Introduction

Soap
• Soaps are sodium or pottasium salts of long-chain fatty acid.
• Structure of soap:

= Sodium alkyl sulphate

= Sodium alkylbenzene
sulphonate
The History of Soap Manufacturing
• In the past, soap was made by mixing animal fats with alkaline wood
ashes.
• Large-scale commercial soapmaking occurred in 1791 when a french
chemist, Nicholas Leblanc patented a process for making soda ash or
sodium carbonate from common salt. The process yielded large quantities
of quality soda ash.
• Twenty years later, Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay developed a process to
further reduce the cost of obtaining soda ash, thereby reducing the cost of
soap manufacturing.
Soap Preparation Process
• Soaps can be made from animal fats and vegetable oils.
• The animals fats most commonly used are fats from cows and goats.
• The vegetable oils often used are palm oil, olive oil and coconut oil.
• Soaps are prepared by hydrolysing fats or oils under alkaline condition.
The reaction is called saponification.
• The saponification process involves boiling fats or oils with
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or concentrated potassium
hydroxide solution to produce glycerol and the salts of fatty acids which
are the soaps. The general equation:

Oil or fat + Alkali → Glycerol + Soaps

• The fats or oils are hydrolysed first to form glycerol and fatty acids. The
acids then react with an alkali to form the corresponding sodium or
potassium salts.
Detergent
• Any cleansing agents that is not a soap is a detergent. Detergents are
usually made from synthetic resources such as petroleum fractions.
• They were developed during the Second World War in response to a
shortage of animal fats and vegetable oils.
• Detergents are usually sodium salts of sulphonic acid.
• Structure of detergent (sodium lauryl sulphate):

Preparation of Detergent
• During the preparation of detergents, a long-chain hydrocarbon obtained
from petroleum fractions is converted into an organic acid trough a series
of steps.
• The organic acid is then neutralised with sodium hydroxide solution to
produce a neutral salt which is detergent.
The Cleansing Action of Soap and
Detergent

• The cleansing action of both soaps and detergents results from their
ability to lower the surface tension of water, to emulsify oil or
grease and to hold them in suspension in water.
• This ability is due to the structure of soaps and detergents.
• A soap anion consists of a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylate
group on one end.
• The hydrocarbon chain, which is hydrophobic, is soluble in oils or
grease.
• The ionic part is the carboxylate group, which is hydrophilic, is soluble
in water.
• The following explains the cleansing action of a soap or detergent on
a piece of cloth with a greasy stain.
o When soap or detergent is added to water, it reduces the
surface tension of water. This increases the wetting ability of
water. Therefore, the surface of the cloth is wetted thoroughly.
o The hydrophobic part of the soap or detergent anion is soluble
in the grease. The hydrophilic part is soluble in water.
o Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps to pull the grease
free and also break the grease into small droplets.
o The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of
the cloth due to the repulsion between the negatives charges on
their surface. These droplets are suspended in water, forming
an emulsion. Rinsing washes away these droplets and leaves
the surface clean.
The Additives in Detergent

• Detergents generally contains a number of additives

• Additives are added to a detergent to enhance its cleaning efficiency
and to meet the needs of consumers.
• The additives in detergents and their functions are shown in table 1.

Additive Example Function

Biological enzyme Amylases, proteases, To remove protein stains
cellulases and lipase such as blood.
Whitening agent Sodium perborate To convert stains into
colourless substances.
Optical whitener Fluorescents dyes To add brightness and
whiteness to white fabrics.
Table 1: Additives in detergents and their function

Effect to Environment

Soap = soaps are biodegradable and do not cause any pollution

Detergents = Non-biodegradable detergents gives thick foams that kill

aquatic lives.
Food Additives

• A food additive is a natural or synthetic substance which is added to

food to prevent spoilage or to improve its appearance, taste or texture.

Types of food additives:

• Preservatives
• Antioxidants
• Flavourings
• Stabilisers
• Thickeners
• Dyes
(a) Preservatives

• Preservatives are substances added to food to slow down or prevent

the growth of microorganisms, so that food can be kept for longer
periods of time.
• Examples of preservatives:

Preservatives Example How it works

Salt Salted fish Salt or sugar draws the
water out of the cells of
Sugar Jam microorganisms and
retards the growth growth
of microorganism
Vinegar Pickled mango Vinegar provides an acidic
condition that inhibits the
growth of microorganisms.

• Side effects on health:

1. eating too much food preserved with salt such as salted fish
increases the risk of high blood pressure
2. eating too much food preserved with sugar can cause obesity, tooth
decay and diabetes.
 (b) Antioxidants

- added to food to
• pevent oxidation that causes rancid fats and brown foods
• to slow down the oxidation process.
• food containing fats or oils are oxidised and become rancid when
exposed to air. This makes the food unpalatable. Th rancid
products are volatile organic compounds with 4 odours.
( exp : butanoic acid, C H COOH)

Antioxidants Uses
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) To retard rancidity in oils.
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT)
Sodium citrate To stop fats from turning rancid.
Vitamin C Inhibits the formation of carcinogeic nitrosamines.
Stimulates the immune systems.
Protects against chromosome breakage.
Preserve the colour of friut juice.
Vitamin E Neutralizes free radical compounds before the cell
membrane are damaged.
Reduce the risk of heart diseases and cancer.
(c) Flavourings

- Flavourings are the largest group of food additives.

- Function : to improve the taste of food restore taste loss due to processing.
- There are 2 types of flavourings :
i) Flavour enchancers
- Flavor enchancers are chemicals that are added to food to bring
out the flavours/ to enhance the tastes of food.
- Exp : monosodium glutamate (MSG)
MSG is a sodium salt of glutamic acid.
It exists as solid fine white crystal.
It is added to savoury prepared and processed
- frozen foods
- spice mixes
- canned and dry soups
- salad dressings
- meat and fish based products
In order to protect the public health, MSG is not allowed in baby foods and
less used for the adults.

ii) artificial sweeteners

 Aspartame
• Aspartame is a white , odourless powder, approximately 200 times
sweeter than sugar.
• It is used in a variety of foodstuffs.
• It is stable when dry or frozen but breaks down and loses its
sweetness over a time when stored in liquids at temperature above
30.
• Exp : diet drinks and soft drinks
- Synthetic Essences
o contain chemicals which are made to resemble natural flavour.
o Exp :pentyl ethanoate, CH COOC H – give banana flavour and is cheaper
to use.
- Many of compounds are used to produce artificial flavours belong to the
homologous series of esters.
(d) Stabilizers

- a substance which helps to prevent on emulsion ( oil /water droplets suspended

in water/oil droplets) from separating out.
- It is used in margarine, butter, ice cream and salad cream.
- exp : lecithin, mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids.

(e) Thickeners

- are chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the
food from liquefying.
- They absorb water and thicken the liquid in food to produce a jelly-like
structure.
- They are natural carbohydrates.
- Exp:
Thickeners Explanation
Modified starch Used in instant soups and puddings.
pectin Used in jams and jellies.
Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a
mixture.
Is not digested.
Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre.
Acacia gum To thicken chewing gum, jelly and wine.
Gelatine To thicken yogurt.
(f) Dyes

- chemicals that are added to food to give the colour so as to improve the
appearance of food.
- is used to add or restore the colour in food in order to
• enhance its visual appeal
• match consumer expectations
• give colour to food that have no colour.
- artificial food dyes are oftenly used as they are more uniform, less expensive
and have brighter colours than natural food dyes.
- many food dyes are
i) azo compounds ( red , orange, yellow)
- orang drinks, custard powders, sweets and apricot jam.
iii) triphenyl compounds( blue-brilliant blue FCF, green)
- main trend in colour of food towards the use of natural colours is anthocyanin.
* found in red grapes, red cabbage sweet potatoes
* have antioxidants properties.
Effect of Food Additives on Health

Effects Explanation
Allergy  Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT , MSG and
food dyes( yellow No.5).
 Cause an diseases named ‘ Chinese restaurant
syndrome’ (giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in
breathing)
 Cause ‘blue baby’ diseases occuring on babies which
iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen and the presence of
sodium nitrate /nitrite.
Cancer  Caused by carcinogens(sodium nitrite)
 Nitrite reacts with amines to produce
nitrosamine( cause cancer)
Brain damage  Caused by excessive intake of nitrites.
Hyperactivity  Caused by tartrazine (additives)
 Difficul to sleep or relax and felt restles.
Medicine

- medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and

suffering due to illness.
- it is classified as
i) traditional medicine
• is a medicine derived from natural resources without being
processed chemically.
• Can be obtained from plants and animals.
• Any medicinal plant containing alkaloid is potentially toxic to liver.
• Some of it interacts with medications resulting in serious side
reactions.
• Exp : garlic capsules combined with diabetes medication can cause
a sudden decrease in blood sugar

ii) Modern Medicine

• they usually contain a mixture of active ingredientsprepared in different

forms such as capsules, pills, solution and suspensions.
• Exp: Alka-Seltzer (used as antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCo ), citric acid and aspirin to neutralises the excess stomach acid.
• can be classified as follows based on their sffect on the human body :
a) analgesics (painkillers)
medicines that relieve pain without causing numbness or
affecting consciousness.
Analgesics Uses Side effect
Aspirin o Reduce fever ♦ Ca
 Pain relief and anti- o Relieve headaches, use brain and liver
inflammatory action. muscle aches and joint damage of illed- children.
 Acetyl salicylic acid (IUPAC aches. ♦ Ca
name) o Treat arthritis use bleeding in the
 Contains 2 functional o Acts as an anticoagulant stomach.
groups(carboxylic acid/ester) – prevent clotting blood. ♦ Ca
 Acidic. o Reduce the risk of heart use allergy reactions, skin
attack and strokes. rashes, asthmatic attacks.

Paracetamol o To relieve mild to ♦ Causes skin

neutral moderate pain rashes, blood
(headache,muscle and disorders and acute
joint pain, backache , inflammation of the
period pains) pancreas.
o Does not irritate the ♦ Cause liver
stomach to bleed. damage.
Codeine ♦ Cause addiction,
 Is an organic compounds that depression, nausea,
contains carbon, hydrogen drownsiness
oxygen and nitrogen elements.
 Uesd in headache tablets and
cough medicine
 Is synthesized from morphine
 Is a nacortic drugs.
 Is a strong analgesics.
b) antibiotics
• Chemicals that destroy / prevent the growth of infected microorganisms.
• Will not cure the infection caused by viruses such as cold and flu.
• Obtained from bacteria/fungi.
• Broken down by acid in the stomach.
Antibiotics Uses Side effects
Penicillin o Treat diseases caused ♦Cause allergic
 Derived from the mould by bacteria such as reactions
penicillium notatum oneumonia, ♦Cause daeth for people
gonorrhoea, syphilis who allergiuc at it.
and tuberculosis.
• Streptomycin o Treat tuberculosis, ♦ Cause
• Produced by whooping cough and nausea,vomitng,
soil and bacteris at the some forms of dizziness, rashes and
genus streptomyces pneumonia. fever.
♦ Loss of
hearing following long
term use.
 c) psychotherapeutic medicines.
• A group of dugs for treating mental / emotional ilness.

Psychotherapeutic medicines Uses Side effects

Stimulants i) Adrenaline Cause addiction
A medicine which activates A need in demanding energetic
the level of arousal and activities.
alertness of the central ii) caffeine
nervous system to reduce weak, naturally occuring
fatigue and elevate moon in stimulant
most people. found in coffee, tea and cola
drinks.
iii) Amphetamines
Strong synthetic stimulants
Increase alertness & physical
ability.
Increase the heart *repiration
rates & blood pressure.
Antidepressants i) tranquilizers cause drowsiness,
Medicine used primarily in the to clam down a person poor coordination
treatment of depression. reduce tension & anxiety and light
headedness,
respiratory
difficulties,
sleeplessness, coma
and death if
overdose.

i) Barbituarates Cause sleep (high

To sedate, calm and relax dose)
individual in low doses. Cause addiction and
habit forming
Cause death.
Antipsychotic To treat psychiatrie illness such as Cause mild, dry
i) chlorpromazine schizophrenia (loses touch with mouth, blurred vision,
ii) haloperidol reality) urimary retention,
iii) clozapine constipation, tremor
and less rrest as well
as sedation(more
clmer/sleepy)

! Drug Abuse – taking drugs excessively and without a doctor’s prescription.the

examples of drugs are ectasy and ice.
D) The Existence Of Chemicals

The chemicals for consumers such as soap, detergents , food additives and
medicine play an important role in our life . However, they can contribute
negative effects to our health and the environment if these chemicals are not
used wisely .

Some proper management of these chemicals :-

Detergents
 Wear gloves when working with strong detergents to protect your hands .
 Use biodegradable detergents .
 Use appropriate amounts of detergents.

Food additives
 Be wise when we consume the food with food additives.
 Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar .
 Avoid foods with additives which you are sensitive to .
 Avoid rewarding children with junk food .

Medicines
 No self medication .
 Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else .
 Check for expiry date .
 Follow your doctor’s instruction for taking medicine .
 Keep away from children .
 Do not overdose .

Intensive scientific research must be carried out to produce new substances and
this takes more time . Scientists must patient and perseverance for their research
and development to produce new chemicals.