PEOPLE MANAGED ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION (PMES)

Preparation of Total Sanitation Plan for A Village

Approach, Process and Methods – Dr. BKD Raja

(bkdraja@bkdraja.name)

1 Introduction

The sanitation and hygiene situation in rural Andhra Pradesh is riddled

with several problems such as poor sullage management, drinking water
contamination, very low latrine usage and poor solid waste management.
This problem is further compounded by rudimentary personal hygiene
behavior.

Under this context, the Government of Andhra Pradesh is implementing

the Total Sanitation Campaign in 22 districts. After launching of Total
Sanitation Campaign the coverage of household sanitation has increased
to about 60 percent in the state. Under the Nirmal Gram Puraskar, 713
Gram Panchayats from the state have received awards so far. However the
outcomes are not commensurate with the efforts of the state and the
sustainability of the results are unlikely. In spite of high latrine coverage,
out of 21,000 Gram Panchayats in the state only 713 Gram Panchayats
have received Nirmal Gram Puraskar awards which contributes only 3.4
percent.

1.1 Present Sanitation Status

The present level of sanitation (household latrine) coverage in the state is

only about 60 percent, while the rural household coverage is only 30
percent. This implies that still more than 70 percent of rural population
resorts to open defecation with its associated contamination risk to water
supply sources and public health. Open defecation constitutes a major
non-point source of pollution of surface and ground waters in addition to
soil contamination. This problem is more acute in densely populated
settlements, especially in coastal areas. Poor environmental sanitation
conditions and lack of adequate supply of safe water are factors
responsible for high incidence of water bone/ water related diseases
among the rural population.

2 Present Sanitation Issues

The main issues affecting the status of sanitation in the villages are
broadly categorized as personal, household and community issues and
presented below:
2.1 Personal Issues

• Hygiene behavior at personnel level is rudimentary. With nearly

22% of the people not bathing daily, this is a major matter of
concern. Change in these habits can only come about with intense
Information Education and Communications campaigns and
Behavior Change Communication using local media.

2.2 Household Issues

• Latrine usage is very low. While about 70% of the household do not
have latrines, only about 30% of those who are having are using
them. Nearly 56% of the children are made to defecate inside or
outside the house. This poses a serious threat to the health of the
family and community. This is a matter of concern for the project to
raise awareness levels to put the existing toilets to use and build for
all.

• Sullage generated by the households, including the liquid waste

from cattle sheds, flows into open surface drains leading to
stagnation in the lanes and by-lanes. The presence of stagnant
water in the villages is linked to the incidence of malaria and other
vector-borne diseases. This issue is not a simple household issue,
but much more complex combining personal and community issues.
Due to a combination of poor environmental sanitation and poor
personal hygiene, diahorreal diseases, cholera and typhoid cases
have been commonly reported in the rural areas. Without adequate
arrangements for treatment and disposal, the sullage often seeps
into hand pumps, open dug wells and pipelines. The water quality of
the village ponds has deteriorated leading to loss of productive uses
and contamination of the shallow aquifers. Incidences have been
reported of effluent overflowing from the septic tanks and finding its
way to the village drains.

2.3 Community Issues

• Community sanitation is below average. With nearly 72% of the

people throwing garbage in front of their house or on the road,
sanitary conditions in the villages are poor. This requires
Information Education and Communications campaigns and
Behavior Change Communication using local media and locally
acceptable methods. Complementary investments in hardware are
required as behavior change communication alone would not
suffice.
• Women participation in water and sanitation provision, operation
and maintenance is rather poor. It is predominantly women and
children who are affected by the poor sanitary conditions in the
household and community. Being the managers of water and
sanitation at household level women participation is necessary for
 bringing in behavior change. This is an issue where the project
needs to make sure that female opinion is given adequate
importance and their participation is ensured.

Given the above situation, it is essential that sanitation has to be taken up

in its totality. This necessitates preparation of a Total Sanitation Plan for
each village.

3 Total Sanitation Plan

The following sections have the sequence of steps to be followed detailing

the methodology to prepare a Total Sanitation Plan for a village.

Sequence of Steps
1. Pre-Planning
1. Familiarization and Building Rapport
2. Motivational Activities for Planning
3. Transect Walks
2. Planning
1 Village Sanitation Mapping
2 Healthy Household Survey
3. Action Planning
3. Implementation
1 Implementation
2 Monitoring
4. Sustaining Improvements
1 Revisits

4 Pre-Planning

4.1 Familiarization and Building Rapport

4.1.1 Familiarization

As a first step meet local leaders, GP members, and other key

stakeholders. Visit all hamlets/sub-hamlets, get an idea of the size of the
village, population, locate most dirty and filthy areas, identify unhygienic
habits, etc. For this field staff needs to visit the village/community at least
twice and get a first hand hold of village information.

4.1.2 Building Rapport

Consult the community leadership and fix a time for starting motivational
activities. Make sure that all key community members are present while
conducting the motivational activities. Choose an appropriate place for
conducting the motivational activities, such as village center, school
compound, a sufficiently large open space, etc. Arrange for an
announcement using drums or trumpets, throughout the community at
least a day before about the place and time of the motivational exercises.
4.2 Motivational Activities for Planning

The aim is to motivate the whole community rather than individual

community members. These motivational activities are aimed at bringing
out realization and behavior change in the community. Most of these
activities are primarily aimed at stopping open defecation, which is
number one enemy of sanitation and hygiene. Along with this, the
motivational activities will also make the community realize the reason for
poor health and hygiene. Some of the activities prescribed for motivation
are given below:

4.2.1 Transect Walks

Transect walk is one of the most effective motivating tool. Even though
everyone sees the unhygienic conditions, dirt and shit on a daily basis,
they are awaken to the problem when forced by outsiders to look at and
analyze the situation in detail. A transect walk involves walking with
community members through the village from one side to the other,
observing, asking questions, and listening. During a transect walk locate
the unhygienic areas and open defecation sites and visit the different
types of water sources, compost pits, garbage dumps, latrines, etc. along
the way. Try to understand with the community what constitutes an
‘unhygienic’ practice.

The key is standing in an unhygienic area such as open defecation site or

a garbage dump, etc. and inhaling the unpleasant smell and talking in the
unpleasant sight of shit, animal waste, sullage, garbage, etc. lying all over
the place. If people try to move on, insist on staying there despite their
embarrassment. Experiencing the disgusting sight and smell in this new
collective way, accompanied by a visitor to the community, is a key
trigger for mobilization. Another important thing is to identify filthy
households and visually unhygienic persons and spending considerable
amount of time with them and making them participate in the exercise.

5 Planning

5.1 Village Sanitation Mapping

Facilitate the community to make a simple village map on the ground

identifying all the vulnerable spots. The following details need to be
marked on the map:
 Water resources and Water Points
 Sullage pools
 Drainage and Drainage flow routes
 Animal Husbandry related areas
 Garbage disposal sites
 Defecation areas
 Other places with water and sanitation problems
Ask the community to choose a suitable large open area to do this
mapping. The mapping gets all community members involved in a
practical and visual analysis of the community sanitation situation. Using
this map stimulate a discussion among the community members.

In the mapping exercise, all households should be invited to locate their

dwellings on the map, for example by marking the ground, or locating a
leaf or stone, and to show whether they have a latrine or not. The areas of
open defecation can be shown with a colored powder and lines drawn to
connect them to the households that visit them. The map can be used to
highlight many things. Draw attention to how far some people have to
walk to defecate and at what times of day. Are there any safety issues?
Ask people to trace the flow of shit from places of open defecation to
ponds and other water bodies, resulting in their contamination.

5.1.1 Problems of No Privacy

Check with women where do they defecate during normal times. Ask them
what would they do when somebody passes by when they are defecating.
Ask men, if they would like their wives and daughters face this problem.
This brings in a sense of shame and loss of dignity among them.

5.1.2 Calculation of Shit

Calculating the amount of faeces produced can help to illustrate the

magnitude of the sanitation problem. How much human excreta is being
generated by each individual or household per day? Households can use
their own methods and local measures for calculating how much they are
adding to the problem. The sum of the households then can be added up
to produce a figure for the whole community. A daily figure can be
multiplied to know how much shit is produced per week, per month or per
year. The quantities can add up to a matter of tonnes which may surprise
the community.

5.1.3 Flow and Ingestion of Shit

Ask where all that shit goes. As people answer that it is washed away in
rain, or enters the soil, draw a picture of a lump of shit and put it on the
ground. Put cards and markers near it. Ask people to pick up the cards
and draw or write the different agents or pathways which bring shit into
the home. For example:

 Flies
 Rainwater
 Wind
 Feet/ Hoofs of domestic animals
 Chickens on their feet and wings
 Dogs on their paws or bodies
 Shit smeared ropes (for example, used for tethering animals)
 Vehicle tires
 Shoes
 Children’s toys, cricket balls, bats, etc.
 Wind blown dust and waste
 Contaminated water

Then ask how the shit then gets into the mouth. For example:

 Hands, fingernails
 Flies on food
 Fruit and vegetables that have fallen on or been in contact with shit and
not been washed
 Utensils washed in contaminated water
 Dogs licking people
 Dogs and chicken coming into contact with food and water

Then ask for a glass of drinking water. When the glass of water is brought,
offer it to someone and ask if they could drink it. If they say yes, then ask
others until everyone agrees that they could drink the water. Next, pull a
hair from head and ask if they can see it. Then touch it on some shit on
the ground so that all can see. Now dip the hair in the glass of water and
ask if they can see any thing in the glass of water. Next, offer the glass of
water to anyone standing near and ask them to drink it. Immediately they
will refuse. Pass the glass on to others and ask if they could drink. No one
will want to drink that water. Ask why they refuse it. They will answer that
it contains shit. Now ask how many legs a fly has. They might tell the
correct answer. If not, inform them it has six legs and they are all
serrated. Ask if flies could pick up more or less shit than hair could. The
answer should be ‘more’. Now ask them what happens when flies sit on
their or their children’s food and plate: what are they bringing with them
from places where open defecation is practiced? Finally ask them what
they are eating with their food.

When someone says that they are eating one another’s shit, bring them to
the front to tell everyone. The bottom line is: everyone in the village is
ingesting each others’ shit. Ask them to try to calculate the amount of shit
ingested every day. Ask how they feel about ingesting each others’ shit
because of open defecation? Just leave the thought with them for now,
and remind them of it when you summarize at the end of the community
analysis.

5.2 Healthy Home Surveys

The healthy home surveys focus on enlisting the factors responsible for
good health or ill health. This exercise can be conducted, while doing the
transact walk. Stop at seemingly healthy and hygienic households and
unhealthy and unhygienic households and have focus group discussions
with them on the following issues:

 If they are healthy, ask them why they are healthy and what are the
factors that make them healthy. List these attributes and record them.
 If the they are unhealthy, ask them why they are unhealthy and what
are the factors that are responsible for their unhealthiness. List these
attributes and record them.

Ask about their personal habits like how regularly they bathe, brush, clip
their nails, crop and comb their hair, wash their clothes, etc. In the same
manner enquire about the household level habits like drinking water
storage and handling, wastewater management, animal waste disposal,
cooking habits, child care, etc. Ask questions like about which families use
which areas for defecation, where women go, and what happens during
emergency defecation at night or during high incidence of diarrhea.
During the focus groups ask about community level issues on health and
hygiene, like potable drinking water supply, regular chlorination water,
source contamination, leaking pipes, solid waste management, etc.

5.2.1 Disease Prevalence

The Healthy Home surveys will reveal the various deceases that are
prevalent in the village. Generally, water borne and water related
diseases such as diarrhea, amoeboisis, malaria, hepatitis, typhoid,
scabies, conjunctivitis, worm infestation, infections of eye and skin etc. It
would be better if some medical practitioners are involved in the healthy
home surveys. They conduct health check-ups to supplement the
information. The following format be used for recording information
related to disease prevalence.

S.No. Which When did How many How were Remarks

Disease? it occur? were they
affected? treated?

5.2.2 Medical Expenses

Ask people how much they spend on health treatment. Ask them how
much they spend for treatment and medicine for diarrhea, dysentery,
cholera and other faeces related diseases they identified. Ask whether
they wish to calculate by month or each year, and then to write the
amount on their household card. As with calculation of faeces, ask which
family spends most. Point it out if they live close to the defecation area or
in the dirtiest neighborhood. Are they poor or rich?
Put up flip chart and ask them to calculate how much the whole
community spends in a month, a year, and then over ten years. Put this
chart next to the calculation of amounts of shit by month, year and ten
years. Tell them they are really well off to be able to spend so much. Ask
if any poor families had to borrow money for emergency treatment of
diarrhea for any family member? If so, what was the amount? From whom
and where? Was it easy to borrow money and repay it? Who lends money
for emergency treatment and at what rate of interest? NGOs, middle men?

5.3 Healthy Home Baseline

Record all the perceptions and findings from these healthy home surveys
and community focus group discussions. The long list of healthy home
attributes given below will serve as check list for developing the baseline.
This baseline needs to be well documented for future comparisons to
measure the impact of interventions. This should be done with the help of
village leaders, anganwadi worker, health worker, ASHA, etc.

Once the Baseline is ready, the field team should study it thoroughly to
understand the sanitation practices of the community and problems in
achieving total sanitation by the community.

5.4 Long List of Healthy Home Attributes

The hygiene elements and their attributes are broadly categorized below:

S.No Hygiene Attributes

. Elements Sanitation Related Water Related
1 Personal • Hand Washing After • Drinking Potable
Hygiene Defecation and Before Water
Eating
• Daily Brushing
• Daily Bathing
• Periodic Nail Clipping
• Wearing Clean Clothes
• Periodic Cropping and
Combing Hair
• Regular Child Care
2 Household • Having and Using • Safe Storage and
Hygiene Latrine at all times Handling of
• Using a Smokeless Potable Water
Choola/ LPG Stove • Treatment of
• Clean House water (boiling,
• Safe Storage and filtering, etc.)
Handling of Food
• Sullage Disposal
• Solid Waste Disposal
• Animal Waste Disposal
3 Community • Open Defecation Free • No water source
Hygiene • Liquid Waste contamination
Management • No leakages
• Solid Waste • Regular
Management Chlorination
• Good Storm Water • Regular cleaning
Drains of storage
• Clean Pavements facilities
• Continuous
Potable Water
Supply

All the above attributes need to be achieved for total sanitation. However,
it may not be possible to achieve all the above attributes in all the
villages. Hence, it is left for the community to decide to prioritize the
above attributes and implement measures to achieve these.

5.4.1 Short List of Attributes to be Achieved

Once the baseline is ready and community needs to be facilitated in

identifying the attributes responsible for their ill-health. The attributes
need to be identified at three levels, personal, household and community.

S.No Hygiene Attributes Identified by Community

. Elements Sanitation Related Water Related
1 Personal
Hygiene
2 Household
Hygiene
3 Community
Hygiene

The attributes list given in the above section is general. The attributes for
a particular village may change depending on the village location, size,
infrastructure, socio-economic characteristics, awareness levels, etc.

Once the list is prepared by community, they need to prioritize on which

of the attributes, they would like to improve upon. this will be done in the
context of the resources available to them. It need to be noted that it may
not be possible for to act on all the attributes identified due to lack of
resources.

5.5 Total Sanitation Plan

Once the community prioritized the health and hygiene attributes which
they would like to improve, then a Total Sanitation Plan need to be
prepared. The format given below may be used for this purpose.

S.N Intervent What Who When it How it will Who Who When it Remar
o. ion is will will be be will will will be ks
 Attribute planne implem implement implement provid monito complet
d? ent it? ed? ed? e r? ed?
financ
e?

The Total Sanitation Plan should include a corresponding IEC Campaign

aiming at behavior changes. Some of the activities that could be part of
the IEC campaign are posters, pamphlets, demonstrations, street plays,
folk songs, kala jathas, etc.

Where some positive action toward Total Sanitation begins, extend help
and facilitate carefully. Enthuse the people by informing them that if they
achieve 100 per cent total sanitation and stop open defecation, many
people from outside and neighboring villages will come and visit their
village to see it. If they are the first in an area, tell them about they could
become famous as the first open defecation free and healthy village in the
district.

It is important to identify natural leaders and encourage them to take

charge of ensuring that action plans are followed through and changes in
behavior are sustained. Always remember that the field staff need to
ignite and encourage the community driven initiative to eliminate open
defecation. The following actions need to be taken to facilitate and
encourage:

 The formation and activation of a sanitation action committee (drawing

representatives from all the neighborhoods and groups of the village).
 Using the map of households to show sanitation status and progress.
 Developing individual family plans to stop open defecation.
 Digging pits and using them as makeshift latrines for the short term.
 Getting commitments from better-off families to start constructing
latrines immediately.
 Looking for suppliers of latrine construction materials.
 Interested members of the open defecation free communities could also
be taken to other villages where such local initiatives on sanitary
material fabrication started.
 Encourage better-off households to help the less well off to find a way
to stop open defecation as they will also benefit. They may lend land,
donate wood or bamboo, or allow poorer families to use their latrine in
the short term. Identify such generous people, bring them to the front
of gatherings and announce their donations in public. The collective
benefit from stopping open defecation should help to encourage mutual
help.
 Encourage the community to avail the available subsidies from
government.

5.5.1 Triggers
It need to be remembered that while doing transect walks, village
sanitation mapping or healthy home surveys, the aim is to use triggers to
bring in collective behavioral change. Trigger is a participatory tool or
methodology, which makes one to think and act. A trigger can operate at
the community level or at the individual level. A trigger should operate or
targeted at the community level that makes individuals think and act
collectively. Generally triggers fall in following two categories:

Individual triggers: Factors/reasons or situations that affect an

individual to the extent that it prompts a related behavior change. Some
of the individual triggers related to sanitary behavior (use of latrines)
change are:
 Privacy - of women, adolescent daughters, etc.
 Shame - amongst women when ‘watched’ by passer-bys
 Safety- of children against falling down during rains or from hills
 Fear – of darkness, wild animals, loss of money due to medical
expenses
 Status – when relatives visit the house from urban areas, providing a
latrine becomes mandatory
 Convenience- for elderly members, children, during rains or illness

What triggers behavior change in an individual is most often what'

‘affects’ and influences his/her life the most. Thus as empirically evident,
in the context of sanitary behavior some individuals/ families opt for using
a toilet to provide ‘privacy and security’ to their children or adolescent
daughters while some others do so as a status symbol for relatives visiting
from urban areas or because of any of the reasons enlisted above.

Community triggers: Factors or situations that concern and ‘affect’ a

community as a whole thus prompting every member within it to change a
behavior that is collectively perceived hazardous. Some of the community
triggers related to sanitary behavior change (stopping the practice of
open defecation) are:
 Health
 Water Quality

When the community realizes that their health is at stake due to their own
habit or the habit of others to defecate in the open, the community
collectively resolves to change its behavior. Once the process is initiated,
members begin to monitor each other’s behavior within the community.
Thus the members who have a tendency to ‘fall-back’ are also prevented
from doing so due to the social pressure created after such a collective
resolution. Behavior change, when triggered by such reasons or situations
are likely to be more sustained and will influence in other areas of
sanitation as well promising desired sanitary outcomes.

5.6 Program Dovetailing

In order to gain maximum from the on-going programs, the field staff
need to identify all the on-going programs in the area. These could be,
work done under NREGA, various rural development programs, mid-day
meal, health benefits, education interventions, etc. these need to be
dovetailed with the total sanitation plan.

6 Implementation and Monitoring

6.1 Implementation

The map made on the ground, when redrawn on paper, can show
households who have latrines and those who do not. Displayed publicly in
a meeting place where all can see it, it can serve as a reminder of
commitment to take action. As households gain access to a latrine
(whether their own or shared) and stop open defecation, the maps can be
updated. This can be done regularly by natural leaders. Some have used
different colors for different weeks of completion, and for shared latrines.
The map thus serves as a monitoring tool and creates competition among
the community members to build their own latrines. The map should
remain vibrant until all households are marked as using a latrine and the
whole village has declared itself open defecation free.

6.1.1 What is Open Defecation Free

In the context of total sanitation, unsafe disposal of human fecal matter,

in the open at any point of time within the boundaries of a habitation is
defined as Open Defecation. In other words, feces lying in the open
exposed to external carriers are known as open defecation. The following
practices amounts to open defecation:

 People (adults and children) of the village and their guests, laborers,
migrants, neighbors, etc. defecating in the open or sometimes in the
toilet and at other times in the open or in open pits
 Infant’s feces thrown in the open
 Outsiders defecating within village boundaries

Only when all these practices are stopped, at all points of time and safe
disposal of human fecal matter is ensured, the particular village shall be
considered to be free from open defecation.

6.2 Monitoring

6.2.1 Success Indicators

Ask communities and natural leaders what indicators they wish to use to
monitor progress. Encourage them to use these and make them public in
the community. The following could be some of the success indicators.
 Number of households constructing and using latrines; Number of
people defecating in the open
 E-Coli presence in drinking water
 Prevalence of diseases by each disease
 Number of households using smokeless choolahs/ LPG stoves
 Number of families having soak pits

The other indicators could be:

 Households constructing latrines jointly

 Sharing latrines between neighbors or relatives or traditional or other
groupings
 Formation of new groups
 Better off people coming forward to help those who are weaker and
poorer
 Revival of traditional communal cooperation groups
 Volunteers, traditional midwives, and others becoming active

6.2.2 Indicators for Achieving Awards

The Government of Andhra Pradesh has instituted Shubhram awards for

clean villages. The criteria for awards is given below:

 Safe Excreta Disposal

 Liquid Waste Management
 Solid Waste Management
 O&M of Water Supply
 Personal Hygiene
 Community Participation

The Government of India awards Nirmal Gram Puraskar to Gram

Panchayat which satisfy the following criteria:

 100% Latrine Coverage and Access to All

 100% School Sanitation Coverage
 Free from Open Defecation, Service Latrines and Manual Scavenging
 Clean Environment – Liquid and Solid Waste Management
 Sanitation Arrangements in Public Places

Once a village attain this status, help the community in applying for these
awards.

6.3 Verification and certifying ODF and Healthy Home status

Verifying open defecation free status and other healthy home attributes a
key activity. Verification entails inspection to assess whether a community
is open defecation free and has achieved the attributes for healthy home
status. Certification is the confirmation of the status and its official
recognition. Especially where there are rewards for open defecation free
status, communities and officials may have incentives to seek certification
before open defecation free status has been fully achieved. Where
certification leads to community rewards, cases are known of deception
and corruption. To guard against this, and to assure sustained open
defecation free standards, many different approaches have been used.
Inspections can be and have been carried out by combinations of:

 People from neighboring communities (especially when there is

competition)
 Natural leaders and others from open defecation free communities
 A government committee
 Staff of government departments,
 Staff of NGOs
 Teachers

When there has been thorough and stringent verification, a board can be
put up at the entrance to a village, declaring it to be open defecation free
and healthy.

7 Sustaining Improvements

Sustainability is also indicated when the general trend in a community is

to go up the sanitation ladder. Behavior change as the key to
sustainability of open defecation free and healthy status can best be
monitored by the community itself. If sanctions are made against a few
individuals for open defecation, this may indicate social sustainability.
Latrines may have a short life, especially the first locally made low-cost
ones: within a year or so they may have filled up, or the pit walls
collapsed, or the shelter may have fallen down.

Sustainability is indicated when a household spontaneously constructs

another, especially when it is better and more durable. Sustainability is
also indicated when the general trend in a community is up the sanitation
ladder. Monitoring will indicate where further facilitation may be needed.
Sometimes follow-up is required, for example to encourage community
members to follow through with the commitments they have made or to
encourage the sharing of latrines in order to achieve open defecation free
and healthy status. Usually, the natural leaders will take care of this.

7.1 Revisits

Make at least half yearly revisits to the village and do a fresh round of
healthy home surveys as prescribed above. Compare these with the
previous surveys and document the improvements in open defecation free
and healthy status. Based on the results, new targets, i.e., improvements
in freshly chosen hygiene attributes can be set by the community to make
it a completely sanitized village in stages.
8 References:

1. Discussions with Dr. S. Satish, Senior Social Development Specialist,

The World Bank, New Delhi.
2. Discussions with Mr. RR Mohan, Senior Social Development Specialist,
The World Bank, New Delhi.
3. Sanitation Hygiene Plan – Project Implementation Plan – The World
Bank Assisted Jal Nirmal (Rural Water Supply and Sanitation) Project,
Karnataka.
4. Environmental Analysis for APRWSSP – Samaj Vikas Development
Support Organisation, Hyderabad
5. Social Assessment for APRWSSP – Samaj Vikas Development Support
Organisation, Hyderabad
6. Baseline, Rapid Demand and Impact Assessment of RWS Coverage and
Delivery of Services for APRWSSP – Center for Excellence in
Management and Technology, Hyderabad
7. Training Manual: Community Driven Total Sanitation, WSP-SA, New
Delhi.
8. Commercialization of Water and Sanitation Services: Attempts in India
– Ph.D. Thesis: Dr. BKD Raja, Birla Institute of Technology and Science,
Pilani, Rajasthan, India