Kinematics of Rigid Bodies

Applications: Analysis of cams, gears, shafts, linkages, connecting rods, etc.

Definition: A rigid body is a special case of a system of particles wherein the distances between
all particles remain unchanged.
For a system of particles with general three-dimensional motion prescribed for each particle,
there are up to 3N possible degrees of freedom for a system of N particles. With the restriction
on distance between two points A and B so that |~rA/B | =constant, the only possible change with
respect time for ~rA/B is due to rotation. Since the rotational degrees of freedom can also be
represented by a vector, the general description of rigid body motion can be reduced to
(i) 3 translations and 3 rotations for three-dimensional problems and
(ii) 2 translations and 1 rotation for two-dimensional (plane) problems.

Motion of an Arbitrary Point on a Rigid Body

If the translation components of a rigid body is

given at a reference point B and the rotation vector is A
also known for the rigid body, then the motion at any
arbitrary point A on the rigid body can be determined ~r A/B
completely.

A
~r
Consider first the relationship
~r B B
~rA = ~rB + ~rA/B ,
O
in which ~rB is the known motion of the reference
point B while ~rA is the motion of the arbitrary point
A to be determined. The relative displacement ~rA/B
has the additional restriction of |~rA/B | =constant for
a rigid body.

To obtain the velocity at point A, take derivative of the position vector ~rA with respect to time
to yield
d~rA d~rB d~rA/B
= + or ~vA = ~vB + ~vA/B
dt dt dt
where the relative velocity ~vA/B is defined as

d~rA/B
~vA/B = =ω
~ × ~rA/B
dt
for a rigid body because |~rA/B | =constant and the change occurs only due to rotation. Hence, for
a rigid body
~vA = ~vB + ω
~ × ~rA/B .

The above equation indicates that once ~vB and ω~ are known, the velocity everywhere on the
rigid body can be calculated easily.
To obtain the acceleration vector, perform another time derivative to yield

d~vA d~vB d~
ω d~rA/B
= + × ~rA/B + ω
~×
dt dt dt dt
or
~aA = ~aB + α
~ × ~rA/B + ω
~ × (~
ω × ~rA/B ) .
–6/1–
Example – Plane Rigid Body Kinematics
A rigid bar AP is connected to sliders A
and B as shown in the figure. Slider A
P
is restricted to move only in the horizontal
direction while slider B can move only in

30
0
m
the vertical direction. If at the instant shown,

m
slider A is moving to the left with a velocity
of 4 mm/sec, find ~vB , ω
~ and ~vP .
B

20
0
m
m
45o

Solution:
Since points A, B and P are all on the same rigid body, we can write
~vB = ~vA + ω
~ × ~rB/A and ~vP = ~vA + ω
~ × ~rP/A .
Of course, we can also use
~vP = ~vB + ω
~ × ~rP/B
if the velocity at B is known. The angular velocity, ω
~ , is the same at any location along the rigid
bar.
With ~vA given as {−4, 0, 0}T , let
     √ 
 0  0  −200√ 2/2 
~vB = vB , ω
~ = 0 and ~rB/A = 200 2/2 .
     
0 ω 0
Substituting the above vectors into the rigid-body equation, we have
             
 0   −4   0   −141.4   −4   −141.4ω   −4 − 141.4ω 
vB = 0 + 0 × 141.4 = 0 + −141.4ω = −141.4ω .
             
0 0 ω 0 0 0 0
The matrix equation above yields the scalar values of ω = 4/(−141.4) = −0.02829 and vB =
(−141.4)(−0.02829) = 4. Recalling the original definitions, the vector solutions can be written as

   
0  0 
~vB = 4 and ω
~ = 0 .
   
0 −0.02829

With ω
~ now known, the velocity vector at point P can be calculated readily as
       
 −4   0   −353.55   6 
~vP = ~vA + ω
~ × ~rP/A = 0 + 0 × 353.55 = 10
       
0 −0.02829 0 0
–6/2–
Example – Two-Dimensional Rigid Body Kinematics
A 0.75 m long bar, with rollers on each end, is y
operating between two inclined walls as shown in B vA
the figure. At the instant shown, roller A is pulled
up along the right wall with a constant velocity of A
0.5 m/sec, find 20o
(a) the velocity vector of roller B,
o
(b) the angular velocity of bar AB, 30 30 o
(c) the acceleration vector of roller B and
(d) the angular acceleration of bar AB.
x

SOLUTION:
To solve the problem, establish first the direction of the motion of rollers A and B. Define
       
 sin 30◦   0.5   − sin 30◦   −0.5 
êA = cos 30◦ = 0.866 and êB = cos 30◦ = 0.866
       
0 0 0 0

Apply now the formula ~vB = ~vA + ω

~ AB × ~rB/A in which

~rB/A = 0.75{− cos 20◦ , sin 20◦ , 0}T = {−0.705 , 0.257 , 0}T .
       
 −0.5   0.5   0   −0.705 
vB 0.866 = 0.5 0.866 + 0 × 0.257
       
0 0 ωAB 0
yields
     
 −0.5vB   0.25   −0.257ωAB      
−0.5 0.257 vB 0.250
0.866vB = 0.433 + −0.705ωAB or =
      0.866 0.705 ωAB 0.433
0 0 0

The scalar solution of the above equation results in vB = −0.113 and ωAB = 0.753, or in vector
form ~vB = {0.0565 , −0.0979 , 0}T and ω ~ AB = {0 , 0 , 0.753}T .
2
Apply now the formula ~aB = ~aA − ωAB ~rB/A + α
~ AB × ~rB/A , i.e.,
       
0  −0.705   0   −0.705 
aB êB = 0 − (0.753)2 0.257 + 0 × 0.257
       
0 0 αAB 0

or
     
 −0.5aB   0.400   −0.257αAB      
−0.5 0.257 aB 0.400
0.866aB = −0.146 + −0.705αAB or =
      0.866 0.705 αAB −0.146
0 0 0

The scalar solution of the above equation results in aB = −0.555 and αAB = 0.476, or in vector
form ~aB = {0.278 , −0.481 , 0}T and α ~ AB = {0 , 0 , 0.476}T .
–6/3–
 Special Case: A Three-Dimensional Rod-Slider Mechanism
Unlike the two-dimensional problem, the three-
dimensional Rod-Slider Mechanism problem has
a uniqueness problem. The rod AB is the rigid
body of interest, so the rigid-body equation, ˆeA
ˆeB
~vA = ~vB + ω~ × ~rA/B ,
can be used. If slider A is contrained to move in A B
the direction prescribed by the unit vector êA and
slider B is contrained by êB , then
~ × ~rA/B = vA êA − vB êB
ω ,
in which vA and vB are the scalar magnitudes of
vA and vB , respectively.

Assume ~vB and ~rA/B are the given quantities, then ω

~ and vA are the unknowns. In the two-
dimensional problem, ω ~ has only one unknown component in the z-direction, so the rigid-body
equation, with its x and y components is adequate to determine uniquely ωz and vA . But in the
three-dimensional problem, ω~ has 3 unknown components, therefore, along with vA , there are 4
unknowns to be determined by 3 equations.
Rewrite now the rigid-body equation in matrix form as
  
0 z −y  ωx 
 −z 0 x  ωy = vA êA − vB êB ,
 
y −x 0 ωz
in which {x, y, z}T = ~rA/B . The anti-symmetric matrix product on the left side of the equation is
another way of representing the cross product. It is clear that the matrix is singular and has a rank
of only 2, thus, there are just 2 conditions for the 4 unknowns.
Determination of the Unknown Linear Velocity

The unknown linear velocity, vA , can be determined quite simply by performing an inner
product of ~rA/B with the rigid body equation as follows:


~rA/B · vA êA = ~rA/B · vB êB + ω ~ × ~rA/B = ~rA/B · vB êB ,


in which the condition, ~rA/B · ω ~ × ~rA/B = 0, is used. This condition is true because ω
~ × ~rA/B
is always perpendicular to ~rA/B . We can now express the unknown, vA , in terms of the given
velocity, vB , as
 
~rA/B · êB
vA = vB
~rA/B · êA

Determination of the Unknown Angular Velocity Vector

Since it is impossible to solve for ω
~ using a singular matrix equation, an additional constraint,
ω
~ · ~rA/B = 0, is often introduced. This condition requires the component of ω ~ which is parallel to
~rA/B , i.e., the spin component, to be zero. Perform now a cross product with ~rA/B on both sides
of the rigid-body equation,



~rA/B × ω ~ × ~rA/B = ~rA/B · ~rA/B ω ~ − ~rA/B ω ~ · ~rA/B = ~rA/B × (vA êA − vB êB ) .


Eliminate now a term with the condition, ω ~ · ~rA/B = 0, then,
 

ω
~ = ~rA/B × (vA êA − vB êB ) / ~rA/B · ~rA/B .
–6/4–
 Kinematics Described in a Rotating Frame
Sometimes it is necessary to describe the motion of a point using a coordinate system which rotates.
The idea is to use rotating basis vectors so that the motion vector of the point of interest can be
described with the minimum change in its direction. Clearly, it is much simpler to calculate the
time derivative of vectors if their directions do not change with respect to time.
Define now two frames of reference: Let XYZ be an inertial frame of reference with fixed unit
ˆ Jˆ and K̂ and let xyz be a moving frame with origin B translating with respect to the
vectors I,
fixed origin O and rotating with an angular velocity of Ω ~ and an angular acceleration of Ω. ~˙ For
consistency, the vector symbols Ω ~ and Ω ~˙ will be used mostly to describe the rotation of coordinate
systems while the vector symbols ω ~ and α ~ will be used primarily to represent the rotation a rigid
body.
The XYZ system is necessary because Newton’s Second Law is applicable only for absolute
quantities while the xyz system is important because it allows the problem to be greatly simplified.
At any instant of time, there is a transformation between the two coordinate systems.

Shown in the figure are the

position vectors ~rA , ~rB and ~rA/B . ~rA Z
A
and ~rB are absolute position vectors ~
Ω
z ~rA/B
of points A and B, respectively, so
mathematically it is most convenient y

A
~r
to express them using the fixed basis
~r B B
ˆ Jˆ and K̂. The relative
vectors I,
O Y
position vector ~rA/B , however, is
best described using the rotating basis
x
vectors ı̂, ̂ and k̂ because it is a
X
quantity local to the rotating system.

From the above definitions of the coordinate systems, it is clear that time derivatives of vectors
using the fixed system would be much simpler than those of the rotating system because

dIˆ ~ dJˆ ~ dK̂ ~

=0 , =0 and =0
dt dt dt
while
dı̂ ~ × ı̂ d̂ ~ dk̂ ~ × k̂
=Ω , = Ω × ̂ and =Ω .
dt dt dt

~ using the two systems:

Consider now the representation of an arbitrary vector Q
Fixed Frame
Let  F
 QX 
~ = QF Iˆ + QF Jˆ + QF K̂ = QY
Q X Y Z
 
QZ XYZ
in which
QF ~ ˆ QF ~ ˆ QF ~
X =Q·I , Y =Q·J and Z = Q · K̂
are scalar functions.
–6/5–
Rotating Frame
Let  R
 Qx 
~ = QR ı̂ + QR ̂ + QR k̂ = Qy
Q x y z
 
Qz xyz

in which
QR ~ QR ~ QR ~
x = Q · ı̂ , y = Q · ̂ and z = Q · k̂

are also scalar functions but defined with respect to a set of rotating basis vectors. Note
 F  R
 QX   Qx 
Q and Q
 Y   y
QZ XYZ Qz xyz

are matrices but Q ~ is an abstract vector. Hence, dQ/dt

~ ~
implied simply the time derivative of Q,
it does not imply which coordinate system is being used until the matrix is defined based on a
particular set of basis vectors.

~ in the Fixed Frame

Derivative of Q

 F
~  Q̇X 
dQ F ˆ F ˆ F
= Q̇X I + Q̇Y J + Q̇Z K̂ = Q̇Y
dt  
Q̇Z XYZ

~ in the Rotating Frame

Derivative of Q

~
dQ R dı̂ d̂ dk̂
= Q̇R R R
x ı̂ + Q̇y ̂ + Q̇z k̂ + Qx + QR
y + QR
z ,
dt dt dt dt
therefore

 R  R
~  Q̇x   Qx 
dQ ~ × Qy
= Q̇y +Ω .
dt    
Q̇z xyz Qz xyz

in which Ω ~ is the angular velocity of the rotating frame R with respect to the fixed frame F .
A second term is needed for the time derivative with respect to the rotating frame because the
scalar functions Qx = Q ~ · ı̂, Qy = Q
~ · ̂ and Qz = Q~ · k̂ are obtained using a set of time-dependent
basis vectors. Therefore, the first term of the matrix expression is like a partial time derivative
“assuming” the basis vectors are fixed and the second term is a correction to account for the rotation
of ı̂, ̂ and k̂.

–6/6–
Application – Velocity and Acceleration in Cylindrical Coordinates
The concept of a rotating frame has been applied frequently in early studies using the cylindrical
coordinate system. The unit vectors êr and êθ follows the motion of the position vector which is
defined as  
r
~r = 0 ,
 
z rθz
~ of the
while the third unit vector êz remains unchanged in the z-direction. The angular velocity Ω
cylindrical coordinate system can be represented in matrix form as
 
0
~
Ω = θ̇êz = 0 .
 
θ̇ rθz

~ the velocity vector can be obtained as the “total” time derivative of

With the definitions of ~r and Ω,
~r as      
 ṙ   0 r
d~r dc~r ~
~v = = + Ω × ~r = 0 + 0 × 0 ,
dt dt      
ż rθz θ̇ rθz z rθz
in which dc~r/dt is the component-by-component time derivative taken by assuming that the unit
vectors are fixed. By combining the change in magnitude (first term) and the change in direction
(second term), the velocity vector can be written in the cylindrical coordinate system as:

 
 ṙ 
~v = rθ̇
 
ż rθz

The acceleration vector can be obtained by yet another derivative

d~v dc~v ~
~a = = + Ω × ~v
dt dt
     
 r̈  0  ṙ 
= ṙθ̇ + rθ̈ + 0 × rθ̇
     
z̈ rθz
θ̇ rθz
ż rθz

   
 r̈   −rθ̇2 
= ṙθ̇ + rθ̈ + ṙθ̇
   
z̈ rθz
0 rθz

or

 
 r̈ − rθ̇2 
~a = rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇
 
z̈ rθz

–6/7–
Application – Velocity and Acceleration in Spherical Coordinates
Let the position vector ~r be defined as
 
r
~r = 0
 
0 rφθ

in the spherical coordinate system. The representation is very simple because the unit vector êr
follows the position vector ~r, therefore, the frame which specifies the spherical coordinate system
is rotating with the angular velocity Ω~ defined as
     
0  θ̇ cos φ   θ̇ cos φ 
~ = φ̇êθ + θ̇(êr cos φ − êφ sin φ) = 0
Ω + −θ̇ sin φ = −θ̇ sin φ .
     
φ̇ rφθ 0 rφθ
φ̇ rφθ

With these definitions, the velocity vector can be obtained as

     
 ṙ   θ̇ cos φ  r
d~r dc~r ~
~v = = + Ω × ~r = 0 + −θ̇ sin φ × 0
dt dt      
0 rφθ φ̇ rφθ
0 rφθ

or

 
 ṙ 
~v = rφ̇
 
rθ̇ sin φ rφθ

The acceleration vector can now be obtained by yet another derivative

d~v dc~v ~
~a = = + Ω × ~v
dt
 dt     
 r̈   θ̇ cos φ   ṙ 
= rφ̈ + ṙφ̇ + −θ̇ sin φ × rφ̇
     
rθ̈ sin φ + ṙθ̇ sin φ + rθ̇φ̇ cos φ rφθ φ̇ rφθ
r θ̇ sin φ rφθ
   
 r̈   −rθ̇2 sin2 φ − rφ̇2 
= rφ̈ + ṙφ̇ + ṙφ̇ − rθ̇2 sin φ cos φ
   
rθ̈ sin φ + ṙθ̇ sin φ + rθ̇φ̇ cos φ rφθ rθ̇φ̇ cos φ + ṙθ̇ sin φ rφθ

or

 
 r̈ − r(φ̇2 + θ̇2 sin2 φ) 
~a = rφ̈ + 2ṙφ̇ − rθ̇2 sin φ cos φ
 
rθ̈ sin φ + 2ṙθ̇ sin φ + 2rθ̇φ̇ cos φ rφθ

–6/8–
The angular velocity Ω~ of the rotating frame shown in the previous page is quite complicated
because there were two rotational degrees of freedom φ̇ and θ̇. It will be shown here that with a
much simplified rotation of the frame the same results can be obtained, but the position vector ~r
would have a much more difficult representation.

z
ˆez
φ r
φ ˆer

y ˆeR
R φ
θ
x
ˆeφ

~ is simply
Apply now the cylindrical coordinate system Rθz. The angular velocity of the frame Ω
~ are therefore
θ̇êz . The matrix representations of ~r and Ω
   
 r sin φ  0
~r = 0 and ~
Ω= 0 ,
   
r cos φ Rθz θ̇ Rθz
respectively. To obtain the velocity ~v using the new rotating frame, apply the formula
d~r dc~r ~
~v = = + Ω × ~r
dt
 dt     
 ṙ sin φ + r cos φφ̇   0   r sin φ 
= 0 + 0 × 0
     
ṙ cos φ − r sin φφ̇ θ̇ r cos φ
 
 ṙ sin φ + r cos φφ̇ 
= rθ̇ sin φ .
 
ṙ cos φ − r sin φφ̇ Rθz
Develop now a transformation between the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems by
consulting the above figure to yield
       
 qr  cos( π2 − φ) 0 cos φ  qR  sin φ 0 cos φ  qR 
q =  cos φ 0 cos( π2 + φ)  qθ =  cos φ 0 − sin φ  qθ .
 φ    
qθ 0 1 0 qz 0 1 0 qz
Now transform the vector ~v from the Rθz to the rφθ system by performing the matrix product
  
sin φ 0 cos φ  ṙ sin φ + r cos φφ̇ 
~v =  cos φ 0 − sin φ  rθ̇ sin φ
 
0 1 0 ṙ cos φ − r sin φφ̇ Rθz
   
 ṙ sin2 φ + r cos φ sin φφ̇ + ṙ cos2 φ − r sin φ cos φφ̇   ṙ 
= ṙ sin φ cos φ + r cos2 φφ̇ − ṙ cos φ sin φ + r sin2 φφ̇ = rφ̇ .
   
rθ̇ sin φ rφθ
rθ̇ sin φ rφθ
Similar results can be obtained for the acceleration vector, but clearly the amount of work needed
to describe the vector ~v and its time derivative is too tedious. It is perhaps better to use a frame
which is more suitable to the task (like the one shown in the previous page) even though the angular
~ may be more complicated.
velocity Ω
–6/9–
Application – Rigid Body Kinematics With Relative Motion
It is well known that a rigid body can be fully described by its rotation vector and just one
given translation vector at a point on the rigid body. However, if the translation vector is given at a
point which moves relative to the rigid body, then a rotating coordinate system pivoting about the
given point would prove invaluable for the solution of the problem.
Velocity Formulation
~
Since the equations for derivatives in a rotating coordinate system were derived for any vector Q,
consider the case of the relative velocity ~vA/B . Recall

~rA = ~rB + ~rA/B ,

it is clear that the absolute position vectors ~rA and ~rB are best described using the fixed frame while
the relative position vector ~rA/B is best represented in the rotating frame. Therefore, let the vector
Q~ (to be described in two different frames) be

~ = ~rR = ~rA
Q F F
− ~rB .
A/B

R F F
We shall perform the time derivatives of ~rA/B in the rotating xyz frame and that of ~rA − ~rB in the
fixed XYZ frame.

Derivative of Absolute Position Vectors

~
dQ d F
d F d F
F F F
= ~rA − ~rB = ~rA − ~rB = ~vA − ~vB
dt dt dt dt
F F
in which ~vA and ~vB are absolute velocity vectors represented in the basis of XYZ.

Derivative of Relative Position Vector

~
dQ d R dc R
= ~rA/B = ~rA/B ~ × ~rR = ~v R + Ω
+Ω ~ × ~rR
A/B A/B
dt dt dt rel

~ is the angular velocity of the xyz-frame, and dc~rR /dt = ~v R is the relative velocity
in which Ω A/B rel
R R
measured in the xyz frame. ~vrel is calculated by taking derivatives of the scalar components of ~rA/B
assuming that ı̂, ̂ and k̂ are constant non-rotating unit vectors. The component-by-component time
derivative representation used here is not the same as the partial derivative used in multiple-variable
continuous functions. Here, the time derivative is taken by assuming that the basis vectors are fixed
but the partial derivative with respect to time t of a continuous function is taken by assuming that
other independent variables (e.g., x, y and z) are constant.
Equate now the results of both sides of the equation, we have

F
~vA F
− ~vB R
= ~vrel ~ × ~rR
+Ω .
A/B

For numerical calculation, one frame has to be selected. But since it is easy to find an instantaneous
correspondance between the bases, we can write (keeping in mind the basis used) without the
superscripts the relationship

~ × ~rA/B
~vA = ~vB + ~vrel + Ω

– 6 / 10 –
Acceleration Formulation
Consider now the case of the relative acceleration ~aA/B , i.e., the time derivative of the velocity
~ (to be described in two different frames) be
vectors. Let the vector Q

~ = ~vA/B = ~vA
Q F F
− ~vB R
= ~vrel ~ × ~rR
+Ω .
A/B

Derivative of Absolute Velocity Vectors

~
dQ d F
d F d F
F
= ~vA − ~vB = ~vA − ~vB = ~aF aF
A −~ B
dt dt dt dt
in which ~aF aF
A and ~ B are absolute acceleration vectors represented in the fixed basis of frame XYZ.

Derivative of the Relative Velocity Vector

~
dQ d R d h ~ × ~rR
i d d ~ R

= ~vA/B = ~vrel + Ω A/B = ~vrel + Ω × ~rA/B
dt dt dt dt dt
  ~
dc R ~ × ~v R dΩ R ~ × d R
= (~vrel ) + Ω rel + × ~rA/B +Ω ~r .
dt dt dt A/B
But since
d R R ~ × ~rR
(~r ) = ~vrel +Ω ,
dt A/B A/B

we have
d R ~ vR + Ω ~˙ × ~rR + Ω
~ × ~v R + Ω
~ × (Ω
~ × ~rR )
~v = ~aR
rel + Ω × ~
dt A/B rel A/B rel A/B

in which
dc R d2c R
~aR = (~vrel ) = 2 (~rA/B )
rel
dt dt
and
~
~˙ = dΩ
Ω .
dt
~ we have
By equating the two derivatives of Q,

~aF aF aR ~ vR + Ω ~˙ × ~rR + Ω
~ × (Ω
~ × ~rR )
A −~ B =~ rel + 2Ω × ~ rel A/B A/B

or by writing without the superscripts

~aA = ~aB + ~arel + 2Ω ~˙ × ~rA/B + Ω

~ × ~vrel + Ω ~ × (Ω
~ × ~rA/B )

The above formula is applicable to both three-dimensional and two-dimensional problems. As a

R R
reminder, the derivatives dc~rA/B /dt and dc~vrel /dt are calculated simply by taking time derivative of
the scalar function components (Q ~ ·ı̂), (Q
~ · ̂) and (Q
~ · k̂), in which the abstract vector Q
~ represents
R R
either ~rA/B or ~vrel .

– 6 / 11 –
Example – A Radar Tracking Problem - General Case
Airplane A is chasing airplane B during
a dog-fight. The pieces of information
needed for calculation are given as z
follows: (i) The radar data of B with
respect to A are given in spherical
φ
coordinates as r = 1100 m, θ = −7◦ , φ =
107◦ , ṙ = −60 m/sec, θ̇ = 0.02 rad/sec, A
φ̇ = −0.01 rad/sec, r̈ = 5 m/sec2 , θ̈ = 20 o
−0.05 rad/sec2 and φ̈ = 0.02 rad/sec2 .
(ii) The absolute velocity and acceleration
vectors of A are ~vA = {300, 0, 0}xyz m/sec
x
and ~aA = {5, 0, 0}xyz m/sec2 . (iii)
Plane A is temporarily heading in the Z , UP
S55◦ E direction. (iv) Plane A is B
turning to follow B at the rate of
~ = {−0.01, 0, 0.02}xyz rad/sec and Ω
Ω ~˙ =
X
{0, 0, 0.01}xyz rad/sec2 . Find
N
(a) the absolute velocity ~vB of airplane
Y
B in command control’s East-North-
Up coordinate system, and 35o
(b) the absolute acceleration ~aB of Bird’s Eye View
airplane B in command control’s
East-North-Up coordinate system. Z , UP E
35 o

SOLUTION:

Let’s first establish the transformations between the coordinate systems at the instant shown:

[Q1 ] = [Q(xyz ← rφθ)]

   
cos θ sin φ cos θ cos φ − sin θ 0.9492 −0.2902 0.1219
=  sin θ sin φ sin θ cos φ cos θ  =  −0.1165 0.0356 0.9925 
cos φ − sin φ 0 −0.2924 −0.9563 0

[Q2 ] = [Q(XYZ ← xyz)]

   
cos 20◦ 0 cos 70◦ 0.9397 0 0.3420
=  0 1 0  =  0 1 0 
◦ ◦
cos 110 0 cos 20 −0.3420 0 0.9397

[Q3 ] = [Q(ENU ← XYZ)]

   
cos 35◦ cos 55◦ 0 0.8192 0.5736 0
=  cos 125◦ cos 35◦ 0  =  −0.5736 0.8192 0 
0 0 1 0 0 1

– 6 / 12 –
Part (a)

~ × ~rB/A + ~vrel
~vB = ~vA + Ω

     
 ṙ   −60   −51.2 
~vrel = rφ̇ = −11 = 27.5
     
rθ̇ sin φ rφθ 21.04 rφθ 28.1 xyz
     
r  1100   1044 
~rB/A = 0 = 0 = 128.2
     
0 rφθ 0 rφθ
321.6 xyz
       
 300   −0.01   1044   −51.2 
~vB = 0 + 0 × 128.2 + 27.5
       
0 xyz
0.02 xyz
321.6 xyz
28.1 xyz
       
 300 − 2.6 − 51.2   246.2   240.5   226.6 
= 0 + 24.1 + 27.5 = 51.6 = 51.6 = −95.7
       
0 − 1.3 + 28.1 xyz
26.8 xyz −59 XYZ −59 ENU

Part (b)

~ × ~vrel + Ω
~aB = ~aA + ~arel + 2Ω ~ × (Ω ~˙ × ~rB/A
~ × ~rB/A ) + Ω

     
 r̈ − r(φ̇2 + θ̇2 sin2 φ)   4.49   −9.2 
~arel = rφ̈ + 2ṙφ̇ − rθ̇2 sin φ cos φ = 23.3 = −54
     
rθ̈ sin φ + 2ṙθ̇ sin φ + 2rθ̇φ̇ cos φ rφθ −54.8 rφθ −23.6 xyz
       
 −0.01   −51.2   −0.55   −1.10 
~ × ~vrel = 2
2Ω 0 × 27.5 = 2 −0.74 = −1.48
       
0.02 xyz 28.1 xyz −0.28 xyz −0.56 xyz
     
 −0.01   −2.6   −0.48 
~ × (Ω
Ω ~ × ~rB/A ) = 0 × 24.1 = −0.07
     
0.02 xyz −1.3 xyz −0.24 xyz
     
 0   1044   −1.28 
~˙ × ~rB/A =
Ω 0 × 128.2 = 10.44
     
0.01 xyz 321.6 xyz 0 xyz
         
5  −9.2   −1.10   −0.48   −1.28 
~aB = 0 + −54 + −1.48 + −0.07 + 10.44
         
0 xyz −23.6 xyz −0.56 xyz −0.24 xyz 0 xyz
     
 −7.06   −14.98   −38.14 
= −45.1 = −45.1 = −28.35
     
−24.4 xyz −20.51 XYZ −20.51 ENU
– 6 / 13 –
Example – A Sliding Bar
At the instant shown and with the
parameters shown in the figure, find the 2 cm/sec
y
angular velocity of the rigid bar and the
60 o A
sliding velocity between the bar and the b
corner C. Find the absolute velocity of
point P . x
60 o 25 cm
o
60
a C
10 cm
P

SOLUTION:

Define at point C a rotating coordinate system abz as shown:

   
cos 60◦ cos 150◦ 0 0.5 −0.866 0

[Q] = [Q(abz ← xyz)] = cos 30 ◦
cos 60 ◦  
0 = 0.866 0.5 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

Use now the vector equation for a rotating coordinate system

~ × ~rA/C
~vA = ~vC + ~vrel + Ω
         
0 0  vrel   0   −10/ cos 60◦ 
2 = 0 + 0 + 0 × 0
         
0 xyz 0 xyz 0 abz ωc abz 0 abz

Now transform ~vA from xyz to abz, hence

   
 −1.732   vrel 
1 = −20ωc
   
0 abz
0 abz

which yield scalars vrel = −1.732 and ωc = −1/20 = −0.05. The vector solutions can be written
as
       
 −1.732   −0.866   0   0 
~vrel = 0 = 1.5 and ω
~ = 0 = 0
       
0 abz
0 xyz
−0.05 abz −0.05 xyz

For the velocity at point P , use the vector equation

~vP = ~vC + ~vrel + Ω~ × ~rP/C

           
 0   −1.732   0   25 − 20   −1.732   −1.0825 
~vP = 0 + 0 + 0 × 0 = −0.25 = 1.3749
           
0 0 −0.05 0 0 abz
0 xyz

– 6 / 14 –
 Special Case: Rotation About a Fixed Axis
There are many machines or machine parts
which rotate about a fixed axle, they can be z
analyzed by methods designed for “fixed-axis A ~ω , ~α
rotation” problems. Mathematically, the general
relationships for velocity and acceleration can be
simplified to B
O y
~vA = ω
~ × ~rA/B
~aA = α
~ × ~rA/B + ω ω × ~rA/B )
~ × (~
x

in which point B is a point located anywhere on the fixed-axis. The assumption of “fixed-axis
rotation” reduces the rigid-body problem from 6 degrees-of-freedom to 1 because the 3 translation
components are immediately eliminated and the fixed axis disallows the 2 rotational components
which are perpendicular to it. Clearly, the vectors ω
~ and α
~ are parallel to the unit vector ê which
defines the fixed axis.

Special Case: Rotation About a Fixed Point

Devices such as satellite antenas, radars and
gyroscopes can be analyzed by methods
designed for rotation about a fixed point. ωp , ω̇p
Although the mathematical expressions of this
class of problems will be similar to those
of fixed-axis rotation, “fixed-point rotation”
φ
problems are much more difficult because ωs , ω̇s
point O is usually not the most convenient
point of reference and furthermore, there are O
now 3 rotational degrees of freedom to deal
with. Most likely, these problems require the
application of a rotating coordinate system.
ωn , ω̇n

To characterize the 3 rotations involved in fixed-point rotation, the following names are used:
ωp – the angular velocity of precession,
ωn – the angular velocity of nutation and
ωs – the spin.
Usually, a rotating frame with angular velocity Ω ~ =ω ~ =ω
~ p or Ω ~p + ω ~ n is defined to analyze the
problem for fixed-point rotation. The spin, ω ~ s , is identified more as a rotation for the “body” while
ω
~ p and ω
~ n are identified as the rotations of the “environment.”
Mathematically, there are several choices of coordinate system for analyzing a problem, the
most important consideration is the simplicity of the solution.
~ = ω
• If a rotating frame is selected such that Ω ~ p , then the rotation of the body would be
described by the angular velocity ω
~ =ω ~n + ω
~ s.
~ =ω
• If a rotating frame is selected such that Ω ~p + ω~ n , then the rotation of the body would be
described by the angular velocity ω~ =ω ~ s.
The first choice has a simpler description for the coordinate system but the rotation of the body is
complicated. It may be difficult to visualize the motion of a body with 2 axes of rotation.
– 6 / 15 –
 The second choice has a more complicated description for the coordinate system, i.e., the
transformation between the rotating frame and the fixed frame requires two parameters, however,
the body spins about just one axis within the rotating frame.

Instantaneous Axis of Rotation

It is now advantageous to introduce the concept of the Instantaneous Axis of Rotation. At any
instant, there is a straight line on which the velocity is zero. This line is effectively a fixed-axis for
that instant and the equations which are applicable for fixed-axis rotation can be applied about this
instantaneous fixed-axis which is also known as the Instantaneous Axis of Rotation.
Let the angular velocity of the
rotating frame be described by Ω ~ =
ω
~p + ω ~ n and the spin of the body ω
~s ~ωt
is in the direction of the axle OB. At
any point C, the velocity ~vC can be z ~
computed as Ω

~ × ~rC/O
~vC = ~vO + ~vrel + Ω C
~rA/C B ~ωs
in which ~vO , the velocity of the fixed-
point, is zero. Within the rotating ~rA/B
frame, the body is undergoing pure O ~rA/O
rotation, therefore, A
~vrel = ω
~ × ~vC/B = ω
~ × ~vC/O
y
in which points B and O are both on x
the axis of rotation.

Substitute ~vrel into the equation of motion for ~vC , we have

~vC = ω ~ × ~rC/O = (~
~ × ~vC/O + Ω ~ × ~rC/O = ω
ω + Ω) ~ t × ~rC/O

in which ω~ t is the total angular velocity of the rigid body.

Now, to locate the instantaneous axis of rotation, set ~vC = 0 which implies that ω ~ t ×~rC/O = 0
or ~rC/O is parallel to the vector ω
~ t as shown in the figure. Utilizing any point C on the instantaneous
axis of rotation, the velocity of any point A can be determined simply as

~vA = ω
~ × ~rA/C .

To obtain the acceleration vector at point A, perform the time derivative as follows:

d~vA d~
ωt d~rA/C
~aA = = × ~rA/C + ω ~t ×
dt dt  dt
d~rA d~rC
=α
~ t × ~rA/C + ω
~t × −
dt dt
 
=α
~ t × ~rA/C + ω
~t × ω ~ t × ~rA/C − ~0

or simply

~aA = α
~ t × ~rA/C + ω
~t × ω
~ t × ~rA/C .

– 6 / 16 –
Example – Plane Rigid Body Kinematics with Relative Motion
A linkage mechanism is driven clockwise at
Y
point A by a motor at the rate of 5 rad/sec. x
Find at the instant shown the angular velocity y B
and angular acceleration of the pivoting sleeve m
at C and the relative velocity and relative 0.65 0.25 m
acceleration of link BD with respect to point β
X
C. D C 0.6 m A 5 rad/sec

Solution:
To solve problems in vector mechanics, it is desirable to know as much about the unknown
vector as possible. If either the magnitude or the direction of the unknown vector is specified, the
number of unknown quantities is reduced by half.
For the present problem, it is convenient to define a rotating frame xyz so that the x-axis
coincides with the link BD. With this new system xyz, the relative velocity ~vrel can be expressed
as vrel ı̂, whereas using the XYZ system, the vector would be a function of the angle β.
The rigid body of interest in this problem is BD. It is easy to determine the velocity and
acceleration at point B because it is connected to AB. Hence, with ω~ AB given as −5K̂, ~vB and
~aB can be computed as
       
 0   0   0   1.25 
~vB = ~vA + ω~ AB × ~rB/A = 0 + 0 × 0.25 = 0 ,
       
0 −5 0 0 XYZ

and
~aB = ~aA + α
~ AB × ~rB/A + ω
~ AB × (~
ωAB × ~rB/A )
         
0 0  0   0   0 
= 0 + 0 × 0.25 − (−5)2 0.25 = −6.25 .
         
0 0 0 0 0 XYZ

At the instant shown, β = tan−1 (0.25/0.60) = 22.62◦ , the transformation between the coordinate
systems can be established as
      
 qx  cos 22.62◦ sin 22.62◦ 0  qX  0.923 0.385 0  qX 
qy  − sin 22.62◦ cos 22.62◦ 0  qY =  −0.385 0.923 0  qY .
     
qz 0 0 1 qZ 0 0 1 qZ

To determine the relative velocity for link BD, use the formula

~ × ~rB/C
~vB = ~vC + ~vrel + Ω .

If the xyz system is chosen as the basis, then

       
0  vrel  0  0.65 
~vC = 0 , ~vrel = 0 ~
, Ω=ω~C = 0 , ~rB/C = 0 ,
       
0 xyz 0 xyz ω xyz 0 xyz

– 6 / 17 –
and     
0.923 0.385 0  1.25   1.154 
~vB =  −0.385 0.923 0  0 = −0.481 .
   
0 0 1 0 XYZ
0 xyz

Substitute the above vectors into the formula, we have

         
 1.154   vrel   0   0.65   vrel 
−0.481 = 0 + 0 × 0 = 0.65ω
         
0 0 ω 0 0
which yields the scalar solutions of vrel = 1.154 and ω = −0.481/0.65 = −0.74. Recalling the
original definitions, the vector solutions can be written as

       
 1.154   1.065   0   0 
~vrel = 0 = 0.444 and ω
~C = 0 = 0 .
       
0 xyz
0 XYZ
−0.74 xyz −0.74 XYZ

For acceleration, use the more complicated formula of

~aB = ~aC + ~arel + 2Ω ~˙ × ~rB/C + Ω

~ × ~vrel + Ω ~ × (Ω
~ × ~rB/C ) .
Again, use the xyz system and let
     
0  arel  0
˙
~
~aC = 0 , ~arel = 0 , Ω=α
~C = 0 ,
     
0 xyz 0 xyz α xyz

and     
0.923 0.385 0  0   −2.406 
~aB =  −0.385 0.923 0  −6.25 = −5.769 ,
   
0 0 1 0 XYZ
0 xyz

then
             
 −2.406   arel   0   1.154   0.65   0   0.65 
−5.769 = 0 +2 0 × 0 −(−0.74)2 0 + 0 × 0
             
0 xyz
0 −0.74 0 0 α 0
or    
 −2.406   arel − 0.356 
−5.769 = −1.708 + 0.65α
   
0 xyz
0 xyz

which yields the scalar solutions of arel = −2.05 and α = −6.25. The scalar values, along with
the original definitions, can now be used to generate

       
 −2.05   −1.892   0   0 
~arel = 0 = −0.789 and α
~C = 0 = 0 .
       
0 xyz
0 XYZ
−6.25 xyz −6.25 XYZ

– 6 / 18 –
Example – Three-Dimensional Rigid Body Kinematics
The small disk with a radius of 0.5 m is z Z
rotating relative to point A with an angular ~Ω
velocity |~ω1 | = 5 rad/sec and angular ~ω1 , ~α1
α1 | = 3 rad/sec2 while the entire
acceleration |~ P A O
y Y
assembly is rotating about the Z-axis with a 1
~ = 10 rad/sec. x 3
constant angular velocity |Ω| 1
Find the absolute velocity and acceleration of 1
point P at the instant shown. X

SOLUTION:
Use a rotating frame xyz, which at this instant, is aligned with the fixed frame XYZ. The angular
~ = {0 , 0 , 10}T and Ω
velocity and acceleration of xyz is therefore Ω ~˙ = {0 , 0 , 0}T , respectively.
First, lets find the absolute velocity and acceleration of point A (xyz is not needed here):
       
 0   0   2   10 
~vA = ~vO + ω ~ AO × ~rA/O = 0 + 0 × −1 = 20
       
0 10 1 0 XYZ

~aA = ~aO + ω
~ AO × (~
ωAO × ~rA/O ) + α
~ AO × ~rA/O
         
 0   0   10   0   −200 
= 0 + 0 × 20 + 0 = 100
         
0 10 0 0 0 XYZ
To find the absolute velocity and acceleration of point P , first find the relative velocity and
acceleration inside the rotating frame xyz.
     
5  0   0 
~vrel = (~vP/A )xyz = (~vP − ~vA )xyz = ω
~ P A × ~rP/A = 0 × −0.5 = 0
     
0 0 −2.5 xyz

~arel = (~aP/A )xyz = (~aP − ~aA )xyz = ω

~ P A × (~
ωP A × ~rP/A ) + α
~ P A × ~rP/A
         
5  0  3  0   0 
= 0 × 0 + 0 × −0.5 = 12.5
         
0 −2.5 0 0 −1.5 xyz
Now take advantage of the fact that the transformation between XYZ and xyz is an identity matrix,
we can easily calculate
         
 10   0   0   0   15 
~ × ~rP/A = 20 +
~vP = ~vA + ~vrel + Ω 0 + 0 × −0.5 = 20
         
0 −2.5 10 0 −2.5

~aP = ~aA + ~arel + 2Ω ~˙ × ~rP/A + Ω

~ × ~vrel + Ω ~ × (Ω
~ × ~rP/A ) =
               
 −200   0   0   0   0   0   5   −200 
100 + 12.5 + 2 0 × 0 + 0 + 0 × 0 = 162.5
               
0 −1.5 10 −2.5 0 10 0 −1.5
– 6 / 19 –
Example – Fixed-Axis Rotation
Given: ω ~ = 5{1, 1, 1}T rad/sec and α ~ =
T 2
z
−2{1, 1, 1} rad/sec . The direction of the fixed- ~ω , ~α
A
axis OB √ is represented by the unit vector ê =
{1, 1, 1}/ 3 and the position vectors of points B
A and B are respectively ~rA = {−2, −1, 3}T O y
and ~rB = {0.5, 0.5, 0.5}T . Find the velocity and
acceleration vector at point A.
x

Solution: Use point O as a reference on the fixed-axis

Since ~rA/O = ~rA = {−2, −1, 3}T
       
 0   5   −2   20 
~vA = ~vO + ω
~ × ~rA = 0 + 5 × −1 = −25
       
0 5 3 5
~aA = ~aO + α
~ × ~rA + ω
~ × (~
ω × ~rA )
             
 −2   −2   5   20   −8   150   142 
= ~0 + −2 × −1 + 5 × −25 = 10 + 75 = 85
             
−2 3 5 5 −2 −225 −227

Solution: Use point B as a reference on the fixed-axis

Since ~rA/B = ~rA − ~rB = {−2, −1, 3}T − {0.5, 0.5, 0.5}T = {−2.5, −1.5, 2.5}T
       
 0   5   −2.5   20 
~vA = ~vB + ω
~ × ~rA/B = 0 + 5 × −1.5 = −25
       
0 5 2.5 5
~aA = ~aB + α
~ × ~rA/B + ω
~ × (~
ω × ~rA/B )
             
 −2   −2.5   5   20   −8   150   142 
= ~0 + −2 × −1.5 + 5 × −25 = 10 + 75 = 85
             
−2 2.5 5 5 −2 −225 −227
Clearly, the results are the same no matter which point on the fixed-axis is used as the reference
point.

Special Time-Saving Formula for Two-Dimensional Problems

           
0  0  x  0   −ωy  x
ω ω × ~r) = 0 ×  0 × y  = 0 ×
~ × (~ ωx = −ω 2 y = −ω 2~r
           
ω ω 0 ω 0 0
Hence, for two-dimensional problems only,

ω
~ × (~ ω |2~r
ω × ~r) = −|~

– 6 / 20 –
 Example – Total Angular Acceleration of a Rigid Body
At the instant shown, φ = 60◦ ,
z
ωp = 5 rad/sec, ω̇p = 4 rad/sec2 , ωp , ω̇p
2
ωn = 3 rad/sec, ω̇n = 2 rad/sec ,
ωs = 10 rad/sec, ω̇s = 6 rad/sec2 . φ
ωs , ω̇s
Find the total angular acceleration about the O
fixed xyz coordinate system.

x ω , ω̇ y
n n

Polar Coordinates
~ and the angular velocity of the disk relative to
Write the angular velocity of the rotating frame, Ω,
the rotating frame, ω
~ D/F , respectively as
   
 0   ωs sin φ 
~ =
Ω 0 and ω
~ D/F = ωn ,
   
ωp rθz ωs cos φ rθz
then the total angular velocity can be computed as

~D = ω
ω ~F + ω ~ +ω
~ D/F = Ω ~ D/F
     
 0   ωs sin φ   ωs sin φ  .
= 0 + ωn = ωn
     
ωp rθz ωs cos φ rθz ωs cos φ + ωp rθz
To calculate the acceleration vector using the rotating frame, apply
     
 ω̇s sin φ + ωs cos φφ̇   0   ωs sin φ 
d~ω dc ω
~ ~ ×ω
= +Ω ~ = ω̇n + 0 × ωn .
dt dt      
ω̇s cos φ − ωs sin φφ̇ + ω̇p ωp ωs cos φ + ωp

Now with φ̇ = ωn , the angular acceleration can be expressed as

 
 ω̇s sin φ + ωs ωn cos φ − ωn ωp 
d~
ω
= ω̇n + ωp ωs sin φ .
dt  
ω̇s cos φ − ωs ωn sin φ + ω̇p rθz

For specific values given in the problem

   
 6 sin 60◦ + (10)(3) cos 60◦ − (3)(5)   5.196 
d~
ω
= 2 + (5)(10) sin 60◦ = 45.30 .
dt  ◦ ◦   
6 cos 60 − (10)(3) sin 60 + 4 rθz
−18.98 rθz

To express the values in the xyz system, perform the transformation with θ = 90◦ as
       
cos θ − sin θ 0  αr  0 −1 0  5.196   −45.30 
~ t =  sin θ
α cos θ 0  αθ =  1 0 0  45.30 = 5.196 .
     
0 0 1 αz 0 0 1 −18.98 rθz −18.98 xyz

– 6 / 21 –
Spherical Coordinates
~ and the angular velocity of the disk relative to
Write the angular velocity of the rotating frame, Ω,
the rotating frame, ω
~ D/F , respectively as
   
 ωp cos φ   ωs 
~ =ω
Ω ~p + ω
~ n = −ωp sin φ and ω
~ D/F =ω
~s = 0 ,
   
ωn rφθ
0 rφθ

then the total angular velocity can be computed as

ω
~D = ω
~F + ω ~ +ω
~ D/F = Ω ~ D/F
     
 ωp cos φ   ωs   ωp cos φ + ωs  .
= −ωp sin φ + 0 = −ωp sin φ
     
ωn rφθ
0 rφθ ωn rφθ

To calculate the acceleration vector using the rotating frame, apply

     
 ω̇p cos φ − ωp sin φφ̇ + ω̇s   ωp cos φ   ωp cos φ + ωs 
d~
ω dc ω
~ ~
= +Ω×ω
~ = −ω̇p sin φ − ωp cos φφ̇ + −ωp sin φ × −ωp sin φ .
dt dt      
ω̇n ω n ω n

Now with φ̇ = ωn , the angular acceleration can be expressed as

 
 ω̇s + ω̇p cos φ − ωp ωn sin φ 
d~
ω
= ωn ωs − ω̇p sin φ − ωp ωn cos φ .
dt  
ω̇n + ωs ωp sin φ rφθ

For specific values given in the problem, i.e., φ = 60◦ and θ = 90◦ ,
   
 6 + 4 cos 60◦ − (5)(3) sin 60◦   −4.99 
d~
ω
= (3)(10) − 4 sin 60◦ − (5)(3) cos 60◦ = 19.04 .
dt    
2 + (10)(5) sin 60◦ rφθ
45.3 rφθ

To express the values in the xyz system, perform the transformation with θ = 90◦ and φ = 60◦ as
 T  
cos 90◦ sin 60◦ sin 90◦ sin 60◦ cos 60◦  αr 
~ =  cos 90◦ cos 60◦ sin 90◦ cos 60◦ − sin 60◦ 
α α
◦ ◦  φ
− sin 90 cos 90 0 αθ rφθ
    
0 0 −1  −4.99   −45.30 
=  0.866 0.5 0  19.04 = 5.196 .
   
0.5 −0.866 0 45.3 rφθ −18.98 xyz

– 6 / 22 –