a joint initiative of the Australian,

State and Territory Governments 3

Low Emission Water

Factsheet
Heating Technologies

Solar water heating

What is a solar hot water system?

A solar hot water system uses energy from the sun to heat water for your home. Solar collectors
on your roof absorb the sun’s rays and heat the water, which then flows to a storage tank, ready
for use.

A solar hot water system is an effective way to make use of Australia’s abundant sunshine.
Depending on your location, the direction your solar collectors face and the amount of water you
use, a solar hot water system can provide between 50 per cent and 90 per cent of your hot water
needs. Solar hot water systems come with electric or gas boosters to provide the rest of your hot
water needs.

There are many different types of solar hot water systems available. It is important to select
the type most suitable to your family size, climate, house type, roof characteristics (especially
orientation), water quality, available space and visual style.

How does it work?

• A solar hot water system uses a tank to store water that has been heated by the sun.
• Cold water flows from the tank to a solar collector, usually positioned on your roof. In a
split system like the one shown in Diagram 4, cold water is pumped up to the collector.
In a thermosiphon system (diagrams 2 and 3) with the tank above the collectors on the
roof, cold water flows naturally into the collector because it is heavier than hot water.
• The solar collector is made of materials that absorb the sun’s heat very efficiently.
The cold water travels through the collector and is heated before flowing into the tank.
• Hot water rises to the top of the tank and colder water is taken from the bottom and
returned to the solar collector. When you turn on your hot water tap, water is taken
from the top of the tank where it is hottest.
• Most solar hot water systems have a boosting system to make sure that water is heated
to a temperature that inhibits the growth of the Legionella bacteria and guarantees hot
water supply when there is insufficient solar radiation. The booster may be set to turn
on automatically or can be set up with a manual switch so the householder can control
the boosting of the system, depending on their needs.

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 Where should collectors be positioned?
The ideal location for placement of solar hot water system collectors is one that directly faces
the sun at all times. A north-facing roof is ideal for Australian locations. The best tilt angle of the
collectors for all-round performance will depend on the latitude of the location where the system
is being installed (see Diagram 1).

Diagram 1. Most efficient latitude angles for panel placement in Australian capital cities

Location Latitude Angle

Darwin 12.5˚
Brisbane 27.5˚
Sydney 34˚
Melbourne 38˚
Adelaide 35˚
Hobart 43˚
Perth 32˚
Canberra 35.5˚

Solar Collector
Equator - ie. north in
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the southern hemisphere

Latitude angle

For solar hot water system collectors, the Australian Standard (AS 3500.4) states that the
orientation of the collectors can vary from:
• between 50°east and 70° west (Victoria)
• between northeast and northwest (other states).

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Solar hot water systems—what are your options?
Thermosiphon systems
Thermosiphon systems use a basic scientific principle to keep water circulating through a hot
water system, the ‘thermosiphon effect’ (see Diagram 2). Water moves according to temperature
differences within the hot water system: cold water flows downward in the collector and as it
heats up it becomes less dense and rises up through the collector. If the storage tank is installed
directly above the collector, the heated water will flow into the tank ready to be used.

Integrated or close-coupled thermosiphon systems (roof-mounted)

Collectors and tanks are mounted close together on the roof, with the tank mounted above
the collector to take advantage of the thermosiphon effect.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Very low level of heat loss
• Suits homes with no ceiling space
• Provide good, steady water flow
• Operate even when mains power is down
• Only one installation site
• Difficult to install due to the weight
of the storage tank
• Roofs may not be strong enough to support
the whole system and may require additional
bracing or an engineer’s report
• Some property owners don’t like the look
of a fully roof-mounted system

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Diagram 2. Workings of an integrated or close-coupled thermosiphon system (roof-mounted)

Roof-mounted
Heated water hot water
storage tank

Roof-mounted
solar collectors

Cold water inlet Heater water to

internal fixtures

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 Split or remote thermosiphon systems

Collectors are mounted on the roof, with the tank installed inside the roof cavity due to space
restrictions, weight concerns, or aesthetic reasons. The tank is still above the collector vertically
to take advantage of the thermosiphon effect.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Very low level of heat loss
• Tank is neatly hidden from view inside
the home
• Suits home with very little roof space
• Provides good, steady water flow
• Operates even when mains power is down
• Installation is more complex working both
inside and outside the home and inside
the roof cavity
• Leaks from the storage tank may find their
way inside so a spill tray and drainage line
is needed to remove the water.
• The roof cavity may not be strong enough to
support the whole system and may require
additional bracing or an engineer’s report

Diagram 3. Workings of a split or remote thermosiphon system

FACTSHEET 3

4 Low Emission Water Heating Technologies

Non-thermosiphon systems
Non-thermosiphon systems position the tank and collectors separately. A pump is used to
circulate the water through the system.

Split systems with forced circulation

The collectors and tank are mounted separately, usually with the tank on the ground.
An electric powered pump is used to circulate the water through the system.
The most common collector used is the flat panel collector.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Suits homes with very little roof space
• Tank is easy to maintain when it is
at ground level
• Tank may be placed in the same location
as the one it is replacing
• Allows collectors to be retrofitted to an
existing water tank
• Tank can be hidden from view
• System cannot operate effectively unless
mains power is available to power the pump
• Installation can be more complex when
there are two installation sites (the roof
and the ground)
• Some heat loss will occur due to tank
and panel separation

Diagram 4. Workings of a split system with forced circulation

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Roof-mounted
solar collectors

Hot water storage tank

Heated water to
internal fixtures

Cold water inlet Power

outlet

Pump

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 Split system with evacuated tube collectors

The collectors and tank are mounted separately, usually with the tank on the ground.
An electric powered pump is used to circulate the water through the system.
The collectors used are evacuated tube collectors.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Evacuated tube collectors heat water using a • System cannot operate effectively
combination of glass tubes, a vacuum and a unless mains power is available to
heat transfer fluid. The vacuum means there power the pump
is less heat lost to the outside — this technology • Installation can be more complex
is more efficient in cooler temperatures when there are two installation sites
• Curved shape of the tubes means they can (the roof and the ground)
collect the sun’s heat for a greater proportion • Some heat loss will occur due to
of the day than flat plate collectors tank and panel separation
• Suits homes with very little roof space
• Tank is easy to maintain when it is at
ground level
• Allows collectors to be retrofitted to
an existing water tank
• Tank can be hidden from view
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Diagram 5. Workings of a split system with evacuated tube collectors

Evacuated Tube
Collector

Gas Booster
Pump
control

Gas line Power

outlet
Hot Water to House

Cold water inlet

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Boosters
A solar hot water system can meet most of your household’s hot water needs. On days where
hot water usage is higher than usual, or on cloudy or rainy days, water stored in your tank may
need an additional boost to maintain your preferred water temperature.

The booster heating unit will only activate when the water temperature is below the thermostat
setting and will automatically turn off when the temperature reaches the thermostat setting.
For further control, a manual on/off booster switch can be installed in a convenient location,
such as the kitchen or laundry. Boosters use an alternative source of energy, such as electricity
or gas, to heat the water.

Consider the option of a manual on/off booster switch so you can control the level of boosting to
your system. This gives the option of switching off the booster in summer or when you are away.

Timers can also be used to ensure the booster is used as little as possible to maximise the
solar contribution.

There are a number of ways to boost a solar or heat pump hot water system. The two most
common are electric boosting and gas boosting.

Electric Boosting

One or two electrical elements are immersed in the storage tank and controlled by a thermostat.

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When the temperature drops to a set point, the elements are activated.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Electric boosting is simple to install and uses
much less power than a conventional electric
storage hot water system
• Costs can vary depending on whether the
electric boosting is supplied at the retailer’s
day rate or off-peak rate. If it is the day rate,
then the cost for boosting can be expensive;
if off-peak rate, the system may not be able
to boost as required

Gas Boosting

Type 1: A gas burner is installed with the storage tank and controlled by a thermostat.
When the water temperature drops, the burner uses gas to heat the water.

Type 2: A gas burner is installed in-line in the hot water pipe between the storage tank and
the supply point. This heats the water instantaneously depending on hot water needed.

Both can use either natural gas (mains supplied) or LPG.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Gas supply can be provided either from
reticulated supply or from bottled LPG gas
• Gas has lower greenhouse gas emissions
than mains electricity
• Gas has better performance efficiency than
electric water heating
• Reticulated gas supply is not available
in all locations
• Bottled gas may be expensive, especially
where there is high consumption (eg.
cold climates or high hot water use)
• Gas-boosted systems are more expensive
to buy than electric-boosted systems

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 Frost protection
If you live in an area that experiences temperatures below four degrees Celsius (4°C) you will
need to consider frost protection for your solar hot water system. As the temperature of water
approaches freezing, it begins to expand. This expansion is significant below 4°C. Expansion of
water and ice inside the solar collector can damage the solar collectors.

Ask your installer about frost protection for your new water heater.

There are several types of frost protection available for solar hot water systems.

Frost protection valves

Also known as ‘frost dump valves’, frost protection valves use a heat sensitive metal element
that releases a valve when the temperature falls below 4°C. This relieves the pressure caused
by water expansion and encourages water circulation, which warms up the collector.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Prevents water from freezing in collector • There is some water wastage and decrease
tubing and rupturing it in efficiency caused by dumping of water
from the collectors
• Frost protection valve can fail

Pump circulation protection

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As in a split system, an electric pump continually circulates water through the tank and collector.
This means that warm water from the tank reaches the collector and prevents freezing.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Protects the collector tubing from exposure • Uses power for the pump to work
to water freezing and rupture • Pump can fail

Antifreeze

Glycol based anti-freeze (as used in car radiators) is a common solution in heavy frost or snow
prone areas. The antifreeze is kept separate from the potable water supply through the use of
a heat exchange system.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Provides excellent frost protection • More expensive than solar hot water systems
without glycol frost protection
• Slightly less efficient than systems that
directly heat the water

System Draining

Once the ambient temperature drops below a prescribed level, a valve opens and the collector
is drained of water.

Advantages Disadvantages

• The valves can be operated manually • Valves can fail if not serviced correctly
or automatically
• Heated water in the storage tank is retained

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Heat pump water heating

What is an air-sourced heat pump?

An air-sourced heat pump absorbs heat from air and transfers it to heat water (see Diagram 6).
It runs on electricity but is roughly three times more efficient than a conventional electric
water heater. When used in the right environment they save energy, save money and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.

How does it work?

A heat pump works on the same principle as a refrigerator, but instead of pumping heat out of
the fridge to keep it cool, they pump heat into the water. Electricity is used to pump a refrigerant
through the system. The refrigerant transfers the heat absorbed through the air to the water in
the tank (see Diagram 6).

The secret to making a heat pump work is the use of a refrigerant that evaporates at low
temperatures.

There are several steps in the process:

1. Liquid refrigerant passes through an evaporator where it picks up heat from the air
and becomes a gas.
2. The gas refrigerant is compressed in an electric compressor. Compressing the gas

FACTSHEET 3
causes its temperature to increase so that it becomes hotter than the water in the tank.
3. The hot gas flows into a condenser, where it passes its heat to the water and turns
back into a liquid.
4. The liquid refrigerant then flows into an expansion valve where its pressure is reduced,
allowing it to cool and enter the evaporator to repeat the cycle.

As long as the outside temperature is higher than the cold refrigerant the heat pump will absorb
heat and move it to the water. As the outside temperature decreases, this becomes more difficult,
which is why heat pumps don’t work as well in places where temperatures are low.

Fresh air needs to flow across the evaporator to allow heat to be absorbed continuously.
A fan is used to assist air flow and remove the cooled air. A ventilated space is necessary
for the evaporator to extract heat effectively.

A heat pump uses electricity to drive the compressor and the fan instead of using electricity
to heat the water directly. The heat pump is able to transfer a much greater amount of heat
energy from the surrounding air to the water, which makes it highly efficient. The amount
of heat that is able to be transferred from the air to water depends on the ambient
temperature.

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 Heat Pumps

Heat pumps consist of an evaporator, condenser, compressor and storage tank. They use the same
process as a refrigerator or air conditioner, but in reverse: to harness heat instead of remove it.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Require much less electricity than
conventional electric water heaters
• Ground-mounted so no need for roof
space or roof strengthening
• Can operate in most climates but are most
efficient in hot and humid conditions
• For heat pumps to work, there needs to
be a difference in temperature between
the water in the system and the outside
temperature. In cold climates, without much
of a temperature difference, heat pumps
are much less effective
• Can be noisy (similar to an air conditioner)

• Can be installed where shading • Are more efficient on day-rate tariffs

prevents solar hot water systems (which are more expensive than off-peak
from working effectively tariffs), especially in colder climates

Diagram 6. Workings of a heat pump

Expelled cold air

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Fan

Compressor
Evaporator
Condensing
Unit

Warm air in Air intake vent

Cooled Air heated Hot Refrigerant

Refrigerant refrigerant (vapour) flow to tank
(liquid) (vapour) to
return to compressor
evaporator

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 Diagram 7. Heat pump storage tank

Heat Pump
Storage Tank

Hot water Outlet

TV

Tempered Water
to Appliances

Cold Water Inlet

FACTSHEET 3

Electronic Controller

Heat pumps generally do not operate efficiently in areas that experience long periods of cold
weather. However, some heat pump models have a defrosting function to allow the system to
continue operating at cold temperatures. Although the heat pump might still function, it could
cost a lot to run and won’t produce much hot water. In addition, heat pumps may need an
electric boosting element inside the tank to ensure a reliable supply of hot water during
periods of very cold weather. Check with your supplier whether these are features of the
heat pump you are considering.

Gas water heating

What is a gas hot water system?

Gas hot water systems burn either natural gas, delivered via a piped gas (reticulated) network,
or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), either bottled or, less commonly, reticulated, to heat water.
There are two main types of gas water heaters: storage and instantaneous (continuous flow).

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Storage hot water systems
Storage hot water systems heat the water stored in a tank. The systems are all very similar in the
way that they work. The main variations are in the tank material, the burner and flue technology,
and whether they are designed for indoor or outdoor installation.

The most common tank material is enamelled steel, but stainless steel is also used. Stainless steel
is more expensive, but the tank will usually last longer.

Some units use a special flue system to recirculate the hot flue gases around the outside of the
tank to increase heat transfer into the water and increase their efficiency.

Units installed indoors need a flue to exhaust the combustion gases outdoors.

Diagram 8. Gas storage system

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Flue

Hot water out

Thermostat
ignites gas burner

Cold water in

Temperature
controls
Gas in

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 Instantaneous (continuous flow) hot water systems
Instantaneous gas hot water systems, also known as continuous flow gas hot water systems,
don’t have a storage tank and heat the water only when it is required.

There are two different types of instantaneous hot water systems. One type is very simple and
has a fixed burner flame so the water temperature will vary with the rate of water flow from the
tap. It usually has a pilot flame or battery ignition and does not need an electricity supply.

The other type has electronic controls that vary the flame size to deliver water at a constant
preset temperature and fans that improve the combustion efficiency. It can be fitted with
controls to allow you to set the water temperature you want. This means you can preset the
water temperature so you don’t need to mix the hot water with cold water to ensure a safe
bathing temperature.

Electronic units can be preset to deliver hot water at no more than 50°C, as required by
plumbing regulations for bathrooms.

Very efficient condensing instantaneous units are also available. They use the heat from the
exhaust gas to pre-heat the cold water before it enters the heat exchanger, thereby reducing
energy use. Although rated at 6 stars, currently the maximum rating, they use less energy than
non-condensing units. Look for the energy consumption figure (megajoules per year) on the
label as well as the star rating to compare products.

Diagram 9. Instantaneous gas hot water unit

FACTSHEET 3

Exhaust from flue

aprox. 60°C
Secondary Exchanger
(preheats incoming
cold water)

Combustion Gas
at 200°C

Primary heat Water flow ignites

exchanger gas burner

Hot water out

Cold Water in
Gas in

13 Low Emission Water Heating Technologies

How do storage hot water systems work?
Storage hot water systems use a gas burner located underneath the water storage tank to heat
the water. They usually have a continuously burning pilot flame that ignites the main burner
when it is needed. Heat is then transferred from the gas burner through the bottom of the
cylinder. Some heat also flows from the hot flue pipe into the water. When hot water is drawn
off at the top of the tank, cold water enters the tank at the bottom. Most units have an
adjustable thermostat to set the water temperature. When the temperature at the bottom
of the tank drops below the level set on the thermostat the pilot flame ignites the main
burner so the water is kept constantly hot. The energy from the pilot flame is not wasted
as it helps to heat the water in the tank.

Storage hot water systems should be set to at least 60°C to kill any pathogens and avoid
Legionella, so you might like to consider a temperature control valve to limit the bathroom
water temperature. The hot water from the water heater needs to be mixed with cold water
to ensure a safe bathing temperature (50°C to avoid scalding).

Storage hot water systems come in a range of tank sizes from about 90 litres to 300 litres.

Storage hot water systems lose heat through the walls of the tank (called standing heat loss),
so they need to burn gas regularly to keep the water at the desired temperature. These losses
can be a significant proportion of your hot water energy use and your gas bill. All tanks have
some insulation to reduce standing heat losses, but a well-insulated tank will have lower
storage losses, so look for one with a high energy star rating.

All gas hot water systems except gas-boosted solar systems have an energy star label to tell

FACTSHEET 3
you how efficient they are. This is similar to the energy label on electrical appliances. The more
stars the better. Once you have decided on the type and size of water heater you need, use the
label to select the most efficient model by choosing one with the highest number of stars and
the lowest energy consumption. More stars mean lower running costs for you and less
greenhouse gas emissions.

Storage hot water systems have an energy efficiency rating between two and five stars.
In late 2010, state and territory governments will introduce a minimum performance standard
for gas water heaters that will require them to be at least four stars.

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 How do instantaneous hot water systems work?
In instantaneous hot water systems, the water is heated by a gas burner as it flows through a
coiled pipe called a heat exchanger. The gas burner starts when a hot water tap is turned on.
It only heats the amount of water that is required instead of continuously heating a full tank.
As they don’t store any hot water, they do not have heat losses from a tank and so can have
energy and cost savings.

To allow enough time for heating, the water is slowed down as it flows through the heat
exchanger. This means that instantaneous units supply hot water at a lower pressure than storage
systems. They can typically deliver hot water at flow rates per minute of between 10 litres and
30 litres, depending on the model. Some instantaneous systems have a pilot flame to light the
main burner. Others have electronic ignition that uses a spark to light the gas, the same as those
used on gas stoves. Instantaneous units with a pilot light are less energy efficient than those with
electronic ignition, because, unlike in a storage system, the pilot light energy is wasted. Look for
models with electronic ignition.

Instantaneous units have an energy efficiency rating in the range of four to six stars. The energy
label assumes that you use 200 litres of hot water per day, which is about what a typical four
or five person household would use. If you use that much hot water, then a five-star storage
system and a five-star instantaneous system will use about the same amount of energy each year.
However, if you use less hot water, an instantaneous system might use less energy as it has no
storage losses.

Gas hot water systems

FACTSHEET 3

High efficiency gas hot water systems can be installed regardless of the solar availability
and ambient temperature. They may be the best option when a property is not suitable for
either solar or heat pump hot water systems.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Are less greenhouse-intensive than • Require access to piped or bottled gas.

conventional electric hot water systems
• Instantaneous hot water systems can supply
‘unlimited’ hot water
• Generally have lower upfront costs than
solar or heat pump hot water systems
This is not always available, or can be
expensive in the case of bottled gas
• Instantaneous systems can result in
increased water use due to water having
to pass through the water heater to
ignite the burner

• ‘Unlimited’ hot water may result in

increased energy costs if greater amounts
of hot water are used than previously

15 Low Emission Water Heating Technologies

 Conditions or Close coupled Remote Flat panel Evacuated Heat pump Natural Gas &
Technology thermosiphon thermosiphon split system/ tube LPG Systems
forced
circulation

Hot and/or Not recommended Not recommended Yes Yes Yes Yes
humid climate
Collectors are not Collectors are not
designed for high designed for high
temperatures temperatures

Temperate climate Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Cold climate (e.g. Yes — if glycol or Yes — if glycol or Yes — if glycol or Yes — provide Consider system Yes
susceptible to frost) high efficiency high efficiency high efficiency optimal specifically
collectors used collectors used collectors used performance in designed for
cold climates colder climates

Non-ideal solar No No No No Yes — depending Yes

conditions (e.g. on climate and
shading, bad situation of
orientation, not water heater
enough roof space)

Issues with aesthetics Yes* Maybe† No‡ No‡ No No

or weight on roof

Able to retrofit to No No Yes Yes Not applicable Not Applicable

existing roof

Licensing Plumbing/ Plumbing/ Plumbing/ Plumbing/ Plumbing/ Plumbing/

electrical electrical electrical electrical electrical / electrical/
ARCTIC gas fitting/
(Refrigerant) lp gas fitting

Low Emission Water Heating Technologies

* There are issues with the weight and the aesthetics of this technology type for on-roof installations.
† There may be aesthetics issues and weight issues in the ceiling.

16
‡ There are no weight issues, but possible aesthetic issues.

FACTSHEET 3