipment should only be repaired by
tying up the cylinders as well as controlling stock. licensed service personnel.
Cylinders should not be stored closer than 25 feet to a • Make sure all hose and valve connections
property line. Empty cylinders should be stored on one are clean.
side, full on the other. Don't mix the cylinders. • Use fitting wrenches to make connections.
Don't use adjustable pipe wrenches.
The compound should not be close to an area where
flammable liquids such as gasoline and diesel fuel are
in.
stored. Only cylinders that are in use should be inside ft. m
10
n ce:
ista
a building. (“In use” means hooked up to a construction D
Figure 5
Secure the cylinder and keep it at least 10 feet away from the
heater. Hose length must be between 15 feet and 50 feet.
31 – 2
PROPANE
cause closing (slugging) of the excess flow check basements where it can create a flammable or
valve. The purpose of this valve is to shut off gas flow explosive situation (Figure 8).
should the regulator accidentally be broken off. • Never attempt to tie down, defeat, or bypass safety
• To unslug the check valve, shut off the flow at the devices on a construction heater. If the heater is
cylinder, wait a couple of minutes for the check valve to defective, replace it. If the heater is inadequate, get
reopen, then proceed. The cylinder valve should be extra heaters or replace it with a larger one.
opened slowly to its normal limit, approximately • If the flame goes out, act with caution. Shut off the
1-1/2 to 2 turns. Do not force the valve beyond this limit. gas supply, then determine whether escaped gas is
• Secure the cylinder by tying or wiring it to a column or concentrated in the area. Because of its strong odour,
other upright. Keep cylinders out of traffic areas where you can usually smell propane. However, in a confined
they may be knocked over. space, test with a gas detection device. If escaped
• Cylinder and heater must always be in the same room gas is detected or even suspected, ventilate and
so that the cylinder valve can be shut down quickly if purge the area thoroughly before relighting the unit.
trouble develops.
• Keep heaters away from flammable materials. The Warning - If the heater is in a confined or low-lying
heat from a burner is effective well past the tip. area, escaped gas can be hazardous. Never enter the
• Watch for a drop in pressure or area without help standing by. Never attempt to relight
reduced flame efficiency. This until the gas is completely purged from the area.
indicates that gas is being
withdrawn too quickly, and may • Never expose any part of your skin to liquid propane.
require additional cylinders to Propane under pressure is extremely cold and can
be hooked up in manifold. cause frostbite. Always wear gloves when handling
Never attempt to increase the cylinders.
amount of vapour by applying • Don't allow propane gas to saturate your clothing. A
heat to the cylinder. highly flammable situation can remain for some time
after the exposure. Saturated clothing should be
removed and aired outside.
• Never operate heaters without adequate ventilation.
Follow manufacturer's recommendations on the plate.
31 – 3
PROPANE
While welding cylinders are generally smaller than cylinders 3) Keep cylinders away from heat sources, and
used for construction heaters, they should be treated with flammables away from heaters.
the same care. 4) Always secure cylinders to prevent upset.
• Fittings should be clean and Lift 5) Never transport cylinders in an enclosed vehicle or
Ring for trunk.
free of grease before hooking
Hoisting
up. 6) Always use proper gear for hoisting or moving cylinders
• Fitting wrenches should be around the worksite.
used to avoid damage to
7) Keep heaters in good condition. Repairs and
parts.
maintenance should be done only by licensed service
• Cylinders should be in an
personnel.
upright position at all times,
kept in a suitable cradle when 8) Always have a fire extinguisher handy (4A40BC
in use, and preferably tied minimum).
upright to prevent tipping over 9) Protect stored cylinders or bulk tanks from on-site
(Figure 9). traffic.
• A fire extinguisher (4A40BC
10) Don't tamper with controls or safety devices.
minimum) should be kept
Oxypropane Welding Cart
close when using any torch. 11) Never enter an area where leaking gas is suspected.
Figure 9
• Regulators should be 12) Don't use or store cylinders of propane in low areas
removed and stored in a such as trenches, maintenance holes, or basements.
protective case when not in use, along with hoses and
torches.
• Consult manufacturer's handbook for oxypropane
regulator settings. They are very different from
oxyacetylene settings. For more information, refer to
Welding and Cutting in this manual.
31 – 4
Special
Locations
CONFINED SPACES
32 CONFINED SPACES
Coordination
When workers of more than one employer perform
Complies with changes to the Construction Regulation work in the same confined space the constructor
(Ontario Reg. 213/91) implemented in 2006. must prepare a coordination document to ensure
that the various employers perform their duties in a
way that protects the health and safety of all
Before letting a worker enter a confined space, the workers. A copy of the coordination document must
employer must develop a written confined space program be provided to
meeting the requirements of the Construction Regulation
(Part II.1, Confined Spaces, sections 221.1 to 221.19). ❑ each employer of workers who perform work in
The employer must maintain the program. the same confined space
❑ the project's joint health and safety committee or
CONFINED SPACE PROGRAM health and safety representative.
Program elements must include Not designed and constructed for continuous human
occupancy
❑ a method of recognizing each confined space
Confined spaces are not designed or constructed for
❑ a method for assessing the hazards to which workers people to work in them on an ongoing basis. They are
may be exposed usually designed and constructed to store material,
❑ a method for developing plans for controlling the transport products, or enclose a process. But occasionally,
some work must be done inside the space.
hazards
Atmospheric hazards
❑ a method for training workers
A hazardous atmosphere is one which contains any of the
❑ an entry permit system setting out measures and following:
procedures to be followed when working in a confined
➤ an accumulation of flammable, combustible, or
space. explosive agents
32 – 1
CONFINED SPACES
❑ the health and safety representative, or Because construction projects are not limited to new
buildings, confined spaces may be encountered in a
❑ every worker involved in the confined space entry if variety of places. The following table describes typical
the project has no joint health and safety committee confined spaces and the most common hazards found
or health and safety representative. there.
If control measures (such as continuous mechanical ventilation) are used to ensure that the concentrations of an
atmospheric hazard are controlled or maintained at an appropriate level (but not eliminated) then the space would
still be considered a confined space. If, however, measures are implemented to eliminate the possibility that any
atmospheric hazards may occur in a space, then the confined space provisions no longer need to apply.
Eliminating the possibility that an atmospheric hazard will occur is different from controlling the hazard. If workers
must enter the confined space to eliminate the hazards (by steam-cleaning or vacuuming, for example), then the
confined spaces provisions apply.
Even if a space is not defined as a confined space under the regulations, the employer must take every precaution
reasonable in the circumstances to protect workers entering the space.
32 – 2
CONFINED SPACES
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Physical hazards often present a greater danger inside an
enclosed space than they do outside.
Examples:
➤ Temperature extremes
Ask plant personnel if workers could encounter dangerous
temperatures. For example, heat stress can be a hazard
when working around boilers, hot pipe or tanks, or
structures heated by the sun. Protective clothing can also
add to heat stress.
Chemical and petrochemical projects Toxic and explosive gases, vapours and fumes; physical
Tanks, vessels, storage tanks, underground tanks, pipes, hazards of cramped entry and exit, narrow passages,
sumps, pits, any area where a worker cannot readily and chemical spills.
escape from a toxic or explosive atmosphere; any area
where toxic, explosive, or oxygen deficient atmospheres
may be encountered.
Water treatment plants Oxygen deficiency, chlorine gases, ozone; also possibly
Settling tanks, holding tanks, equipment and wells below methane and hydrogen sulphide produced by decaying
floor level. debris removed from lake and river water.
Heavy industrial projects The hazards will depend on processes and materials
Sumps, pits, roasters, digesters, mixers, bins, flues, involved but may include methane, hydrogen sulphide,
ducts, conveyors, elevators, bag houses. oxygen deficiency, flammable agents, electrical hazards,
moving parts, and engulfment due to free-flowing
materials.
32 – 3
CONFINED SPACES
➤ Electrical hazards
Any exposed conductors or energized equipment should
be identified before entry. The presence of water in
confined spaces may pose an additional electrocution
hazard where electrical circuits, equipment, and tools are
used.
➤ Lighting
Confined spaces generally have poor lighting. You often
need temporary lighting. In potentially explosive
atmospheres, use lighting designed for such situations.
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
Confined spaces can present three kinds of atmospheric
hazards:
“Fire and Explosion Hazard” of a material’s MSDS for fire-
➤ flammable, combustible, or explosive atmosphere and explosion-related information.
➤ oxygen-enriched or oxygen-deficient atmosphere The LEL is the lowest, and the UEL the highest
concentration of gas or vapour that will support
➤ atmospheric contaminants. combustion. For example, gasoline has an LEL of 1.4%
The hazardous atmosphere may be due to existing and a UEL of 7.6%. Below 1.4% there is not enough fuel
conditions (e.g., residue in a tank,) or it may be created by to burn, while above 7.6% there is too much fuel and not
the work being done inside the confined space (e.g., enough oxygen to burn. (See figure above.)
welding or using solvents). In some cases, removing
sludge or scale can release trapped pockets of gas or The most common explosive gas likely to be encountered
vapour and create a hazardous atmosphere. Moreover, in sewers and other underground structures is methane-or
dangerous atmospheres often exist together. For instance, “natural gas”-produced by decaying garbage and sewage.
flammable, combustible or explosive atmospheres may Other explosive gases and vapours may be present in
also be toxic or cause an oxygen deficiency. confined spaces depending on previous contents or
accidental spills and leaks (e.g., leaking fuel-storage tanks
FLAMMABLE, COMBUSTIBLE, OR near service stations).
EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES Explosive ranges for common gases and vapours are
listed in Table 1. These values must be considered when
Flammable atmospheres are generally caused by
selecting and operating gas-testing equipment.
➤ evaporation of flammable liquids (e.g., gasoline) Combustible atmospheres can arise in grain elevators,
➤ by-products of chemical reactions (e.g., feed mills, and some industrial settings such as bag
houses, because of the large quantities of dust generated.
decomposition of organic matter to form methane).
The most common combustible dust is grain or flour dust-
Explosive atmospheres are those in which a flammable there have been several explosions in grain elevators. You
gas or vapour is present in quantities between the Lower need to address this issue whenever you're working in
Explosive Limit (LEL) and the Upper Explosive Limit these settings.
(UEL). These limits define the “Explosive Range” which
varies from one substance to another. Refer to the section
32 – 4
CONFINED SPACES
Table 1 Table 2
Explosive Range for Effects of oxygen
common gases and vapours deficiency
Gas/vapour Lower Upper Oxygen
Explosive Explosive Effect
concentration
Limit (%) Limit (%)
19.5% Minimum for safe entry
Acetone 2.6 12.8
Loss of judgment and
Less than 18%
Ammonia 16.0 25.0 coordination
32 – 5
CONFINED SPACES
32 – 6
CONFINED SPACES
Case study
A construction crew finished installing a 12-foot-deep
manhole without incident. After the crew left the
area, 265 pounds of nitroglycerin-based explosive in
20 boreholes, each 18 feet deep, were detonated
40-60 feet from the manhole. A worker who entered
the manhole 45 minutes after the explosion
collapsed within minutes, and two coworkers
descended into the manhole to rescue him. One
rescuer retrieved the unconscious worker before
collapsing on the surface, and the other rescuer died
in the manhole.
32 – 7
CONFINED SPACES
32 – 8
CONFINED SPACES
4) RESCUE EQUIPMENT
The rescue equipment must be readily available,
appropriate for the confined space, and inspected by a
competent worker. The competent worker must keep a
written record of the inspection. Examples of rescue
equipment include harnesses and lifelines, hoist/retrieval 5) PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND
systems, respirators, and other personal protective PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
equipment. Protective clothing and equipment suitable for one
material may not be suitable for others. For example,
NOTE: You must consider the size of the confined space's
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic is resistant to most acids,
opening when choosing rescue equipment. There is no
but it can be softened or penetrated by many common
point planning for a rescuer to wear a SCBA (self-
solvents such as benzene, toluene, and xylene.
contained breathing apparatus) unit if it doesn't fit through
the opening. For this reason, a knowledgeable person should assess
the protective clothing and equipment needed (e.g.,
All too often, inadequate or incorrect emergency rescue
gloves, boots, chemical suits, fire resistant coveralls-as
response results in multiple fatalities. Here are two
well as hearing, respiratory, eye, and face protection).
examples:
Don't forget that if workers need personal protective
➤ A worker collapsed shortly after entering a degasser equipment, they must be trained in its use.
tank. His coworker went in after him and collapsed as Respiratory protective equipment should be used
well. where ventilation is impractical or inadequate. Certain
➤ A contractor went to test acid-tainted water and was basic rules apply to the equipment.
discovered by a worker floating in a well of the above-
First of all, you need to select the proper type of
ground pump house. The worker went to his rescue
respirator. Oxygen-deficient atmospheres require
after calling 911 but was himself overcome. Two
supplied-air respirators—either airline types with
paramedics responding to the call were also struck
emergency reserves or SCBA (self-contained breathing
down. All four victims died. apparatus) as in the figures on the next page.
Even with the best planned and executed entry there is a
chance of a sudden change in conditions. The change
could be due to factors recognized earlier but for which no SCBA note: Because the amount of air supply in
“absolute” protection exists, such as the failure of a standard SCBA cylinders is rated for a specific time
respirator, the introduction of a new hazard, or collapse period, it is very important to plan your tasks,
from heart attack or illness. In such cases you need a especially rescues operations, accordingly. Heavy
rescue plan that has been practiced and works. work and stress will increase breathing rates and
workers will use up the air in less than the rated
time. An alarm sounds when the air supply is low.
32 – 9
CONFINED SPACES
32 – 10
CONFINED SPACES
Defined Interchangeable
sensors sensors
32 – 11
CONFINED SPACES
If a monitor is worn
by the worker it is WARNING: Combustible gas detectors should not
referred to as be used to assess toxic atmospheres. Most
“personal combustible gas detectors do not respond to low
monitoring.” concentrations of gases. For example, H2S is
Personal monitoring flammable from 4.3% to 44%. But it is Immediately
gives information Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) at 100 parts per
about the million (0.01%) and would not be detected at this
concentration of concentration by most combustible gas detectors.
hazardous Most other toxic gases that are also flammable are
substances dangerous in concentrations well below the LEL.
surrounding the worker. It is particularly useful when the
worker is moving from place to place within the confined
space.
You must calibrate, maintain, and use the equipment
Area sampling is done before entry or re-entry. As much in accordance with the manufacturer's
of the confined space area as possible should be tested, recommendations.
including the bottom, mid level, top, and corners.
If the meter is not properly calibrated, you cannot rely
Single-gas detectors measure only one gas while multi- upon its results. Deaths can occur if the instrument
gas monitors are available with several toxic sensor underestimates the atmospheric conditions.
options and have the flexibility of measuring many gases
simultaneously. Most multi-
gas monitors include an Most confined-space
oxygen sensor, a instrument
flammable/combustible gas manufacturers now
sensor, and one or two offer "docking"
sensors for detecting stations that can
specific toxic gases. Newer automatically
single and multi-gas calibrate instruments
instruments offer the and print a record of
flexibility of interchangeable calibration. The
sensors. You can change the stations also recharge
sensors to suit the and store the
application in hand. For example, a single-gas detector instruments.
used to check hydrogen sulphide levels can be used to
monitor carbon monoxide concentrations after you change
the sensor.
32 – 12
CONFINED SPACES
Perform the tests safely. almost any other combustible gas. These devices give a
Entry into a confined space must be prohibited before the result expressed as a percentage of the lower explosive
appropriate tests are performed. Atmospheres should be limit (LEL) for the calibration gas used.
evaluated remotely (from outside the confined space) The next thing to check for is the presence of toxic gases
before each entry. If possible, an extendable probe should and vapour using a calibrated instrument.
be inserted through an inspection port or other opening
before removing large doors or covers. If you're using a multi-gas monitor capable of measuring
oxygen, combustibles, and toxic gases simultaneously
Make sure that as much of the space as possible is then the order of testing is not as critical.
tested, including the bottom, mid-level, top, and corners,
so that you don't miss layers or pockets of bad air. (See All three types of dangerous atmospheres must be
figure below). There are some gases that are lighter or evaluated before entry. Users of gas detectors must be
heavier than air. Lighter gases, such as methane, will competent workers. They must also receive training in the
accumulate at the top, while gases heavier than air will operation, calibration, and maintenance of the devices.
sink to floor level. Gases that are the same weight as air, Most manufacturers can provide necessary training.
such as carbon monoxide, will be found throughout a
confined space.
Always test for the three dangerous atmospheres:
Check for oxygen content, combustible or explosive Know the limitations of your specific equipment.
gases and vapours, and toxic gases and vapours in Consult the manufacturer's instructions for proper
that order if you use more than one meter. use.
First, check for oxygen content. Checking oxygen first is Temperature, humidity, and interfering gases can all
important because you may need adequate oxygen to get affect the performance of gas monitors.
a valid result from other tests.
If the oxygen level is adequate, test for explosive If the atmosphere meets acceptable exposure limits (see
atmospheres. Several different calibration gases are next page) the confined space may be entered. If the
available. Methane is used most frequently since it is a atmosphere does not meet acceptable limits, you need to
common gas found in many places. But you can get implement controls before anyone can enter.
devices calibrated for propane, hexane, heptane, or
32 – 13
CONFINED SPACES
32 – 14
CONFINED SPACES
When ventilation is used to improve the air in a confined Fans capable of moving 5,000 cubic feet per minute are
space, ensure that the toxic or flammable gases or available for use in larger tanks and vessels.
vapours removed from the space do not pose a risk to
other workers. “Exhaust air” should not be discharged into This type of ventilation may not be adequate in situations
another work area. where additional toxic or explosive gases or vapours may
be generated (e.g., during cleaning and resurfacing tanks
or by disturbing sludge and scale).
If you use mechanical ventilation to maintain In the case of welding or other work which generates a
acceptable atmospheric levels by providing a localized source of toxic gas, fume, or vapour, an exhaust
continuous supply of fresh air, you must have a ventilator can be used to draw out and discharge the
warning system (i.e., an alarm) and exit procedure in hazard in an open area. (See figure below.)
case there is a ventilation failure. The alarm should
be activated by a pressure switch at the fan rather Options must be evaluated by someone who understands
than by electrical failure. This ensures that the alarm the risks of the work being done.
is activated if the fan belt fails.
32 – 15
CONFINED SPACES
WORKER TRAINING At the very least, the entry permit must include
Workers must be trained before they enter a confined ❑ the location and description of the confined space
space. The training must include ❑ a description of the work
✓ recognizing the hazards (including potential hazards) ❑ a description of the hazards and the corresponding
in the confined space
controls
✓ safe work practices, including the use of all equipment
such as ventilation equipment, air monitors, and ❑ the time period for which the entry permit applies
personal protective equipment. ❑ the name of the attendant
It is strongly recommended that ❑ a record of each worker who enters and leaves
❑ the employer use an evaluation procedure (a test) to ❑ a list of the equipment required for entry and rescue,
ensure that workers have acquired the knowledge and verification that the equipment is in good working
necessary to safely perform their duties order
❑ inexperienced workers team up with experienced ❑ the results of the atmospheric testing
workers. ❑ additional procedures and control measures if hot
You must review the content of the training at least work is to be done.
annually, and whenever there is a change in
circumstances such as a change in an industrial process. The entry permit may also include
If the review indicates that the training is not adequate,
you must provide additional training. ❑ a record of the hazard assessment
You must keep a record of the names of trainers, trainees, ❑ the hazard control plan
as well as the date of training. If the project's joint health ❑ the training records.
and safety committee or health and safety representative
wants a copy of the record, you must provide one. See four pages ahead for a sample of an entry permit
form.
ENTRY PERMITS Unauthorized entry
Permits are valuable tools for planning, evaluating, and
The constructor must ensure that each entrance to
controlling confined space entries.
the confined space is secured against unauthorized
entry and/or has adequate barricades or signs
warning against unauthorized entry.
32 – 16
CONFINED SPACES
RECORD KEEPING
The employers must keep records of every
✓ plan
✓ assessment
✓ coordination document
✓ training
✓ entry permit
✓ record of rescue equipment inspection
✓ record of tests.
The records must be kept for at least one year after the
project is finished, and they must be available for
inspection.
32 – 17
CONFINED SPACES
To next page
Is the location a No inhaling a hazardous gas, vapour, dust, or fume, or there is
confined space? an explosion hazard, then adequate ventilation must be
Yes provided by natural or mechanical means. If this is not
practicable then respiratory protective equipment suitable
Is there more than one for the hazard must be provided.
No employer involved in
the entry? A copy of the co-ordination document must be
Yes provided to each employer who performs work in the
same confined space and to the project’s joint health
Constructor must prepare a and safety committee (JHSC) or health and safety
coordination document representative (HSR), if any.
Before any worker enters the confined space written Rescue equipment must be inspected by a
procedures and rescue equipment must be in place. competent worker.
The employer must ensure that workers entering the confined space are
provided with adequate protective clothing and PPE.
The constructor must ensure that the confined space is secured against unauthorized entry.
Before a worker enters a confined space, a competent worker must perform atmospheric testing.
32 – 18
CONFINED SPACES
The hazardous atmosphere contains or is likely The hazardous atmosphere contains or likely to contain an
to contain an explosive, flammable, or Or atmosphere where the oxygen content is less than 19.5% or greater
combustible dust, mist, gas or vapour. than 23%; or there is an accumulation of gases, vapours, fumes
dust, or mist that can cause an immediate threat to life or prevent
unaided escape out of the confined space.
There is an airborne concentration of The hazardous atmosphere Can the hazardous atmosphere be purged
dust or mist which is sufficient for Or and vented?
contains an explosive or
explosion.
flammable gas or vapour. Yes
No worker is allowed to enter or remain in the confined space unless, for each of the following types of work, certain conditions are met
while performing the work.
32 – 19
CONFINED SPACES
Monitoring equipment
Air testing equipment Serial # Last calibrated
Oxygen, %
Combustibles, %
Atmospheric
hazard:
Atmospheric
hazard:
Atmospheric
hazard:
Other:
32 – 20
CONFINED SPACES
Controls
Continuous monitoring
Other:________________
Attendant
Communications
__________________________________________ ____________________________________________
32 – 21
CONFINED SPACES
On-site rescue
Training
32 – 22
PULP AND PAPER MILLS
33 PULP AND PAPER MILLS The two common forms of chemical pulping are
1) the dominant “alkaline” or “kraft” process, and
Processes 2) the “acid pulping” or “sulphite” process.
Acid pulping has generally declined but is still in use. The
A number of processes, grouped by type as m ec h an i c al ,
digester liquor is a solution of sulphurous acid, H2SO3,
c h em i c al , and s em i -ch em i c al (or h y b r i d ), are used in
mixed with lime (CaO) or other base (magnesium,
the preparation of wood pulp. In 1990 (according to
sodium, or ammonium) to form bisulphites.
Lockwood’s Directory) the distribution of pulp mills in
Ontario and Quebec was as follows: Mechanical processes produce the highest yield from the
wood, but have high energy demands. Mechanical pulping
Process Type
generally incorporates thermal or chemical pre-softening
Chemical Processes Semi-chemical Mechanical Total
of the wood chips, resulting in lower energy requirements.
Kraft Sulphite
Some chemical processes include mechanical features.
Ontario 9 4 2 15 30
The division is not distinct and is generally based on
Quebec 10 8 2 41 61 efficiency of production from dry wood.
Figure 22.1: Number of pulp mills by type in Ontario and Quebec
Figure 22.2 provides a flow diagram for a semi-chemical
pulp mill.
In chemical pulping, the wood chips are cooked, using
heat and a chemical solution that depends on the type of Of the chemical processes, alkaline pulping – the kraft
process being used. The lignin binder, a natural glue that or sulphite process – is the most common and is shown in
holds the wood cells (fibres) together, is dissolved. Figure 22.3.
33 – 1
PULP AND PAPER MILLS
33 – 2
PULP AND PAPER MILLS
(CIO2) which is a severe pulmonary irritant even at low base to form bisulphites.
concentrations – usually encountered only during upsets Figure 22.4 lists some of the major chemicals used or
or leaks. encountered in different processes. It is not intended as a
Paper Machines comprehensive reference to all of the major chemicals or
intermediate chemicals used in pulp and paper mills. The
Potential exposures include dusts from cleaners,
precise chemicals, quantities, and processes may vary
slimicides, pH control chemicals, and off-gassing of
from one facility to another.
formaldehyde and ammonia.
Construction crews should obtain and review the Material
Specific Process Chemical Hazards
Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for these and other
Although the kraft, or alkaline, process is the most hazardous materials in use at the plant where work is
common, there are other pulping processes. The sulphite scheduled to take place. MSDSs should be readily
process involves acid cooking in which the digester liquor available from the client/operator of the mill.
is a solution of sulphurous acid mixed with lime or other
Ammonia • used to digest pulp in some processes • very irritating to eyes, nose and throat
• overexposure can cause choking and difficulty in breathing
Black liquor • liquid alkali, thick and slippery like • corrosive burns
molasses when concentrated • reddening of skin, burning sensation
• in weaker concentrations is a brown-to-
black, watery liquid
• slightly sickening smell, with odour of
sulphides
Calcium bisulphite • used in cooking pulp in the "sulphite • primarily a skin irritant
process" • corrosive
Chlorine (CI2) • toxic gas with characteristic acrid odour, • acute exposures cause irritation, stinging of eyes, nose and throat
like bleach, sweet-tasting • exposure causes coughing, chest pain, and difficulty in breathing
• used in bleaching pulp • overexposure can be fatal
• gasifies immediately on contact with air • delayed acute response to overexposure is fluid build-up
• yellow-green coloured gas-cloud in the lungs
Chlorine dioxide • produced on site and used in the • the gas is a severe pulmonary irritant even at low concentrations
(CIO2) bleaching process dissolved in water • choking sensation, followed by coughing and, in heavy
• liquid - yellow, green colour concentrations, nausea and insensibility
• biting, acrid odour like bleach, releases • skin burns on contact, reddening of the skin
CIO2 gas
Green liquor • alkali • corrosive burns - less corrosive than white liquor, but is scalding
• green colour, no odour hot when handled in the plant
• slippery or soapy feeling • reddening of skin, burning sensation
Hydrogen peroxide • liquid, clear and colourless • strong oxidizer, will react with organic materials and cause fire
(H2O2) • slight pungent odour • concentrations: mild 3-5%-no danger; moderate 6-10%-minor
burns, eye damage; medium 10-50%-minor burns, eye damage;
high over 70%-major burns
• explosion risk if mixed with strong acids or caustics
Hydrogen sulphide • colourless, toxic gas, byproducts • rotten egg smell at very low concentrations (below 100 ppm)
(H2S) • rotten-egg odour at low concentrations • as concentration rises, the sense of smell is rapidly deadened
• biting acrid odour • nausea, dizziness, and disorientation
• toxic gas: 500-700 ppm can be instantly fatal
• explosive at high concentrations
33 – 3
PULP AND PAPER MILLS
Methanol • methyl alcohol or wood alcohol • harmful to inhale vapour, or to allow repeated or prolonged skin contact
(CH3OH) • colourless • affects central nervous system; signs of poisoning include
• when pure, has slight alcoholic odour; headache, nausea, vomiting, aimless erratic movement, and
other grades have oily odour dilated pupils
• flammable liquid and vapour-air mixture can be explosive
Methyl mercaptan • colourless gas • irritant causing watering of eyes and nose
(CH3SH) • headaches and nausea
• high concentrations can be fatal
Sodium Carbonate, • used in some processes to digest pulp • primarily irritates eye, nose, throat
solda ash: (Na2CO3) • corrosive
Sodium Chlorate • used in some bleaching processes • harmless when wet, except when in contact with acid – then a
(NaCIO3) • liquid – normally clear, colourless, violent flammable reaction
odourless • irritating to eyes nose and throat
• in white crystalline form when dry • when sodium chlorate solutions dry to crystals, the dry form is
• used or found in some bleaching very unstable and can be ignited by spark or friction. Fire cannot
processes be put out by water except by total immersion
Sodium Hypochlorite • used in bleaching processes • dust may cause irritation of eyes nose and throat
• contact with water can release chlorine gas
Sodium Hydroxide • used in digesting pulp • very corrosive material, can cause chemical burns on exposed skin
Caustic Soda • slippery or soapy to touch on skin • can cause irritation of skin, eyes, nose and throat
or Lye - (NaOH) • clear to milky white, odourless • overexposure to mists or dusts containing sodium hydroxide can
lead to fluid build-up in the lungs
Sodium Sulphate • make-up chemical for cooking liquor • minor irritation of eyes, nose and throat possible
(Na2SO4) • low toxicity based on animal studies
• reacts dangerously when melted with aluminum
Sodium Sulphide • component of white liquor used in • inhalation of dust can cause irritation of nose, throat and lungs
(NaS2) digesting (cooking) pulp in the kraft • corrosive – can cause skin burns
process • may react with moisture to release hydrogen sulphide gas
• repeated skin contact may cause allergic skin reaction
Sulphur Dioxide • used in digesting pulp • very irritating gas: causes irritation of eyes, nose and throat
(SO2) • clear and colourless gas, biting acrid • exposure can cause choking and difficulty in breathing
odour • delayed response to overexposure can result in fluid build-up in
the lungs
33 – 4
PULP AND PAPER MILLS
33 – 5
STEEL MILLS
34 STEEL MILLS some scrap steel. Pure oxygen is blown into the vessel and
the resulting reaction generates a lot of carbon monoxide
Steelmaking Process during blowing time, which can be burned in a waste heat
furnace built into the hood system before the flue gases are
The conventional steelmaking process, in its most basic discharged to a precipitator and baghouse system.
form, consists of the following sequence of steps.
Electric furnaces are used in some facilities to produce
Blast furnace ironmaking – Three raw materials (iron stainless steels and in others to produce mild steels.
ore, coal, and limestone) are modified, brought together, Electric furnaces are charged primarily with scrap iron and
and smelted in a blast furnace to produce iron for sponge-iron pellets or steel scrap which has been analyzed
steelmaking. Iron, usually in molten form, is transported in and sorted.
hot metal cars to the steelmaking furnaces where
Two types of electric furnaces are typically used:
impurities are removed and alloying elements are added.
1) the electric arc furnace, generating heat from the arcs
Molten steel is then cast (usually using a continuous
from one carbon electrode to the metal and back to the
casting process) in large blocks such as slabs, blooms,
other carbon electrode from the metal and from the
billets, or ingots, which are subsequently reheated,
resistance of the current flow through the metal itself, and
cleaned, and reshaped repeatedly, and often coated, in a
2) the induction furnace, which behaves like a
series of operations to produce the variety of steel
transformer, in which the metal acts as the core and
products that we know.
secondary winding and enough heat is generated to
Iron ores are mined in various concentrations. All grades melt the metal.
require some improvement. High-grade ore may need only Once steel is made, the product usually proceeds to the
crushing, screening, and washing for a blast furnace. continuous casting stage. This employs a process which
Lesser grades and fines require further treatment to utilizes oscillating, cooling molds, going directly in this one
produce usable ore pellets for blast furnaces. Much of this stage from molten steel to semi-finished products,
processing occurs away from the steel mill so that only including slabs, blooms, and billets.
high grade material has to be transported. Sintering is a
process at the steel mill which makes lump feed suitable The conventional intermediate steps, in use for decades,
for blast furnaces from materials which once were wasted which involved casting ingots and repeatedly passing
– ore fines, flue dust (reclaimed from blast furnace them through roughing mills, have largely been replaced
gases), coal fines, and coke breeze (dust). They are by continuous casting. The old ingot process may remain
spread on a moving belt and ignite, producing sinter, a in some mills as a backup method.
clinker-like cake, which is quenched, broken up, and fed to By the use of reheat furnaces to bring them to hot rolling
the blast furnaces. temperatures, the slabs, blooms, or billets are shaped
Coke is the strong porous form of carbon used as the fuel using hot rolling mills – slabs into sheet and strip, blooms
mixed with iron ore in blast furnace ironmaking. It is into structurals and rails, and billets into bars, rod, wire,
produced by "baking" pulverized coal at high temperatures and some pipe and tube.
in coke ovens, after which the hot coke is quenched with Beyond this the steel shapes undergo a number of cold
water to prevent further oxidation. The coke is crushed forming processes such as cold rolling, pickling,
and screened to remove finer particles, which are tempering, and forging. They can undergo a number of
recycled. Many volatile and toxic chemicals, unwanted in finishing processes including electroplating, galvanizing,
blast furnaces, are released during the coking process. annealing, painting and a variety of proprietary finishes
The gases are captured and passed through a byproduct depending on the end use of the steel.
plant which produces a number of valuable byproducts
such as tar, ammonia liquor, ammonium sulphate, light Areas of Steel Plant
oils, and fuel gas. The coke oven gas is used for firing in
the coke ovens and is piped for use around the plant. Raw materials processing
Limestone and lime, produced from limestone, are used Iron ore: - Pelletization, kilns, etc. — normally offsite
as fluxes to remove impurities from iron ore and steel - Sinter plant
respectively. Limestone and lime are normally produced
offsite and stored for use. Coke: - Facilities for coal storage, handling, and
preparation — coal bins, blended coal
In steelmaking, molten iron joins scrap steel, lime, and bunker
alloying materials in a furnace and with injected oxygen
- Machinery for charging coal, pushing coke
they form a steel heat with the right recipe to meet the and quenching — larry car, quench car
required specifications. Since oxygen is needed in and tower
considerable quantities in steelmaking, an oxygen plant is
often associated with a steel mill. Excess carbon and other - Coke ovens — banks of ovens that bake
the coal at high temperatures
unwanted chemicals are oxidized with the help of lime as a
flux to form a floating slag of unwanted impurities. - Machinery for transporting and screening
coke-coke crusher
The most common steelmaking furnaces are the basic
oxygen furnace (BOF) and the electric furnace. - By-products plant
Basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs) are located close to blast Limestone - Quarries
furnaces and are charged with primarily molten iron with - Crushing and sintering
34 – 1
STEEL MILLS
34 – 2
STEEL MILLS
Coke ovens (in vicinity of batteries) • coke oven emissions (designated substance)
• sulphur compounds (H2S)
• CO
Stoves • asbestos
• carbon monoxide, CO
Steelmaking General • dusts - mostly iron oxides, lime, silica (during reline)
• radiant heat
Precipitator and baghouse • dust - mostly iron oxides, including lead from leaded steels (often no
longer produced)
• confined spaces
• lime in baghouse and storage shed
Steam Central boiler facility • usually fired by CO gas, BF gas, and/or natural gas
generation • high noise in some areas, asbestos
34 – 3
STEEL MILLS
• acute effects - typical solvent effects, central nervous • overexposure can cause choking and breathing
system depression difficulties
• chronic effects - carcinogens (cancer-causing agents); • delayed reaction to overexposure can be fluid buildup
some cause liver and kidney damage. in the lungs.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
• odourless, colourless, poisonous gas Other Health Hazards
• makes up a large part of fuel gases (22-30% of blast Heat
furnace gas, 5-10% of coke oven gas) Heat is generated and used all over a steel plant. Care
• many hazardous locations, especially around blast must be taken to control overexposure. This can come in
furnaces – also coke ovens and steelmaking the form of extreme radiant heat in many locations where
• can leak out from tops of blast furnaces, around hot there are hot or molten materials. Care must be exercised
stoves, pipelines; can occur due to sudden shutdown in these places. There are also many locations where
of blowing engines, boiler rooms, ventilation fans, and strenuous work may have to be done in hot locations.
from insufficient gas removal during electrostatic Heat stroke can be a constant risk, especially during
precipitator cleaning. warm weather. See the chapter on Heat Stress in this
Coal tar pitch volatiles manual.
• coke oven byproducts plant Noise
• skin irritant, cancer of the lung, skin, scrotum Noise is a hazard at many locations in a steel mill.
• photosensitive dermatitis. Hearing protection is often required and warning signs are
posted. High noise levels exist, for example, around the
Coke oven emissions
tuyeres in the blast furnaces or any rolling mills. For
• in the vicinity of the coke oven batteries guidelines on noise exposure and hearing protection, refer
• a “designated substance” in Ontario, carcinogenic to the chapter on Personal Protective Equipment in this
• there must be a control/monitoring program. manual.
Coke oven gas General
• high in carbon monoxide and may contain trace Before work begins, crews should receive training in the
amounts of carcinogens hazards existing in the work area and obtain and review
• contents can include benzene (0.4%), H2S, and the material safety data sheets for any hazardous
hydrogen cyanide. materials to which they may be exposed. These should be
readily available from the client or owner and, in fact,
Dusts
should be obtained at the time of bidding to facilitate job
• Iron oxide: (found in sinter plant, before blast planning. Any protective equipment used should at least
furnace, and around steelmaking) in equal that worn by the client's workers in the area.
addition to being irritating to eyes, this
causes ciderosis, which is a specifically
named type of pneumoconiosis or Piping systems
obstructive lung disease; i.e., dust The contents of piping systems, storage bins, and tanks
buildup, not fibrosis should be known and identified. Know the system of
• coal: - irritant to the eyes, etc. identification and warning used by the owner. These may
- pulmonary fibrosis, pneumoconiosis vary from one plant to another.
• coke: - there is some suspicion that coke is a
carcinogen Confined spaces
• silica: - silicosis Special attention must always be paid to confined space
- refractory brick lined furnaces and ladles entry. Always comply with the Construction Regulation
- may occur as dust at sinter plant, (Ontario Regulation 213/91) as a minimum. The steel mill
primarily during furnace repair will usually have an entry permit system and requirements
• iron chloride - around hydrochloric acid regeneration for entry and work in confined spaces. Welding in any
dust: plant confined space must be done with precautions. Pay
- respiratory tract irritant to some people. special attention in cases where welding is being done on
stainless steel, since the chromium released is a possible
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) cause of lung cancer.
• around coke oven batteries
Emergency Procedures
• toxic gas (500-700 ppm can be instantly fatal)
• rotten egg smell at very low concentrations - below 100 The steel mill will have emergency procedures in place.
ppm Know the warning alarm signals and follow the
• explosive at high concentrations. procedures.
35 – 1
MINERAL PROCESSING PLANTS
COPPER SMELTING
Operation Purpose Potential Exposures
Roasting Dries ore concentrate Ore dust, SO2, CO, lead & arsenic, heat, and
Controls silica content particulate
Produces calcine
Smelting Produces Cu-Fe sulfide matte and silaceous slag. Charge is Lead-containing dust, flux dust, CO, matte dust &
concentrate or calcine, recycled precipitates, converter slag, fume, SO2, noise
flux dust, limestone, and silica flux
Converting Produces blister copper (95.8%). Lead-containing dust, flux dust, SO2, noise, metal
Charge is matte and silica flux. dust/fume
Refining Produces domestic copper (>99.5%) H2SO4 mist, noise.
Arsine gas can occur without precautions
LEAD PRODUCTION
Operation Purpose Potential Exposures
Sintering Convert sulphides to oxides and sulphates SO2, lead-containing dust
Smelting Removes impurities, reduces compounds to lead (bullion) CO, SO2, silaceous dust, lead dust, other
containing 94-98% lead and slag. metallic oxides
Drossing Remove copper, silica, arsenic, antimony and nickel from solution CO, SO2, lead dust
35 – 2
OIL REFINERIES AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS
36 OIL REFINERIES AND everything they may need for protection when performing
maintenance, repair, or installation work in an oil refinery.
PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS As a worker you must depend on the knowledge available
from the plant operating and maintenance staff, normally
Oil Refineries available through your employer. If there is reasonable
doubt about a situation in which you find yourself, exercise
Because of their inherent hazards, especially from your “right to know” and make use of WHMIS to obtain the
explosion, fire, and chemicals, oil refineries are tightly information, equipment, and procedures necessary to
regulated places in which to work. Work permits must protect yourself and your fellow workers.
always be obtained and followed. Plant practices,
Hazardous Chemicals
warnings, and emergency procedures must be observed
at all times. When in doubt, remember to exercise your In a refinery, hazardous chemicals can come from many
“right to know” under WHMIS legislation. Check labels and sources and in many forms. In crude oil, there are not
MSDSs. Any required protective equipment and only the components sought for processing, but impurities
procedures must be explained and available when such as sulphur, vanadium, and arsenic compounds. The
hazardous exposure is possible. oil is split into many component streams that are further
altered and refined to produce the final product range.
Introduction
Most, if not all, of these component stream chemicals are
Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of different
inherently hazardous to humans, as are the other
hydrocarbons and varying amounts of other compounds
chemicals added during processing.
containing sulphur, nitrogen, and oxygen as well as salts,
trace metals, and water. Crude oils can vary from a clear Hazards include fire, explosion, toxicity, corrosiveness, and
liquid, similar to gasoline, to a thick tar-like material asphyxiation. Information on hazardous materials
needing to be heated to flow through a pipeline. manufactured or stored in a refinery should be supplied by
the client's representative when a work permit is issued.
A petroleum refinery's main job is to split crude oil into its
many parts (or fractions) which are then reprocessed into Fire and Explosion
useful products. The type, number, and size of process The principal hazards at refineries are fire and explosion.
units required at a particular refinery depends on a variety Refineries process a multitude of products with low flash
of factors including the type of crude oil and the products points. Although systems and operating practices are
required. The interconnected units making up a refinery designed to prevent such catastrophes, they can occur.
are a maze of tanks, furnaces, distillation towers Constant monitoring is therefore required. Safeguards
(fractionating columns), reactors, heat exchangers, include warning systems, emergency procedures, and
pumps, pipes, fittings, and valves. permit systems for any kind of hot or other potentially
Products of crude oil refineries include dangerous work. These requirements must be understood
and followed by all workers.
• fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil,
kerosene, jet fuel, bunker fuel oil, and liquified petroleum The use of matches, lighters, cigarettes, and other
gas smoking material is generally banned in the plant except
• petroleum solvents including benzene, toluene, in specially designated areas.
xylene, hexane, and heptane, which are used in paint Health and Hygiene Hazards
thinners, dry-cleaning solvents, degreasers, and
pesticide solvents Table 1 highlights major potential air contaminants which
• lubricating oils produced for a variety of purposes, and can escape from a typical refinery operation and their
insulating, hydraulic, and medicinal oils major sources. It does not attempt to identify all such
• petroleum wax possible hazards.
• greases, which are primarily a mixture of various fillers Table 2 reviews common hazardous chemicals and
• asphalt. chemical groups typically present and their most
These products can be hazardous not only in their final significant hazards to workers.
state but as they are being processed and refined.
Care should be exercised at all times to avoid inhaling
Health and Safety Hazards solvent vapours, toxic gases, and other respiratory
contaminants. Because of the many hazards from burns
The plant and equipment of refineries are generally
and skin contact, most plants require that you wear long-
modern, and the processes are largely automatic and
sleeved shirts or coveralls.
totally enclosed. Routine operations of the refining
processes generally present a low risk of exposure when Major Shutdown and Maintenance
adequate maintenance is carried out and proper industry
The principal exposures to hazardous substances occur
standards for design, construction, and operation have
during shutdown or maintenance work, since these are a
been followed. The potential for hazardous exposures
deviation from routine operations. Plant turnarounds
always exists, however.
require careful planning, scheduling, and step-by-step
Because of the wide variety of hydrocarbon hazards and procedures to make sure that unanticipated exposures do
their complexity, it is impossible to identify all of the hazards not occur. Any plant shutdown requires a complete plan in
here – and impossible for construction crews to know writing to cover all activities, the impact on other
36 – 1
OIL REFINERIES AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS
Table 2 lists common hazardous materials that may be Other processes utilize acid catalysts and caustic
encountered on a refinery site. Note, however, that the “washes.” These can lead to hazardous situations,
table is not all-inclusive. See the chapters on WHMIS and especially in shutdowns where a contractor's personnel
Basic Occupational Health in this manual. WHMIS labels may be exposed to residues or other contaminants.
and MSDSs provide detailed information for specific Information is required from refinery personnel and
products. specialized training is required in the necessary
36 – 2
OIL REFINERIES AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS
procedures and personal protective equipment, including The types of safe work permits required typically include
its care and use. the following. Specific categories may vary from site to
site.
Confined Spaces
• Hot work – covers any work that involves heat or an
On most jobsites there are potential confined space
ignition source, including welding, grinding, and the
hazards. These hazards are multiplied, however, on a
use of any kind of motor. In high-risk areas, a spark
refinery site because of the complex collection of tanks,
watch may be required.
reactors, vessels, and ducts combined with a wide variety
• X-ray and radiation
of hazardous chemicals and emissions, often in enclosed
• Benzene – required when a benzene exposure
areas. Many of these chemicals can produce oxygen-
hazard exists.
deficient, toxic, or explosive atmospheres. Knowledge of
• Confined space entry hot work – involving potential
general confined space procedures and specific in-plant
ignition hazards.
requirements are both critical in refinery work. For more
• Confined space entry cold work – involving work
information, refer to the chapter on Confined Spaces in
that will not produce a spark.
this manual.
• Hoisting – permit.
Safe Work Practices and Procedures • Electrical – for other than routine work.
• Camera – typically requires a hot work permit when
Personnel lighting is required.
• Hearing protection and safety glasses must be worn • Asbestos – required whenever an asbestos exposure
in all operating areas or as posted. hazard exists.
• Respiratory protection or equipment must be fit- • Vehicle movement
tested. Facial hair is unacceptable where the mask • Hydrant – permits the use of plant fire hydrants.
must make an airtight seal against the face. Special Authorization Permits
• Shirts must be long-sleeved and worn with full-length
pants or coveralls. In addition to safe work permits, special authorization
• Clothing must not be of a flammable type such as permits are normally required for the following operations:
nylon, Dacron, acrylic, or blends. Fire-resistant types • excavation
include cotton, Nomex, and Proban. • hoisting with major mobile equipment
• Other PPE required may include acid hood, • hot tap and non-conventional repairs
impervious outerwear, rubber boots, face shields, • opening live flare lines
rubber gloves, disposable coveralls, monogoggles, • temporary electrical facilities.
and fall-arrest equipment.
• Smoking is allowed only in designated areas. Emergency Warning System and Procedures
In oil refineries there will be both plant alarms or whistles
Vehicles
and individual unit alarms. All workers must receive
• Vehicle entry is by permit only and keys are to be left training in recognizing and responding to these alarms.
in parked vehicles. Verbal messages usually accompany the alarms.
• Vehicles must be shut down at the sound of any
There will be different alarms for a fire emergency and
emergency alarm.
toxic alarms.
• Vehicles must be equipped with ground straps or
cables. • When an alarm sounds, secure all equipment and
shut down all vehicles.
Permit Systems • Note the wind direction (wind socks) and proceed to
No work takes place in a refinery without a safe work permit. the appropriate assembly area (or safe haven).
A safe work permit is a document issued by an authorized • Do a head count to make sure all personnel are
representative of the client permitting specific work for a accounted for and report the result to a client contact
specific time in a specific area. Work permits should indicate person.
the date and time of issue, the time of expiry, a description • Know the local designated safety areas or safe
of the work to be done, and the name of the company havens and emergency phone number(s).
performing the work. Permits also specify any hazards and If you are the one who is first aware of an emergency,
controlled products under WHMIS and any protective then call the emergency number.
equipment needed for the job. The permit will advise you of • Report your name.
any steps required to make the area or equipment safe for • Describe the emergency.
work, tell you the results of any gas tests, advise you of any • Identify its location.
electrical lockouts that have been done, and tell you of any • Indicate whether anyone is injured.
work practices required for the specific job. • Proceed to the assembly area.
Safe work permits are valid only for a limited time and Electrical Precautions
must be renewed following expiry or normally after any
one-hour stoppage, after an emergency warning on the • Electrical tagging and lockout procedures must be
site, or for other safety reasons. After such an event, any understood and followed by all workers.
required gas testing or other testing must be repeated to • All electric tools, cords, and equipment must be
ensure a safe return to the work. grounded or double-insulated.
• Use explosion-proof fixtures where required.
36 – 3
OIL REFINERIES AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS
Sewers
• Sewers must be covered when hot work is being done
in the vicinity.
• Sewer covers must be in good condition with no
openings for vapour flow.
• Sewer covers are to be removed when hot work is
discontinued at the end of the job or overnight to
accommodate drainage.
Blinding or Blanking-off
• Piping connected to a work area from vessels, pumps,
and other sources is isolated or blinded with a solid
plate prior to the start of work.
• Blanking can sometimes be done with two valves and
a bleeder valve between them. In this case the valves
should be closed, chained, locked, and tagged.
Petrochemical Plants
Petrochemicals refers to a group of chemicals that are
manufactured using crude petroleum and natural gas
feedstocks as raw materials.
Petrochemicals are versatile starting points for the
production of thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.
Thermoplastics are materials that can be softened
repeatedly by the application of heat. The most important
thermoplastics are high and low density polyethylene,
polypropylene (polyolefins), polyvinyl chloride, and
polystyrene.
Thermosetting materials are those that undergo a
chemical change when heated and shaped and therefore
cannot be reshaped by another application of heat. Some
thermosetting plastics are thermosetting resins (including
phenol and urea formaldehydes), epoxy resins,
unsaturated polyesters and polyurethanes, and
engineered plastics such as polyacetyls, polyamides, and
polycarbonates.
The hazards of the petrochemical industry are closely
related to those of oil refining, particularly in the raw
material stages.
Atmospheric contamination hazards in the petrochemical
industry can be complex, particularly when substances or
processes combine. These combined effects are often
much more toxic and dangerous than individual effects.
As they do in oil refineries, construction crews in
petrochemical plants must comply with regulations as well
as in-plant procedures. Cooperation between contractor
and client is essential for safe work, from the bidding
stage until the contract is completed.
36 – 4
THERMAL POWER PLANTS
37 THERMAL POWER PLANTS The sources of energy created by normal boiler operation
are not usually present during major reconstruction work.
However, units adjacent to the shutdown unit are usually
Thermal Power Generation running, which can cause other hazards such as heat and
This process involves the generation of electricity from the noise.
burning of fossil fuel in a large industrial furnace. In very
simple terms, in a coal-fired station (Figure 1) the coal is
Common Hazards of Shutdown and
pulverized and blown into the furnace where it burns, Rehabilitation Work
much like a gas flame, to heat water and generate steam,
1) Conventional Construction Hazards
which moves at high speed to a turbine. The turbine spins
• falls, either people falling or things falling on
and drives a rotor attached to a magnet in a generator.
people
The rotating magnetic fields moving across coils in the
• electrical contact – see proximity requirements to
generator produce electric currents.
work around overhead powerlines
The thermal machines used to convert the stored energy • working on or near live equipment – workers who
in the fuels to the kinetic energy of the rotor are complex are asked to work on or near energized equipment
units. Each consists of two principal parts: boilers and (regardless of the energy source) must comply with
turbines. They also include a variety of auxiliary plant requirements to be applied in all work
equipment to provide fuel and water to the unit and to situations where systems are to be deenergized and
eliminate waste gases and products of combustion. locked out by devices such as switches or valves
• rigging and hoisting hazards
The basic operations are mechanical and highly
• site-specific hazards — to be identified by the plant
automated. In a coal-fired power station, where boilers
representative.
and turbines are combined, there is automatic control of
coal pulverization, of supplied water and fuel, of 2) Industrial Hygiene Hazards
combustion, and of superheating. The elimination of ash in Chemical Hazards
the auxiliary processes is also automated.
Before work begins, crews should receive training in the
Plants Fired by Fossil Fuel hazards existing in the work area and obtain and review
the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for any
Most construction, repair, and maintenance work is done hazardous materials to which they may be exposed.
during unit shutdowns or periods of extensive These should be readily available from the facility and, in
rehabilitation. This could involve working on one of the fact, should be obtained by contractors and
following system components: subcontractors at the time of bidding to facilitate job
• steam drum • waterwalls planning. Any protective equipment used should at least
• primary steam piping • boiler hanger rods equal that worn by plant personnel in the area.
• boiler feedwater • mud drum See Table 1.
• superheater • boiler casing Reported Health Problems
• reheater • condensate system
• economizer • electrostatic precipitators Some workers in boiler rooms may suffer from diseases of
• downcomers • sulphur dioxide scrubbers the upper respiratory tract such as bronchitis, and from
• feeder and riser tubes • stacks. conjunctivitis caused by vanadium compounds (dust given
off by oil combustion) and SO2.
37 – 1
THERMAL POWER PLANTS
37 – 2
Trade-Specific
Information
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 IRONWORKERS:
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Contents
- Personal protective equipment (PPE)
- Cold stress and heat stress
- Lead exposure
- Tools of the trade
- Site preparation and steel erection
- Safe access and fall protection
- Mobile welding rigs
equipment (PPE) require the use of a full face shield to reduce the
risk of injury from flying objects and particles. At
Clothing: Many injuries can be prevented by some jobsites, eye protection is mandatory.
choosing the right clothing. Don’t have cuffs on Always wear eye protection as required. For
your pants or sleeves because they can get further information, refer to the chapter on PPE
caught on something and cause you to fall. in this manual for a list of activities with
Cuffs can also catch sparks and cause a burn. recommended eye and face protection.
Hearing protection: Hearing protection is a Skin protection: Ironworkers must protect
must for today’s ironworker. Hammering, their skin against burns from hot metal,
reaming, and equipment all produce noise at ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, welding
levels that can harm your hearing. Wear radiation, and other hazards. Skin protection
appropriate hearing protection. It should filter includes
out noise above 85 decibels but still allow you
to communicate with your co-workers and hear • clothing that is flame-resistant and provides
any alarms or warnings. Reduce the risk of UV protection
infection: Make sure that your hands are clean • long sleeved shirts
before using expanding foam hearing
protection. • full-length pants
fatigue, moodiness, headache, joint or muscle reasonable in the circumstances for the
aches, anaemia, and decreased sexual drive. protection of a worker.”
Severe health effects include damage to the
nervous system, including wrist or foot drop, WELDING, CUTTING, OR BURNING
tremors, and convulsions or seizures. Before welding, cutting, or burning any metal
The frequency and severity of medical coated with lead-containing materials, remove
symptoms increase with the concentration of the coating to a point at least four inches from
lead in the blood. the area where heat will be applied. When
removal of lead-containing paint is not feasible,
Chronic lead poisoning may result after lead has
use engineering controls (e.g., local exhaust
accumulated in the body over time, mostly in
ventilation) to protect workers. The controls
the bone. Long after exposure has ceased, some
physiological event such as illness or pregnancy
may release this stored lead from the bone and
produce health problems such as impaired
blood synthesis, alteration in the nervous
system, high blood pressure, effects on male
and female reproductive systems, and damage
to the developing fetus.
APPLICABLE REGULATIONS
Regarding regulations governing lead exposure
on construction projects, the Ministry of Labour
references Designated Substances—Lead
Figure 2. Portable fume extractor
(Regulation 843) and makes it relevant for
construction projects with section 25(2)(h) of should remove fumes and smoke at the source
the Occupational Health and Safety Act, The and keep the concentration of lead in the
following excerpt regarding lead exposure was breathing zone below the exposure limit.
taken from the Ministry of Labour’s guideline
Lead on Construction Projects: REMOVAL OF LEAD PAINT
“The Ministry’s designated substance regulation Lead-based paint can be removed by a variety
(DSR) for lead, Regulation 843, specifies of methods, including
occupational exposure limits (OELs) for lead,
and requires assessment and a control program • chemical stripping (do not use chlorinated
to ensure compliance with these OELs. The OEL solvents for stripping paint because they
for inorganic lead is 0.05 milligrams per cubic can lead to toxic fumes being produced
metre (mg/m3) of air as an 8-hour daily or during welding)
40-hour weekly time-weighted average.” • wet scraping using a paint scraper
“Measures and procedures that ensure • mechanical stripping if the sander or
construction workers receive the same standard
grinder is equipped with a High Efficiency
of protection as workers covered by Regulation
Particulate Air (HEPA) filter.
843 should therefore be implemented on
construction projects where exposure to lead is • heat stripping if the temperature is below
a hazard. Such measures and procedures are 600°C. Above 600°C lead fumes become
deemed to be in compliance with section airborne creating a significant inhalation
25(2)(h) of the OHS, as taking “every precaution hazard.
38 – 3
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Use protective sheeting to collect debris that has area provided by the employer. Separate lockers
been sanded, grinded, or stripped away. or storage facilities should be provided so that
work clothing and shoes do not contaminate
Do not do any of the following activities when
clean clothing.
working in areas that might contain lead-based
paint because they can create dangerous levels Workers should change back into their street
of lead dust or fumes. clothes after washing or showering and before
leaving the jobsite. Doing so will prevent the
• Open flame burning or torching (including
accumulation of lead dust in workers' cars and
propane-fuelled heat grids) and heat guns
homes and protect their family members from
operating above 600°C. These activities exposure to lead. Separate laundering of
release toxic fumes. washable coveralls can help prevent take-home
• Machine sanding or grinding without a exposures.
HEPA filter. These activities create lead
dust. WARNING SIGNS
• Uncontained hydroblasting, high-pressure Post warning signs to mark the boundaries of
lead-contaminated work areas. These signs
washing or abrasive blasting, or sandblasting.
should indicate that there is a lead hazard and
These activities create lead dust.
prohibit eating and drinking in the area.
• Using methylene chloride paint removal
products. These products release toxic PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
fumes. (PPE)
• Extensive dry scraping creates lead dust. Use engineering controls and good work
practices to minimize worker exposure to lead.
PERSONAL HYGIENE PPE should supplement the engineering controls
Personal hygiene is an important element of any and good work practices.
program for protecting ironworkers from
exposure to lead dust. Employers should provide PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
adequate washing facilities at the jobsite so that Workers who are welding, cutting, or burning
workers can remove lead particles that should wear non-flammable clothing.
accumulate on the skin and hair. For certain high-
Protective clothing not only shields workers
hazard operations, decontamination facilities with
from the hazards of welding, but it also
showers may be required.
minimizes the accumulation of lead on the
All workers exposed to lead should wash their workers’ skin and hair. Workers should change
hands and faces before eating, drinking, or into washable coveralls or disposable clothing
smoking, and they should not eat, drink, or use before entering the contaminated work area.
tobacco products in the work area. Tobacco
Wearing protective equipment or clothing can
products (cigarettes, cigars, chewing tobacco,
contribute to the development of heat stress.
etc.) and food items should not be permitted in
Take steps to prevent heat stress. See the
the work area. Contaminated work clothes
chapter on Heat Stress in this manual.
should be removed before eating.
To reduce the amount of lead that could
Workers should change into work clothes at the accumulate in a worker’s car and home, and to
jobsite. Work clothes include disposable or protect the members of the worker's household,
washable coveralls. Street clothes should be lead-contaminated clothing (including
stored separately from work clothes in a clean workboots) should be left at the jobsite.
38 – 4
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 – 5
Respirator Requirements & Other Measures and Procedures for Type 1, 2, and 3 Lead-Containing Operations
From the Ontario Ministry of Labour’s guideline Lead on Construction Projects
roller. general procedures listed in Section 6.1 towels should be provided and workers should use these
of the Guideline are followed and if the washing facilities before eating, drinking, smoking or leaving
• Removal of lead-containing coatings with a chemical gel levels of lead in air are less than 0.05 the project;
or paste and fibrous laminated cloth wrap. mg/m3. However, if the worker wishes
• Removal of lead-containing coatings or materials using a to use a respirator, a half-mask • Workers should not eat, drink, chew gum or smoke in the work
particulate respirator with N-, R- or P- area;
power tool that has an effective dust collection system
equipped with a HEPA filter. series filter, and 95, 99 or 100% • Dust and waste should be cleaned up at regular intervals and
efficiency should be provided. placed in a container that is:
• Installation or removal of lead-containing sheet metal.
- dust tight
• Installation or removal of lead-containing packing,
38 – 6
- identified as containing lead waste
babbit or similar material
- cleaned with a damp cloth or a vacuum equipped with a
• Removal of lead-containing coatings or materials using HEPA filter immediately before being removed from the
non-powered hand-held tools, other than manual work area
scraping or sanding. - removed from the workplace frequently and at regular
• Soldering. intervals;
• Drop sheets should be used below all lead operations which
produce or may produce dust, chips, or debris containing lead;
• Cleanup after each operation is encouraged to prevent lead
contamination and exposure to lead;
• Work area should be inspected at least daily to ensure that the
work area is clean;
• Compressed air or dry sweeping should not be used to clean up
any lead-containing dust or waste from a work area or from
clothing.
TYPE 2
TYPE 2a
• Welding or high temperature cutting of lead-containing Half-mask particulate respirator with (In addition to Type 1 measures and procedures.)
coatings or materials outdoors. This operation is N-, R-, or P-series filter and 95, 99 or • Signs should be posted in sufficient numbers to warn of the lead
considered a Type 2a operation only if it is short-term, 100 percent efficiency. hazard. There should be a sign, at least, at each entrance to the
not repeated, and if the material has been stripped prior work area. The signs should display the following information
to welding or high temperature cutting. in large, clearly visible letters:
• Removal of lead-containing coatings or materials by - There is a lead dust, fume or mist hazard.
scraping or sanding using non-powered hand tools - Access to the work area is restricted to authorized persons.
• Manual demolition of lead-painted plaster walls or - Respirators must be worn in the work area.
38 – 7
building components by striking a wall with a sledge • Suitable protective clothing and equipment should be worn by
hammer or similar tool every worker who enters the work area (refer to Section 4.3 of
the guideline).
TYPE 2b
• Spray application of lead-containing coatings. Powered air purifying respirator
equipped with a hood or helmet, and a
high efficiency filter.
OR
Supplied air respirator equipped with a
hood or helmet and operated in a
continuous flow mode.
TYPE 3
TYPE 3a
Full-facepiece air-purifying respirator (In addition to Type 1 and Type 2 measures and procedures.)
• Welding or high temperature cutting of lead-containing
coatings or materials indoors or in a confined space. equipped with N-, R-, or P-series filter • For Type 3a operations conducted indoors or outdoors, enclosures
and 100% efficiency. should be provided in the form of barriers, partial enclosures, or
• Burning of a surface containing lead.
OR full enclosures.
• Dry removal of lead-containing mortar using an electric Tight-fitting PAPR with a high
or pneumatic cutting device.
• For Type 3b operations conducted indoors, full enclosures should
efficiency particulate filter.
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
be provided.
• Removal of lead-containing coatings or materials using OR
power tools without an effective dust collection system Half-mask or full-facepiece supplied air • With the exception of dry abrasive blasting conducted outdoors,
respirator operated in a continuous flow enclosures provided for all other Type 3b operations conducted
equipped with a HEPA filter.
mode. outdoors should be in the form of barriers, partial enclosures, or
• Removal or repair of a ventilation system used for full enclosures. For dry abrasive blasting outdoors, full
controlling lead exposure. OR
Half-mask supplied air respirator enclosures should be provided.
• Demolition or cleanup of a facility where lead- operated in pressure-demand or other • Where there is an enclosure, general mechanical ventilation
containing products were manufactured. should be provided.
positive-pressure mode.
• An operation that may expose a worker to lead dust, • A decontamination facility (refer to 6.4.3 of the guideline) should
38 – 8
fume or mist that is not a Type 1, Type 2, or Type 3b be made available for work ers carrying out the following
operation. operations:
TYPE 3b - abrasive blasting of lead-containing coatings or
Type CE abrasive-blast supplied air materials
• Abrasive blasting of lead-containing coatings or
respirator operated in a positive-pressure - the removal of lead-containing coatings or materials
materials.
mode with a tight-fitting half-mask using power tools without an effective dust collection
facepiece. system equipped with a HEPA filter
- removal of lead-containing dust using an air mist
Type CE abrasive-blast supplied air extraction system
respirator operated in a pressure-demand - demolition or cleanup of a facility where lead-
or positive pressure mode with a tight- containing products were manufactured.
fitting full-facepiece • When abrasive blasting is finished, dust and waste should be
cleaned up and removed by vacu uming with a HEPA filter
• Removal of lead-containing dust using an air mist Supplied air respirator equipped with a equipped vacuum, wet sweeping and/or wet shovelling.
extraction system tight-fitting half-mask or full-facepiece • Where a dust generating operation is carried out, local exhaust
and operated in pressure demand or ventilation should be provided to remove dust at the source. Wet
positive pressure mode. methods should also be incorporated in the operation to reduce
dust generation.
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
under your belt and make sure that your tools tapered end is used for aligning bolt holes in
are secure and cannot fall. adjacent members. Spud wrenches are available
in different sizes, so it is important to know the
Regularly inspect all hand tools for: size of bolt being used before beginning work.
• split or loose handles Don’t use a shim to make a wrench fit.
Moveable Jaw
Hickey Bars
Hickey bars are used to position steel for
connection, or while shaking out or sorting Figure 6: Bull Pin Figure 7: Reamer Figure 8: Drift Pin
steel. They provide the extra leverage required
for a worker to move steel members which are Power tools
heavy and awkward. When using a hickey bar, • Inspect and maintain power tools on a
• inspect it before using it regular basis. Repair or discard defective
tools.
• position your feet and body so that you
won’t lose your balance • Power tools should have a “dead man”
trigger or switch to prevent accidental
• avoid pinch points activation.
38 – 10
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
• All portable electric hand tools must be Use gas-line antifreeze or a heating pad, or
grounded or double-insulated. The ground wrap the frozen part in a cloth and pour
wires must be continuous from the tool hot water over it. In sub-zero weather, skin
housing to the power-source ground. Make contact with gasoline increases the risk of
sure that the casing on double-insulated frostbite. Protect your hands from contact
tools are not cracked or broken. with gasoline or similar fluids.
• Use only those electric hand tools bearing • Provide proper ventilation if you’re
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) operating engines in an enclosed or
approval. unventilated area.
• Safety guards should be kept in place on • At the start and end of each shift—and at
grinders and other power tools. least once during the day—bleed
• Do not use a rotary screw with a compressors (release air from the
protruding set screw that can catch on chamber) to blow off any condensation
gloves or clothing. that has collected.
• Use proper pins and o-rings to secure • Check to ensure that all gauges are
sockets to impact wrenches. Do not rely working properly and report any
on rods, wire, or other makeshift materials. malfunction.
• To thaw pneumatic tools place them in a • Use only non-flammable solvents to clean
warm area. Do not use direct heat. Proper an engine.
use of a de-icer will keep pneumatic tools Propane-driven equipment: Follow the
from freezing. manufacturer’s instructions for checking
• All moving parts need to be guarded to regulators, fittings, cylinders, and other
prevent loose clothing or hair from components. Only workers who have received
becoming entangled in them. training in handling propane are allowed to
handle propane bottles or equipment. For
• Use only the right tool for the job. propane training, contact the Construction Safety
Gas- or Diesel-Driven Equipment Association of Ontario or other certified trainers.
• Do nor refuel or lubricate an engine while Electrically Driven Equipment
it is running. Stop the motor and allow it Wired electrical connections must be made by
to cool. Plan to refuel equipment first thing only qualified electricians and must conform to
in the morning or at the beginning of the all applicable regulations.
shift.
Assume that all wires and switches are
• Do not refuel while welding or burning is energized until proper inspection can prove
taking place in the area. Hot slag can otherwise.
bounce over a wide area.
When working on or near electrically driven
• When using cold-weather starting fluids, equipment, follow appropriate lock-out
such as ether, take extra care and follow procedures. Turn off the equipment, then close
the manufacturer’s instructions. Too much down and lock the switch box. See the chapter
ether can damage the engine. on Lockout and Tag in this manual for more
• If a gasoline line or any part of an engine information on procedures.
freezes, do not use a torch to thaw it out.
38 – 11
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
On grounded electrical machines or motors, the with good access. Storage areas should be as
ground wire should be continuous from the close to the work area as possible. Storage areas
housing to the power source. should be well laid-out with clear and direct
Only explosion-proof motors and switches access to work areas. Store the material so that it
should be used in locations where ignition can will be kept free from mud, oil, grease, etc. In
cause a fire or explosion. general, a clean work area is a safe work area.
Store materials away from travelled walkways.
Avoid storing materials under powerlines,
especially if using hoisting equipment to move it.
4x4 sleepers should be used to keep the steel
off the ground and to allow slings to pass freely
under the load. Make sure there is adequate
blocking available before steel is delivered.
The general contractor should be consulted
Figure 9: Grinder Figure 10: Impact Gun before setting up storage areas so that the
general is aware of potential weights to be
Site Preparation and stored in each area. Ensure that steel stored on
floors does not overload the structure, and that
Steel Erection reshoring is in place if necessary.
Material should be stored at least 1.8 metres (6
Hoisting Equipment feet) away from all slab edges and openings.
Cranes are used primarily to hoist steel into
position. The crane operator must have the Normally, members are laid down on site and
correct licence for the type of crane being sorted after they arrive. Plan the job well so that
operated and be familiar with the crane. members can be laid out in sequence. This will
avoid moving the steel repeatedly.
See the chapter on Rigging in this manual for
complete information on rigging. Unloading and Storage Precautions
Before any steel structure can be erected safely Post “DANGER” signs and cordon off
and efficiently, the sequence of erection must be unloading areas as required. Always keep
planned in advance and the structural members people who are not directly involved with off-
laid out in the order of their erection. Work loading out of the area.
areas for cutting should be laid out in advance
Be sure to communicate with the driver about
to ensure safe and efficient operation. When
unloading procedures.
stockpiling steel for on-site fabrication, ensure
that a good solid base is provided for storage. If Serious accidents can occur if tie-downs are
the steel is to be piled high, use long sleepers to released without the load being contained to
ensure a level and safe storage area. prevent materials from spilling over. It is very
Keep work areas clear of clutter, debris, and important to check if the load has shifted before
scrap material. Keep a box or barrel close by for you off-load it. If it has shifted, the weight on
the disposal of scrap. the trailer may not be evenly distributed and the
straps may be over-tensioned. Many workers
Preparing On-Site Storage Areas have been struck by shipping straps upon
The area where the material is to be stored release.
should be as level as possible, well-drained and
38 – 12
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Timber Blocking
Timber Blocking
Method
of Piling
Plates
Method
of Piling
Angles
Method
Timber of Piling
Method of
Piling Beams Channels
Land and block the load before unhooking it. • Keep the truck and crane away from
Lower loads onto adequate blocking to prevent overhead powerlines.
damage to slings.
• Trucks backing up must be directed by a
Make sure identification marks are clearly visible competent signaller.
to avoid extra handling.
• The supervisor should tell the truck driver
Space the members so that they can be picked where to wait during loading and
in sequence without having to move other unloading.
members. If members must be stacked in layers,
put sleepers between each layer. • Always stake loads before unloading.
Near openings, arrange material so that it • Unload the truck in such a way to prevent
cannot roll or slide in the direction of the uneven weight distribution. Uneven load
opening. distribution could cause the truck bed to
shift, resulting in material spill over.
Positioning the Truck
High-Visibility Clothing
• The truck should be positioned on a level
area as close to the crane as possible to The Construction Regulation (Ontario Regulation
prevent the crane from overreaching. 213/91) requires that any worker who may be
endangered by vehicles on a project must wear
high-visibility clothing.
38 – 13
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Unless stated otherwise, the high-visibility prevent you from being struck by the load
clothing described in this section applies to or the crane hook.
signallers and workers directing traffic.
• Climb up and down facing the truck,
High-visibility clothing has two main maintaining 3-point contact at all times
features: (two hands and one foot, or two feet and
one hand on the trailer).
• Background material — The fabric
must be fluorescent orange or bright • If steps and handrails are provided, use
orange and provide the wearer with them. Tires or hubs don’t give you stable
increased daytime visibility. We footing.
recommend fluorescent orange because it
Safe Rigging and Slinging
provides a higher level of daytime
visibility. There are times when workers who are not
professional riggers must rig loads. Ironworkers
• Retroreflective stripes or bands — are often involved, not only in handling, but in
The stripes or bands must be hoisting and receiving material. When in doubt
- yellow, fluorescent, and retroreflective about rigging consult an experienced rigger or a
professional engineer. Information in this section
- arranged in two vertical stripes down can only provide the basics of rigging. More
the front, and in an “X” on the back information is contained in the Rigging chapter
- 50 mm wide of this manual or the Hoisting and Rigging
Safety Manual (M035) published by the
These retroreflective stripes give the worker Construction Safety Association of Ontario.
both low-light and nighttime visibility. For night
work, you also need stripes or bands on the Safe rigging basically depends on knowing
arms and legs. One way to meet this • the weight of the load to be lifted
requirement is to dress workers in fluorescent
orange coveralls with retroreflective bands or • the capacity of the hoisting device
stripes attached. • the safe working loads of ropes and
Risk Assessment hardware.
Before selecting high-visibility clothes, assess the MAJOR HAZARDS
risks you need to control. Workers who need
greater visibility, such as roadway construction The most frequent cause of rigging accidents is
workers, should wear clothing that is very lack of knowledge. In rigging, experience is not
noticeable under the conditions expected. necessarily the same thing as knowledge. Since
ironwork involves a lot of materials handling,
For further recommendations on high-visibility the methods and equipment used to rig, lift, and
clothing, consult CSA standard Z96-02. move materials are important for the trade.
Mounting and Dismounting Truck Beds Overhead powerlines — Most lifting devices
Many accidents have occurred as the result of and all wire rope hoist lines and slings are
workers getting on or off a flatbed truck. excellent conductors of electricity. No part of a
lifting device or its load must come closer than
• Before getting on the truck, clean off your
one boom length to a live overhead powerline,
boot soles to avoid slips.
unless a signaller directs the operator. No part
• Mount the truck platform in full view of of a lifting device or its load must come closer
the crane operator or signaller. This will to live powerlines than the minimum distances
38 – 14
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
listed in the table below unless the powerline must be drifted into position can pull lines out
has been insulated by the owner of the of vertical. The load may slip, come apart, and
powerline and procedures are in place to strike workers or the lifting device.
protect the workers from electrical shock.
Toppling, shifting, or falling material —
Voltage Rating of Powerline Minimum Distance These problems can be caused by
750 or more volts, but not 3 metres (10') • improper use of slings
more than 150,000 volts
more than 150,000 but 4.5 metres (15') • using slings not suited to the size, weight,
not more than 250,000 volts and shape of the load
more than 250,000 volts 6 metres (20')
• inadequate attachment of load to lifting
Load too heavy for rigging equipment or device.
rigging arrangement — This problem may Loads must be secure before, during, and after
be related to the lift. Pipe, in particular, is very likely to shift
• planning or roll unless properly secured. The critical
moment often comes when the hoist line is
• the selection, condition, and inspection of tensioned up or slacked off. That's when
equipment workers should stand clear.
• improper estimates of the load to be Lifting overhead — The dangers of standing
moved or lifted. directly under a load being lifted or lowered are
Weather — Weather conditions such as rain obvious. Although it is sometimes difficult to do
and ice can affect the rigging, control, and on crowded construction sites, workers and
handling of loads as well as the lifting devices operators should avoid situations where loads
involved. Visibility and wind can also create are hoisted over people. Connectors must be
problems in hoisting and landing loads. extra diligent when they are receiving loads.
Unexpected loads – Loads can suddenly Inadequate landing surface — Loads must
move or slip because of sometimes be lifted to scaffolding, planked
platforms, or other temporary structures. These
• weather conditions
surfaces must be able to support whatever loads
• travel or swing that is too fast or abrupt are applied. In some cases, a knowledgeable
person may have to assess the load-carrying
• inadequate support under lifting devices
capacity of the temporary structure.
• unexpected drifting.
Determining Load Weights
These and other conditions can create additional The most important step in any rigging
loads on rigging components, and lead to failure operation is determining the weight of the load
or collapse. to be hoisted. If this information cannot be
Inadequate components — Slings, shackles, obtained from shipping papers, design plans,
hooks, and other equipment must be in good catalogue data, or other dependable sources, it
condition and properly sized, configured, and may be necessary to calculate the weight. Most
load-rated for the job. structural steel is classified by size and weight.
For example, a W310 x 79 beam means that the
Failure to keep hoist lines vertical — beam is 310 mm deep and 79 kg per linear
When hoist lines are not vertical, loads can metre. Therefore a beam of this size that is 10
swing unexpectedly. In particular, loads that metres long weighs 790 kg. Remember: The
38 – 15
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Inspection
It is important to inspect rigging, before each
use, for damage or excessive wear. The capacity
of a worn or damaged fibre rope, metal sling, or
synthetic sling can be greatly diminished,
making them unsafe to use. More information is
contained in the Rigging chapter of this manual,
and in the Hoisting and Rigging Safety Manual
(M035) published by the Construction Safety Fig. 13. Rigging assembly with 3 chokers of different lengths.
Association of Ontario.
38 – 16
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
• The members must be aligned so that a Workers involved in offloading steel must be
minimum clear distance of 2.1 metres competent through training and experience.
exists between rigged members. This gives When staking is required, stake the load before
clearance so workers hooking up or releasing binders.
connecting will not be struck by members
Softener such as wood or split pipe should be
overhead.
used on the sharp edges of a load to protect the
• Members are to be connected with a tag sling from being cut. Secure the softeners to the
line at one end in order to prevent rotation. sling to prevent them falling off.
• All workers involved in the process, Keep your hands away from the load and slings
including the crane operator, must be while the load is being lifted.
trained in the specific procedure being
Use tag lines to guide suspended loads. Coil the
used. Records of training including names
ends of tag lines to prevent snagging or
of workers and their responsibilities must
tripping. Do not stand in the coils of a tag line
be kept on site.
or wrap a tag line around your hand.
• Only structural members can be lifted.
Do not take hold of the hoist cable close to a
Bundled loads cannot be lifted.
sheave or block. Your hand may be drawn in to
• Routes for suspended loads must be pre- the block.
planned to ensure the load does not pass
Do not climb on to a vehicle or crane while it is
over other workers.
moving or operating.
• A copy of the engineered lifting
Before lifting the load make sure that it is clear
procedures and any alterations to the
of other material or obstructions.
procedures must be kept on site.
• Before any multiple lifts, the nearest Hooking On
Ministry of Labour office must be notified. • Normally two workers are involved in the
hooking-on process.
Methods of rigging multiple loads
• Rig the steel so that it will not shift during
There are several methods of rigging multiple
hoisting yet it will be relatively easy to
loads. One method is to use chokers of different
unhook.
lengths as shown in Figure 13. Another method
is to string chokers end-to-end with members • Do not stand under a load or boom.
attached by slings to the chokers. These
• Keep your eyes on the entire load as it is
methods are acceptable if they have been
being hoisted to ensure that nothing shifts.
designed by a professional engineer.
Hooking on multiple lifts (tiered lifts)
CHOOSING THE HARDWARE • Workers hooking on the steel must know
Know the safe working loads of slings and the sequence of connecting so that the first
rigging hardware. Never exceed the limit of the member to be connected is the last
weakest device. member to be hooked on.
Rigging equipment must be inspected before • The centre of each piece should be marked
use. If you have any doubt about a piece of before being hooked up. When it is lifted it
equipment, change it, or consult with somebody must hang level. It should be raised slightly
more experienced in rigging. off the ground to ensure that it is level. If
38 – 17
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
not, it must be put down and the choker • Columns, trusses, and beams that are not
adjusted. When rigging long members, use properly tied-in should be guyed before
two chokers to keep the beam balanced. you cut them loose.
• As the load is being hooked, take care to • When working above reinforcing steel or
prevent the remaining hooks from dowels, ensure that the ends of the rods are
snagging other beams. covered to protect you from being impaled.
• A tag line must be attached at one end of • Use extra care while working on a beam
each member, connecting all the members fitted with shear connectors or Nelson
to be hoisted. It will ensure that the Studs. Grip the beam, not the studs. Tuck
members do not rotate independently. This in or tape your pant cuffs to avoid tripping
tag line can be left to hang. Workers on the studs.
receiving the load can use it to guide the
load into position. Connecting multiple lifts (tiered lifts)
When the beam is lowered into position, it must
Connecting
be connected with a minimum number of bolts
A connector is a trained ironworker who makes in the usual way. After is has been unhooked
the initial connection of structural steel from the crane, position the next member. The
members. The supervisor should designate the connectors must be aware of the overhead
connectors in the crew. There should normally members at all times. When all the members
be two connectors for each crane working. have been released from the crane, the rigging
Connecting steel members comes with many assembly is lifted clear by the crane. The
hazards. Falls are the greatest hazard because connectors must ensure that the rigging
this work is done mainly at heights. It’s difficult assembly does not snag a piece of the structure
to find adequate lifeline anchors, particularly as it is being lifted clear. These chokers can
because members are not fully connected. See easily trip a worker or become snagged in other
the chapter on fall protection in this manual. members.
Other common injuries are being struck by steel Bolting Up
members and having hands and fingers pinched The bolting up crew follows the erection crew.
between members. These injuries can often lead Their role is to install the remaining bolts at
to falls and more serious injuries. To prevent
each connection. They normally work from a
them, follow these precautions:
temporary platform such as a scaffold, an
• Connectors must be ready for a member as elevating work platform, or from the steel itself.
it approaches. Don’t do any other work at Fall protection is easier to achieve for this work
the time. Keep your eyes on the steel as it because the structural members are secure at
approaches and guide it into position. this stage, or fall arrest anchors have already
been installed.
• Use a drift pin or wrench to match up
holes. Don’t use your fingers. Many Tools and equipment should be carried in
workers have lost fingers this way. containers. Do not leave bolts, washers, drift
• Before being cut loose, the beam must be pins, or empty bolt cans lying around on beams
bolted so that it will not rotate. At least or work platforms.
two or more bolts should be put in Do not allow air hoses or cables to clutter
position, depending on the engineer’s walkways, platforms, or ladders where someone
requirements. Do not rely on a drift pin or could trip. When it is necessary to work with a
a wrench placed in a hole.
38 – 18
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 – 19
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
• Holes and openings must not be cut unless – more than 1.2 metres if the work area is
they are essential to the construction used as a path for a wheelbarrow or
process. If cut, they must be immediately similar equipment
covered. – into operating equipment
• The spaces around columns must be – into water or another liquid
covered or blocked to prevent objects from
falling. – into a hazardous substance or object
– through an opening in a work surface.
Where it isn’t practical to install guardrails, you
must employ fall protection measures which can
include:
1) Fall prevention, such as
• protective covers over floor and roof
openings
• warning barriers and bump lines
• travel restraint.
Fig. 15: Q-Decking 2) Fall arrest, such as
Due to the nature of Q-Decking installations, • fall restriction
access to the floor where the decking is being
• fall arrest
placed and the area below it must be limited to
persons performing the work. Remember, • safety nets.
proper fall protection is required until the deck
Regardless of type, every fall protection system
is complete and guardrails are installed.
in Ontario construction must meet the
Take special care when weather conditions are requirements of the Occupational Health and
poor. For example, during winter months, the Safety Act and the Construction Regulation
decking can become very slippery. Wear proper (Ontario Regulation 213/91).
safety boots with slip-resistant soles.
An integral part of fall protection is planning for
work access before you begin erecting steel.
Safe Access and Fall Improper access leads to workers walking long
distances on the steel. The longer you walk on
Protection the steel, the greater your risk of falling.
The main areas of concern are fall protection The employer must also develop written
while working at heights and access to elevated procedures for rescuing a worker whose fall has
work areas. The fundamentals are covered in been arrested. Workers using fall protection
the chapter on fall protection, and are must be trained in its use, and a written record
supplemented by the following information. of training must be kept.
38 – 20
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Two methods of travel restraint are commonly • must include a CSA-approved full body
used in construction. harness
ground or an object or a level below the purposes as an integral part of the building
work or structure (for example, roof anchors on
high-rise buildings).
• must include an adequate fixed support;
the harness must be connected to it via a 2) Temporary fixed support: Anchor systems
lifeline, or via a lanyard and a lifeline designed to be connected to the structure
using specific installation instructions (for
• must prevent a falling worker from hitting
example, stanchions for horizontal
the ground or any object or level below
lifelines).
the work
3) Structural features or equipment not
• must not subject a falling worker to a peak
intended as anchor points but verified by a
fall-arrest force greater than 8 kilonewtons.
professional engineer or competent person
The construction regulation (O. Reg. 213/91) as having adequate capacity to serve as
requires that anchor points (for example, structural steel
or reinforced concrete columns).
• all fall protection equipment must be
inspected for damage, wear, and obvious Designed fixed support can be used to anchor a
defects by a competent worker before fall-arrest system, fall-restricting system, or
each use travel-restraint system if the support has been
installed according to the Building Code and is
• any worker required to use fall protection
safe and practical to use.
must be trained in its safe use and proper
maintenance. Temporary fixed support can be used as
anchorage if, without exceeding the allowable
unit stress for each component used,
Any defective component should be replaced by
• it can support at least 8 kilonewtons (1800
one that meets or exceeds the manufacturer’s
pounds), or
minimum performance standards for that
particular system. • when used with a fall-arrest system
incorporating a shock absorber, it can
The regulation also requires that any fall-arrest
support at least 6 kilonewtons (1350
system involved in a fall be removed from
pounds), or
service until the manufacturer certifies all
components safe for reuse. • when used with a travel-restraint system, it
can support at least 2 kilonewtons (450
For any worker receiving instruction in fall
pounds).
protection, the manufacturer’s instructions for
each piece of equipment should be carefully In all cases, use a safety factor of at least two
reviewed, with particular attention to warnings when calculating the minimum load that an
and limitations. anchor point must support.
38 – 22
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 – 23
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
CLIMBING THE COLUMNS FOR STEEL • clearly state the number of workers that
CONNECTIONS can safely be attached to the lifeline at one
time
The first choice of a means of access for making
steel connections must be a ladder, powered • provide instructions for installation,
elevating work platform, or a crane with a inspection, and maintenance
platform suspended from the boom. You should • specify all of the design loads for the
only climb columns when these options are not system.
practical due to
The system must be installed, inspected, and
• characteristics of the location maintained in accordance with the professional
• poor soil conditions. engineer’s design.
Further to this, written notice must be given to Before each use, the system must be inspected
the Joint Health and Safety Committee or Health by a professional engineer or competent worker
and Safety Representative on the project before designated by a supervisor. A complete and
a worker can climb the column. The worker current copy of the design must be kept on site
must also be competent to climb and must be as long as the system is in use.
protected by a fall arrest system at all times. CAUTION: The construction regulation requires
Horizontal Lifelines that "a horizontal or vertical lifeline shall be kept
free from splices or knots, except knots used to
The following requirements apply to any connect it to a fixed support." Knots along the
horizontal lifeline system. length of either a horizontal or vertical lifeline
• The system must be designed by a can reduce its strength by as much as 40%.
professional engineer according to good
Retractable Lifelines
engineering practice.
Retractable lifelines must comply with the
• The design can be a standard design or standard CAN/CSA-Z259.2.2-M98. In general,
specifically engineered for the site. retractable lifelines
The design for a horizontal lifeline system • are usually designed to be anchored above
must the worker
• clearly indicate how the system is to be • employ a locking mechanism that lets line
arranged, including how and where it is to unwind off the drum under the slight
be anchored
• list and specify all required components
rating is usually written on a sticker on the as compressed gases. There are, however, some
driver’s door. exemptions.
There are two consequences of exceeding the You may, for example, be exempt from driver
manufacturer’s gross axle weight rating. First, it training, documentation, and placarding of the
is an offence under the Highway Traffic Act. vehicle. (Placarding means putting signs on the
Second, if the gross weight is more than 4500 vehicle to identify the material being
kilograms, the vehicle can be classified as a transported.) There may also be exemptions
commercial vehicle. when propane, acetylene, or oxygen is being
transported in an open vehicle, and the amount
Trailers is less than 500 kilograms gross mass or is
If a vehicle is towing a trailer such as a utility contained in not more than five cylinders. In
trailer, the trailer’s weight must be added to the this situation, the TDG Act does require the
weight of the vehicle when determining total label on the cylinder to be visible from outside
weight. Add the highest weight of the vehicle to the vehicle. Also see the Propane Storage and
the highest of the trailer’s gross vehicle weight Handling Code. In all cases the cylinders must
rating (if provided on trailer) or the actual be securely stowed in the vehicle to prevent
weight, empty or loaded, to determine whether movement. You should have in the vehicle a
the combined weight exceeds 4500 kilograms. dry-chemical fire extinguisher of at least 10BC
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act rating — one that’s listed by the Underwriters’
(TDG Act) Laboratories of Canada.
The Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act Depending on the hazardous material, the TDG
(TDG Act) applies whenever hazardous material Act could require the driver and others to
is transported on a road or highway. Learn receive training in the transportation of
about the dangers involved. Learn also about dangerous goods.
the restrictions and obligations that the TDG Act
applies to the driver and owner of the vehicle. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
This section only identifies some of the Defensive Driving
regulations and exemptions which apply to Defensive driving means being prepared. Do
mobile welding rigs, vehicle owners, and drivers not simply focus on getting to your destination.
under the TDG Act. For more information, Think also about actions and events that can
contact the Transportation Health and Safety influence the way your trip unfolds. Be
Association of Ontario (THSAO)—which prepared to avoid or control hazards. Follow
provides training—or the local Ministry of common-sense rules for defensive driving.
Transportation Enforcement office.
1. Understand the rules and regulations that
When transporting propane, drivers must also apply to the vehicle and to driving.
follow the Propane Storage and Handling Code. Ignorance of the law is not a valid defence
Read the material safety data sheet (MSDS) of in court.
each product you’re transporting. It may
2. Understand that human physical and
describe specific information about transporting
emotional factors influence driving
the product.
performance.
Special Provisions of the TDG Regulations
3. Ensure that the vehicle is well maintained
under the TDG Act and operating properly.
Regulations under the TDG Act always apply
when you’re transporting dangerous goods such
38 – 27
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 – 28
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
Seat belts – you must always wear them. and supplies to distribute the weight
evenly and prevent shifting during sudden
Load – secure.
stops or sharp turns.
Emergency equipment – install and inspect
• Do not let scrap and debris accumulate
as required by law or company policy.
inside the vehicle.
A more detailed inspection may be required
• Set up a designated location for the first
for commercial vehicles.
aid station, MSDS information, and fire
Record and report any defects to your extinguisher.
supervisor immediately!
• Install a strong reinforced divider to
Users should consult the Transportation of separate the driver compartment from the
Dangerous Goods Act, applicable highway traffic back.
acts, provincial regulations, local bylaws, etc.,
which may contain additional safety Compressed gases
requirements. • Ensure that cylinders are supported solidly
and fit snugly into their designated
Vehicle Layout locations. Restrain cylinders in a way that
CSA standard CAN/CSA-W117.2 provides prevent them from rotating. Provide a
guidance for mobile welding rig design. cylinder-mounting location that is easily
accessible, minimizes lifting, and permits
When a mobile oxygen/fuel gas welding system
the cylinders to be installed or removed
is assembled as a cutting/welding or heating
without dragging or scraping them.
unit, a person capable of competently operating
the equipment should accompany the vehicle. • Ensure that all cylinders are standing
This person must ensure that the system is upright.
being transported in compliance with the
• Do not store fuel gas cylinders in cabinets.
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act and
Ventilation holes in a cabinet may not be
where applicable, the Highway Traffic Act.
adequate to vent leaking fuel gas. For
When designing and laying out a welding rig, example, acetylene has an explosive range
do the following. starting at 2.5%, so an explosive
atmosphere can develop quickly.
• Secure any cargo that could shift during
travel. Set up strong storage racks for tools Warning
Gas can leak from stored fuel hoses and
gauges, causing an explosive atmosphere.
• If you’re concerned about theft or
vandalism, you can build a screened cage
to contain the cylinders. At least two sides
of the cage must have an 80% or greater
free area.
• Mount all cylinders vertically unless the
manufacturer’s MSDS says otherwise.
• Before you operate your vehicle on public
roadways, or park it on publicly accessible
Fig. 21
38 – 29
IRONWORKERS: STRUCTURAL STEEL
38 – 30
SHEET METAL
39 – 1
SHEET METAL
For instance, one witness may state, “There was The worker’s role
a sharp snap,” while another remembers “a Without the cooperation of workers,
ripping noise.” The two reports are not investigation will likely fail to disclose what
necessarily contradictory. The sharp snap may caused the accident and how it can be
indicate the sudden structural failure of an prevented. Digging into the facts can be painful,
overloaded component while the ripping noise but labour and management must work together
indicates a cable tearing apart following the to establish what happened, determine
failure. immediate and underlying causes, and take the
Investigators try to establish action necessary to eliminate such accidents in
the future. The full cooperation of all parties is
• conditions before, during, and after an therefore essential.
accident
For more information, contact the Construction
• activity being performed Safety Association of Ontario at 1-800-781-2726
• role of workers, supervisors, and witnesses and order the data sheet Accident Investigation
(DS029), poster P103, and sticker S008.
• involvement of machines or equipment
• factors such as weather, work surface, and
ground conditions
Material Handling
Work areas
• the sequence of events
• Work areas should be laid out in advance
• any deficiencies or breakdowns in the to ensure safe and efficient operation.
system that allowed the events to occur
• When stockpiling material for fabrication
• how the system can be corrected to or installation ensure that a good solid
prevent the accident in future. base is provided for storage.
Investigators establish these facts by • If material is to be piled high, use sleepers
to ensure a level and safe storage area.
• keeping an open mind and never jumping
to conclusions • Keep work areas clear of clutter, debris,
and scrap.
• avoiding witch hunts, fault-finding, and
blaming individuals • Keep a box or barrel close by to dispose
of scrap.
• contacting everyone involved
• sticking to the facts Preparing storage areas
• The area where the material is to be stored
• determining both immediate and
should be as level as possible, dry, well-
underlying causes
drained and with good access.
• recording the details and recommendations
• Avoid storing materials under powerlines,
so follow-up action can be taken
especially if hoisting equipment is being
• ensuring that everyone understands that used to move it (O. Reg. 213/91, section
the purpose of the investigation is to gain 37).
the knowledge and understanding needed
• Sleepers should be used to keep the
to prevent a recurrence.
material off the ground and to allow slings
39 – 2
SHEET METAL
to pass freely under the load. Make sure • Land and block the load before unhooking
there is adequate blocking available before and unslinging it. Lower loads onto
material is delivered. adequate blocking to prevent damage to
slings.
• Storage areas should be as close to the
work area as possible, whether material • Make sure identification tags are clearly
will be handled by crane or carried by visible in order to avoid extra handling.
workers. • Space material so that it can be picked up
• The mechanical contractor and/or general without having to move other material. If
contractor should be consulted before material must be stacked in layers, put
setting up site storage areas so that they sleepers between each layer.
are aware of potential weights to be stored • Immediately after cutting, dispose of
in each area. Ensure that material stored banding material, waste wire, or any other
on floors does not overload the structure, garbage in proper containers so that it
and that sufficient support is in place on doesn’t become a hazard.
newly poured slabs.
• Near openings, arrange material so that it
• To prevent accidents, all material should cannot roll or slide in the direction of the
be stored at least 1.8 metres (6 feet) away opening.
from all open edges.
Positioning the truck
• Wherever practical, storage areas should • Position the truck as close to the crane
be well laid-out with clear and direct unloading area as possible to avoid
access to work areas. overreaching by the crane.
• Store so that material is free of mud, oil, • The truck should be positioned on terrain
grease, etc. as level as possible.
• In general, a clean work area is a safe • Keep the truck and crane away from
work area. Store materials away from overhead powerlines.
travelled walkways
• A truck backing up should be directed by
Ventilate storage areas a competent signaller using established
Storage areas need to be well ventilated. The signals (Figure 1).
fumes given off by paint thinners, epoxies, • Truck wheels should be blocked or
acids, and other materials may be toxic or chocked during unloading.
flammable.
39 – 3
SHEET METAL
Mounting and dismounting from truck • A welding cap and jacket if you are
beds welding overhead.
• Many accidents have occurred as the result • No jewelry.
of workers getting on or off a flatbed
• Use the right shade number for welding
truck. Situations will vary, but a
lenses. See Table 8.1. Both the welder and
commonsense approach should be
anyone assisting the welder must wear eye
followed.
protection.
• Before mounting the truck, scrape off your Table 8.1
boot soles to avoid slips.
Lens Shade Selection Guide for Welding
• Mount the truck platform in full view of Shade numbers are given as a guide only and may be
varied to suit individual needs.
the crane operator or signaller so that you
Electrode Arc Minimum Suggested1
will not be struck by the load or the crane Size Current Protective Shade No.
Operation mm (32nd in.) (Amperes) Shade (Comfort)
hook. Shielded Metal Arc less than 2.5 (3) less than 60 7 –
Welding 2.5-4 (3-5) 60-160 8 10
• Climb up and down facing the truck, (SMAW) 4-6.4 (5-8) >160-250 10 12
more than 6.4 (8) >250-550 11 14
maintaining 3-point contract at all times Gas Metal Arc Welding less than 60 7 –
(two hands and one foot, or two feet and and Flux Cored 60-160 10 11
(GMAW) >160-250 10 12
one hand). >250-500 10 14
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding less than 50 8 10
• If step and handrails are provided, use (GTAW) 50-150 8 12
>150-500 10 14
them. Stepping on tires or hubs affords Air Carbon (light) less than 500 10 12
poor footing. Arc Cutting (heavy) 500-1000 11 14
Plasma Arc Welding less than 20 6 6 to 8
(PAW) 20-100 8 10
39 – 4
SHEET METAL
Table 8.2
WELDING EXPOSURES
GAS SOURCE EFFECTS
Acetylene From acetylene not completely In very high concentrations, usually in
used up in oxyacetylene welding. confined spaces, replaces oxygen in the
air possibly causing suffocation
Argon/Helium Used in gas-metal arc welding Same as above
(GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) to shield
electrode from oxygen.
Arsine Possible contaminants of Anemia (from breaking up red blood
commercial acetylene cells), jaundice, pulmonary edema
Carbon Monoxide Welding arc changes carbon dioxide Headache, dizziness, concentration
in the air to carbon monoxide, problems, anemia, heart disorders,
GMAW can be a primary source. and (in high enough concentrations)
From incomplete burning during coma and death
welding or soldering.
Nitrogen Oxides Welding arc changes nitrogen in Respiratory irritant, pulmonary edema
(NO2) & NO in air to nitrogen oxides. (delayed onset)
GMAW and plasma arc welding
can be a primary source.
Ozone Ultraviolet light caused by the Irritant to eyes, nose and throat, chest
welding arc changes oxygen in air pains, wheezing. Can lead to pulmonary
to another form of oxygen, edema
called ozone. GMAW and plasma arc
welding can be primary sources.
Phosgene Ultraviolet radiation from welding Respiratory irritant, chest pains,
arc decomposes chlorinated solvents pulmonary edema, death (if
(degreasers) such as trichloroethylene concentrations are high enough)
and 1,1,1, trichloroethane
Phosphine Possible contaminant of Fatigue, tremors, coma, convulsions,
commercial acetylene pulmonary edema, and (with long-term
exposure) anemia, problems with the
gastrointestinal system
39 – 5
SHEET METAL
• If welding has to be done within 10 metres Electric arc welding/carbon arc welding
(30 feet) of flammable materials, provide a • Any moisture—even sweat—around
fire watch with fire extinguishers. The fire electric welding machines can cause a
watch must stay at the location for half an shock. Wear dry gloves and shoes with
hour after welding is completed. insulated soles. Dry off the workbench or
Use oxygen safely floor if either is wet.
• Never use oxygen to blow dust from your • Use the proper amp rating and duty cycle
clothes. It’s a fire hazard. rating for the electric welding machine you
are using. Overheating can damage
• Never oil the oxygen regulator. insulation and lead to shock.
• Never use any grease or oil around oxygen. • Make sure the grounding cable is properly
Oxygen mixed with the slightest trace of attached to the work or worktable.
grease or oil can cause a violent explosion.
• The leads that carry the welding current
Avoid toxic fumes should not come in contact with chains,
• Make sure you have proper ventilation. wire ropes, hoists, and elevators.
Keep as much distance as possible
• Disconnect the power supply when
between the welding plume and your face.
moving the welding machine.
Table 8.2 shows the effects of various
gases used for or produced by welding. • Remove the electrode from its holder
when the welding machine is not in use.
• Check the MSDS for the welding rod and
components to be used. • Place electrode holders so that they do not
come in contact with people or flammable
• Find out if the metal you are welding
materials.
contains zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium,
or nickel. These give off toxic fumes. • Never cool electrode holder by putting it
in water.
• Clean off any paint before welding,
especially if it might be lead-based. Before • Make sure that the polarity switch, range
removing lead, see the Ministry of Labour’s switch, or both are not moved while the
guideline Lead on Construction Projects, power source is being used. This can
available on www.labour.gov.on.ca. cause a fire and damage the machine.
• Remove any degreasers. When welded, Oxyfuel welding, cutting, and brazing
chlorinated degreasers can produce The compressed gas cylinders used for oxyfuel
phosgene gas, which is extremely toxic. processes can be a hazard. They must be stored,
Other hazards handled, and used properly to avoid accidents.
• Never weld or cut directly on a concrete Storing cylinders
floor. The combination of heat and Many gas cylinders, such as oxygen cylinders,
moisture in the concrete can cause a small are under high pressure. Damage to the valve
area of the concrete to spatter. can turn the cylinder into a rocket.
• Know the special hazards for each welding • Avoid any sudden shock to cylinders.
process. See ITI Welding Book One for
more information. • Store all compressed gas cylinders upright
39 – 6
SHEET METAL
in a clean dry area away from oil, grease, • Never force regulator fittings if they do not
flames, and flammable materials. match the cylinder threads. Some regulator
fittings (such as acetylene) have left-hand
• Store cylinders upright and hold them in
threads.
place with chains or cables. Use a cylinder
cap to protect the valve, when applicable. • Before connecting a regulator to a cylinder
valve, open the valve briefly to blow away
• Do not store oxygen cylinders within 20
any dust.
feet of fuel gas cylinders such as acetylene,
propane, or butane unless they are • Never stand in front of the regulator when
separated by a partition at least 5 feet high turning on the cylinder valve. In case of a
and having a fire resistance rating of at malfunction, the explosion or fire will
least 30 minutes (Figure 8.1). blow out the front of the regulator.
30 Minute Fire Rating • Before removing a regulator, close the
cylinder valve and release the gas from the
regulator.
• Never allow any oil on an oxygen
regulator. Oxygen under pressure can
explode when it contacts oil.
• Use black iron pipe and fittings for
acetylene. Never use copper pipe or
fittings with acetylene. Copper and
acetylene form acetylides which explode
Figure 8.1
violently.
Handling cylinders • Make sure that the fuel gas hose is red, the
oxygen hose is green, and the inert gas
• Cylinders being transported should be
hose is black (U.S. only). Acetylene hoses
secured in an upright position.
usually have left-hand threads.
• Cylinder valves must be closed before the
• Open the valve on oxygen cylinders all the
cylinder is moved.
way to prevent leakage around the valve
• Never use cylinders as rollers or as stem.
supports, whether they are full or empty.
• Close all cylinder valves when you are
• Never remove cylinder caps with a pry bar. away from work for any length of time.
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SHEET METAL
• Breathing acetylene gas can cause burning sensation subsides. See a doctor
dizziness, a light-headed feeling, or loss or immediately.
consciousness. Acetylene is highly
• Ensure good ventilation while you work
flammable. You can recognize acetylene by
with acids.
its garlic-like odour.
• Acid on your clothing will rot the fabric
Soldering and could contact your skin.
• Wear eye protection because flux or • Do not make cut acid near an open flame.
solder can splatter. The process gives off hydrogen gas that
can explode.
• Ensure good ventilation while soldering
or tinning a soldering iron. The sal • Do not fill a container for making cut acid
ammoniac gives off irritating toxic fumes. more than half full. The hydrogen gas can
cause the acid to bubble vigorously.
• Keep away from the soldering plume as
• Never add water to raw acid (hydrochloric
much as possible because of the lead
acid) when making a solution. Add the
content in the plume.
acid to water, and add it slowly over a 10
• Rest a hot soldering iron in a holder. Do or 15 minute period in a ceramic crock
not put it on a workbench or on that can stand the heat produced.
flammable material.
Plastic welding
• When soldering outdoors, make sure the Sheet metal workers make ductwork out of
firepot is clear of any combustible plastic as well as sheet metal.
material and is level and stable.
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride) ductwork is
• Fill the propane tank for the firepot welded using a PVC filler rod heated with
carefully and away from open flames. a hot-air gun. The filler rod is used like the
The tank is full when gas begins escaping filler for oxyacetylene welding.
from the relief valve.
• FRP (fibre-reinforced plastic) is chemically
• Use a damp cloth to clean a soldered welded. A solvent dissolves the two
joint. If water drops on the hot metal it surfaces so that they melt together. The
could cause the flux to splatter. process involves mixing a resin, promoter,
and catalyst, which react together. The
Working with acid reaction produces heat over 360° F. That’s
enough to start a fire.
• Acid can blind you. Acid fumes can
cause breathing problems. Acid on your • Follow safety precautions for FRP welding:
skin can burn. Use acid or other flux
– Read the MSDS on any chemical or other
carefully.
material you use.
• If acid gets in your eyes, wash immediately
– Check all chemical containers for leaks
with cold running water. See a doctor
or cracks.
immediately.
– Wear proper protective equipment when
• If acid gets on your skin, wash it off with
working with any chemical.
cool tap water right away, until the
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SHEET METAL
– Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines for you could be trapped in bad air if there is not
mixing chemicals and their catalysts. For enough ventilation.
safety, many components must be
Air may be a hazard even though there are no
mixed in a specific sequence.
danger signs. A toxic gas may be odourless (as
• Make sure you have good ventilation carbon monoxide is).
when opening and using chemicals.
Some hazards have short-term effects that you
• When transferring resins from 55-gallon feel immediately such as burning eyes,
drums, make certain the drums are dizziness, coughing, and headaches. Other air
electrically grounded to reduce sparking hazards have long-term effects that you might
from static electricity. not feel for 20 years or more, such as cancer or
asbestosis.
• When you transfer resin to a smaller
container, label the new container with the The first step is to control the source of air
product name, chemical family, contamination. Changing a process or using a
flammability, and use. safer material might do this.
• Never experiment with the chemicals, If the air pollution cannot be avoided, some
catalysts, or their mixing ratios. other step is needed to make breathing safe.
One solution is better ventilation. Another is to
• Make certain that the proper class of fire
wear a respirator.
extinguisher is available.
Ventilation takes care of most jobsite air hazards.
• A sign should identify the area where FRP
It removes contaminated air and replaces it with
materials are being prepared.
outside air. Ventilation may use natural air
• Never dispose of a mixing container until movement or forced air.
the reaction has been completed and is no
longer producing heat. Local exhaust ventilation
Local exhaust ventilation means removing air at
the source of the contaminant. Figure 9.1 shows
For more information, refer to the chapter three different methods. A filter is added if the
on Welding and Cutting in this manual. Safe air contains solid particles such as dust, paints,
practices are also explained in the American or oils. Local exhaust is usually more effective
Welding Society’s ANSI Z49 publication than general ventilation, but it is not 100%
Safety in Welding and Cutting and in the effective.
Canadian Standards Association standard
• The process or equipment should be
Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied
enclosed as much as possible.
Processes (CAN/CSA-W117.2).
• The airflow rate has to be high enough to
pull the contaminant into the airstream.
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SHEET METAL
• Exhaust air must be filtered or otherwise • Lead, found in solder and certain alloys,
treated so that clean air is exhausted to the causes serious health problems. It is stored
atmosphere. Filters should be cleaned or in the body for a long time.
replaced regularly.
• Solvents used for many operations can also
Hazardous fumes be hazardous.
• Zinc from welding galvanized sheets can Ventilate storage areas
cause metal fume fever. Symptoms are
Storage areas need to be well ventilated. The
similar to flu. Metal fumes can cause
fumes given off by paint thinners, epoxies,
nausea, fever, and shaking chills and
acids, and other materials may be toxic or
should be avoided.
flammable.
• Welding stainless steel creates chromium
fumes, which can be hazardous.
• Hydrochloric acid used as a soldering flux
releases chlorine gas when applied to
metal. Chlorine is hazardous.
Fume
Extraction Gun
Portable Fume
Extractor
Bench with
Portable Hood
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SHEET METAL
Fire classification
Fires are broken down into four different classes
(Table 11.1). You should be familiar with each
class in order to know which fire extinguisher
to use and in order to take proper precautions.
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SHEET METAL
Class A – Common materials such as wood, • Check the MSDS to find the flash point —
paper, fabric, grass, grain, coal, and rubbish. the temperature at which vapours will
catch fire.
• Keep storage and work areas free of
debris. Class C – Electrical equipment such as motors,
transformers, switch boxes generators, and
• Do not leave portable heaters unattended.
wiring.
• Do not block the sprinkler system with
• Do not overload fuses, circuits, motors, or
stacked goods.
outlets.
• Use care when welding and cutting.
• Do not install a fuse rated higher than that
Class B – Flammable liquids and vapours such specified for the circuit.
as gasoline, oil, paint, varnish, solvent, grease,
• Clean and lubricate motors regularly.
wax, fat, and oil.
• Inspect electrical equipment for old wiring,
• Store flammable liquids in tightly closed
damaged insulation, and loose
approved containers.
connections.
• Keep these materials away from sparks.
• Install a wire guard around utility lights.
• Spray cans, paint cans, and other
• Investigate strange smells around electrical
containers for flammable liquids must be
equipment or appliances.
disposed of as hazardous materials.
Class D – Combustible metals such as
• Follow all safety procedures for gas
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium,
cylinders.
lithium, and potassium (these are rarely a
• Clean up flammable liquid spills promptly. problem for sheet metal workers)
• Put rags used to clean up spills (and
other oily rags) in airtight containers
Class “A” Extinguishers
and dispose of them daily.
• Do not refuel gasoline-powered A For fires in ordinary combustible
materials such as wood, paper, and
textiles where a quenching, cooling
equipment in confined spaces or effect is required.
Class “B” Extinguishers
while the equipment is hot.
• Use non-flammable solvents B For flammable liquid and gas fires, such
as oil, gasoline, paint and grease where
oxygen exclusion or flame interruption is
whenever possible. essential.
Class “C” Extinguishers
• Do not weld near flammable liquids.
• Do not turn on electric switches or
C For fires involving electrical wiring and
equipment where the non-conductivity of
the extinguishing agent is crucial.
This type of extinguisher should be
operate electrical equipment if there present wherever functional testing and
are vapours or unidentifiable odours. system energizing take place.
Class “D” Extinguishers
An electric spark can cause an
explosion. D For fires in combustible metals such as
sodium, magnesium, and potassium.
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SHEET METAL
• Use MSDSs to determine the hazards and • Close windows that do not lead to fire
storage requirements of combustible escape routes.
metals.
• Close the door after everyone has left a
• Place metal shavings in proper containers. room. Do not lock the door.
Evacuation procedures
To evacuate a burning building safely:
• Sound the alarm.
• Turn off electrical equipment (if safe to do
so).
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SHEET METAL
39 – 14
SHEET METAL
Toilets
Every place of employment should be provided
with a sufficient number of conveniently located
water closets for the use of employees. Toilets
• that equipment is
should be clean and provided with an adequate
not operated at
supply of toilet paper.
hazardous speeds,
Compressed air or gases loads, or stresses
Compressed air or other gases should not be • that defective parts
used to blow dirt, chips, or dust from clothing are repaired or
or protective equipment while it is being worn. replaced
Compressed air or gases should not be used to • that a record of
empty containers of liquids where the pressure repairs, replacements, and other
exceeds the safe working pressure of the maintenance is kept for each machine and
container. piece of equipment
The use of compressed air for cleaning machines • that all machine operators and assistants
and tools should be controlled—or proper safety are properly trained in safe use of the
devices or safeguards should be applied—to equipment and conduct regular
reduce or eliminate hazards to the eyes. maintenance checks
Flying particles or substances • that fire extinguishers are provided as
Wherever the danger of injury from flying required
particles or substances cannot be eliminated by
• that personal protective equipment (PPE)
the use of personal safety devices and
to be used with machines and equipment
safeguards, then adequate shields, screens, chip
is available
guards, or enclosures should be provided. These
should be designed and constructed to deflect • that periodic safety talks or meetings are
or confine the flying particles or substances and held for employees.
thereby prevent injury to employees.
Operators must
Skirt guards or similar devices should be used • Protect the treadle on foot-controlled
wherever there are shear hazards between pit presses. Use a guard designed to prevent
edges and the machinery or equipment installed accidental tripping or a specially designed
and operating there. treadle.
• Make sure that openings in treadle guards
CLEANING, REPAIRING AND ADJUSTING aren’t more than twice the width of the
PRIME MOVERS foot. The only exception is for the long
1) Use extended swabs, brushes, scrapers, bar that extends across the machine.
and other tools where machinery cannot
be locked or blocked against movement
during cleaning, adjusting, and other
operations.
39 – 16
SHEET METAL
SHOP EQUIPMENT — SPECIFIC TYPES sprockets and chain belts, or other moving
parts.
Press Brakes • Always use safety tools, fixtures, and
Power press brake – This is a power-driven supporting devices for loading and
machine fitted with rams or dies for the purpose unloading.
of blanking, trimming, drawing, punching,
Hand brake – This is a machine actuated by
stamping, forming, or assembling cold materials.
hand power only. It is used for forming
• Post a sign on the front of every power materials.
brake. “Warning: Never place your hands
• Take precautions to prevent injury to
or any part of your body under the ram
hands and fingers.
within the point of operation.” Hand Brake
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SHEET METAL
Cutting Equipment
Plasma cutter
Laser Cutter
• Ensure the area is properly exhausted.
• Take care when lifting to load the table.
• Ensure that all scrap pieces are removed
before starting a new operation.
• Shield the cutting head.
• Wear gloves when loading and removing
material.
Laser cutter
• Ensure the area is properly exhausted.
Water Cutter
• Take care when lifting to load the table.
• Ensure that all scrap pieces are removed
before starting a new operation.
• Shield the cutting head.
• Wear gloves when loading and removing
material.
Water cutter
• Ensure the area is properly exhausted.
• Take care when lifting to load the table.
• Ensure that all scrap pieces are removed Slitter
39 – 19
SHEET METAL
Adjust work
close to wheel
with maximum
clearance of
Decoiling machine – This powered machine 1/8".
uncoils steel coils to produce sheets.
• Always wear hearing protection, gloves,
• Never stand under or in front of a coil and goggles.
while it is being moved.
• Provide abrasive wheels with protective
• Do not stand in front or in back of a coil hoods designed and constructed to protect
while aligning the coil roller onto the take- employees against flying fragments from a
off holder. burst wheel.
• Hold the coil band firmly so that it cannot • Never use defective wheels.
snap out and cut you.
• Only use wheels clearly marked with
• Wear leather gloves. speed limitations.
Drill press – a power drill is bolted to a bench • Dress wheels on a regular basis.
and the chuck is lowered by an operating wheel
or lever. Spot welders – These devices use electrical
resistance to generate the
• Centre-punch the work to keep the bit in heat necessary to spot-weld
place when starting to drill. material. Always wear
• Remove chuck key before gloves, face shield, and
drilling. clothing that will protect
Stationary
you from sparks. Make Spot Welder
• Always where safety every effort to screen
goggles. operations from other
• Never wear gloves when workers.
Drill
drilling. Press Pneumatic riveter –
• Securely clamp short pieces This air-driven tool is
Hand-controlled
of material before drilling. used to draw rivets. Spot Welder
39 – 21
SHEET METAL
• Take care to prevent injury to hands and repetitive tasks. The capacity of these cranes is
fingers. wide ranging. Contractors may use them for
specialized hoisting operations such as
• Always wear safety goggles.
removing or installing major plant equipment.
• Ensure that rivet is properly set.
Safe operation of overhead cranes requires
Paint shop – This is a separate building or operators to have the knowledge and
designated area of an occupied building used competence to employ safe rigging practices.
specifically for painting. The rigger must rig the load to ensure its
stability when lifted.
• Ensure that paint shop is well ventilated.
Power drive runway or monorail cranes are
• Wear adequate and proper clothing,
used to move heavy materials and to hold
respirators, and eye protection.
materials during the fabrication process. All such
• Secure and check all couplings. equipment must be maintained in good working
• Ensure that paint operations are a safe order and inspected annually to ensure that all
distance away from sparks or other sources components operate properly and show no
of ignition. signs of undue wear or damage.
Power forklifts – The operator must be All overhead cranes must be inspected annually
certified. by a competent person.
Power
Forklift
Paint Shop
Manual
Forklift
Pneumatic
Riveter
Paint Shop
39 – 22
SHEET METAL
39 – 23
SHEET METAL
39 – 24
SHEET METAL
Starting
When starting, hold the saw firmly on the
ground or other level support with the chain
pointing away from your body and nearby
Saw with RIGHT WRONG
Step-In Handle
Figure 161 — Pocket Cuts
Maintenance
Well-maintained cutting components are
Figure 159 — Correct Starting Position essential for safe operation. A dull or improperly
filed chain will increase the risk of kickback.
Note thumb
position
• Inspect and maintain your saw according
to the manufacturer's recommendations
Note thumb
regarding chain tension, wear,
position replacement, etc. Check for excessive
chain wear and replace chain when
Figure 160 — Proper Grip required. Worn chains may break!
39 – 25
SHEET METAL
Round
File Slating Hammer
Safe practices with
Chain
Precision Filing Guide slating hammers are
Check the owner's manual
File Holder
similar to those with
for recommended filing
angle other hammers (see the
Figure 162 — Sharpening Tools
chapter on Hand and Slating
Hammer
Power Tools in this
manual).
39 – 26
SHEET METAL
Riveters
Lazy tong riveters and pop riveters (hand and
air) are used to insert fasteners (rivets) between
two or more pieces of material to hold them
together. Pop riveters are generally used for
lighter-gauge material while lazy tongs are used
for heavier-gauge material.
39 – 27