Cloud Types

common cloud classifications

Clouds are classified into a system that uses Latin words to describe the appearance of clouds as
seen by an observer on the ground. The table below summarizes the four principal components
of this classification system (Ahrens, 1994).

Latin Root Translation Example

fair weather cumulus
cumulus heap
stratus layer
altostratus
cirrus curl of hair
cirrus
nimbus rain
cumulonimbus

Further classification identifies clouds by height of cloud base. For example, cloud names
containing the prefix "cirr-", as in cirrus clouds, are located at high levels while cloud names
with the prefix "alto-", as in altostratus, are found at middle levels. This module introduces
several cloud groups. The first three groups are identified based upon their height above the
ground. The fourth group consists of vertically developed clouds, while the final group consists
of a collection of miscellaneous cloud types.

High-Level Clouds
High-level clouds form above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters)
and since the temperatures are so cold at such high
elevations, these clouds are primarily composed of ice
crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white in
appearance, but can appear in a magnificent array of colors
when the sun is low on the horizon.

Photograph by: Knupp

 Mid-Level Clouds
The bases of mid-level clouds typically appear between
6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). Because of
their lower altitudes, they are composed primarily of
water droplets, however, they can also be composed of
ice crystals when temperatures are cold enough.

Photograph by: Holle

Low-level Clouds
Low clouds are of mostly composed of water droplets since their bases generally lie below 6,500
feet (2,000 meters). However, when temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain
ice particles and snow.

Photograph by: Holle

Vertically Developed Clouds

Probably the most familiar of the classified clouds is the cumulus cloud. Generated most
commonly through either thermal convection or frontal lifting, these clouds can grow to heights
in excess of 39,000 feet (12,000 meters), releasing incredible amounts of energy through the
condensation of water vapor within the cloud itself.
 Photograph by: Holle

Other Cloud Types

Finally, we will introduce a collection of miscellaneous cloud types which do not fit into the
previous four groups.

Classifications High-Level Clouds

Last Update: 07/09/97 Cloud types include: cirrus and cirrostratus.

Mid-Level Clouds
Cloud types include: altocumulus, altostratus.

Low-Level Clouds
Cloud types include: nimbostratus and stratocumulus.

Clouds with Vertical Development

Cloud types include: fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus.

Other Cloud Types

Cloud types include: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic and
pileus clouds.
Cloud Classification
The classification of clouds was first conceptualized by French naturalist Jean Lamarck in 1801.
Two years later, in 1803, the English scientist Luke Howard created a classification which was
later adopted by the International Meteorological Commission in 1929.

The first scientific study of clouds began in 1803, when a method of cloud classification was
devised by the British meteorologist Luke Howard. The next development was the publication in
1887 of a classification system that later formed the basis for the noted International Cloud Atlas
(1896). This atlas, considerably revised and modified through the years (most recently in 1956),
is now used throughout the world.
Cloud types

Clouds are generally classified according to genera in which Latin words are used to describe the
appearance of clouds as seen by an observer on the ground. The table below summarizes the four
principal components of this classification system.
Latin Root cumulus stratus cirrus nimbus
Translation heap layer curl of hair rain

Cloud altitude

Clouds are further categorized according to their height above the ground (etages). These are:

• High-Level Clouds
Forms above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and are primarily composed of ice crystals.
Denoted by the prefix cirro- or cirrus and includes cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus.
• Mid-Level Clouds
Their bases appear between 6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). Composed
primarily of water droplets although they can also be composed of ice crystals when
temperatures are cold enough. Denoted by the prefix alto- and includes altostratus,
altocumulus and nimbostratus.

• Low-level Clouds
Their bases generally lie below 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). Mostly composed of water
droplets but may also contain ice particles and snow. Includes stratus, stratocumulus,
cumulus and cumulonimbus.

When cloud particles become too heavy to remain suspended in the air, they fall to the earth as
precipitation. Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms; hail, rain, freezing rain, sleet or snow.
This portion of the Clouds and Precipitation module focuses on precipitation and has been
organized into the following sections.

Sections Rain and Hail

Latest Update: 07/21/97 Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of rain and hail.

Freezing Rain
A detailed look at freezing rain, associated dangers and the conditions that
lead to its development.

Sleet
Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of sleet.

Snow
 Atmospheric conditions that lead to the development of snow.

Acknowledgments
Those who contributed to the Precipitation sections of the Clouds and
Precipitation module.

The navigation menu (left) for this section is called "Precipitation" and the menu items are
arranged in a recommended sequence, beginning with this introduction. In addition, this entire
web server is accessible in both "graphics" and "text"-based modes, a feature controlled from the
blue "User Interface" menu (located beneath the black navigation menus). More information
about the user interface options, the navigation system, or WW2010 in general is accessible from
About This Server.

In meteorology, precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors, which are
atmospheric water phenomena) is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor
that is pulled down by gravity and deposited on the Earth's surface.[1] The main forms of
precipitation include rain, snow, ice pellets, and graupel. It occurs when the atmosphere, a large
gaseous solution, becomes saturated with water vapour and the water condenses, falling out of
solution (i.e., precipitates).[2] Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming
saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Virga is precipitation that begins
falling to the earth but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the ways air can
become saturated. Precipitation forms via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a
cloud.

Moisture overriding associated with weather fronts is an overall major method of precipitation
production. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective
clouds such as cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands. Where relatively warm
water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes, lake-effect snowfall
becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the
backside of extratropical cyclones. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy. Thundersnow is
possible within a cyclone's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In
mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within
windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can
exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the monsoon trough,
or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.

Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small spheres for
smaller drops. Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth can occur in many different
forms, including rain, freezing rain, drizzle, ice needles, snow, ice pellets or sleet, graupel and
hail. Hail is formed within cumulonimbus clouds when strong updrafts of air cause the stones to
cycle back and forth through the cloud, causing the hailstone to form in layers until it becomes
heavy enough to fall from the cloud. Unlike raindrops, snowflakes grow in a variety of different
shapes and patterns, determined by the temperature and humidity characteristics of the air the
snowflake moves through on its way to the ground. While snow and ice pellets require
temperatures close to the ground to be near or below freezing, hail can occur during much
warmer temperature regimes due to the process of its formation. Precipitation may occur on
other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the
form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.[3]

The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind
of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including
wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Precipitation
is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water
on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as
precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given
the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres
(39 in). Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use
average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.

Part of the Nature series on

Weather

Calendar Seasons

Spring · Summer

Autumn · Winter
Tropical Seasons

Dry season · Wet season

Storms

Thunderstorm · Supercell
Downburst · Lightning
Tornado · Waterspout
Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)
Extratropical cyclone
Winter storm · Blizzard · Ice storm
Dust storm · Firestorm · Cloud
Precipitation

Drizzle · Rain · Snow · Graupel

Freezing rain · Ice pellets · Hail
Topics

Meteorology · Climate
Weather forecasting
Heat wave · Air pollution
 Weather Portal

v • d • e

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Hydrometeor
• 2 Types
• 3 How the air becomes saturated
o 3.1 Cooling air to its dew point
o 3.2 Adding moisture to the air
• 4 Formation
o 4.1 Raindrops
o 4.2 Ice pellets
o 4.3 Hail
o 4.4 Snowflakes
o 4.5 Diamond dust
• 5 Causes
o 5.1 Frontal activity
o 5.2 Convection
o 5.3 Orographic effects
o 5.4 Snow
o 5.5 Within the tropics
• 6 Measurement
• 7 Return period
• 8 Role in Köppen climate classification
• 9 Effect on agriculture
• 10 Changes due to global warming
• 11 Changes due to urban heat island
• 12 Forecasting
• 13 See also
• 14 References

• 15 External links

[edit] Hydrometeor
This anvil-shaped Cumulonimbus incus cloud is composed of hydrometeors.

The term meteor describes an object from outer space which has entered the Earth's atmosphere
and produces a light phenomenon.[5] In contrast, any phenomenon which was at some point
produced due to condensation or precipitation of moisture within the Earth's atmosphere is
known as a hydrometeor. Particles composed of fallen precipitation which fell onto the Earth's
surface can become hydrometeors if blown off the landscape by wind. Formations due to
condensation such as clouds, haze, fog, and mist are composed of hydrometeors. All
precipitation types are hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation which
evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles removed from the Earth's surface by wind such
as blowing snow and blowing sea spray are also hydrometeors.[6]

[edit] Types
See also: Precipitation types (meteorology)

A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation

Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of
the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as
precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given the Earth's
surface area, that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in).

Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform,[7] and orographic rainfall.

[8]
Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the
atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation,[9] while stratiform
processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation. Precipitation can be
divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes
on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in
different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and
drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing air mass is called "freezing
rain" or "freezing drizzle". Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, ice pellets,
hail, and graupel.[10]
[edit] How the air becomes saturated
[edit] Cooling air to its dew point

Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark

Air contains water vapour, measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg),[11] but
most commonly reported as a relative humidity. How much water vapour a parcel of air can
contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature.
Warmer air can contain more water vapour than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore,
one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a
parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.[12] Water vapour normally begins to
condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. An elevated
portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or
cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is
trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during
breezy conditions.[13]

There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling,
conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when
air rises and expands.[14] The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a
physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air
comes into contact with a colder surface,[15] usually by being blown from one surface to another,
for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the
emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.[16] Evaporative
cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air
temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[17]
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming

[edit] Adding moisture to the air

The main ways water vapour is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward
motion,[9] precipitation or virga falling from above,[18] daytime heating evaporating water from
the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,[19] transpiration from plants,[20] cool or dry air
moving over warmer water,[21] and lifting air over mountains.[22]

[edit] Formation
Main article: Water cycle

Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the water cycle.

[edit] Raindrops

Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water
droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. Air resistance
typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs,
water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend,
coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as
rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing. In clouds below
freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more
mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This
process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is
below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and
ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[23]

Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean
diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their
shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest
cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their
shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely
related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can
have a long duration.[25][26] Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other
rain drops.[27] The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.[28]

[edit] Ice pellets

See also: Ice pellets

An accumulation of ice pellets

Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of
precipitation is also known as sleet in the United States.[29] Ice pellets are usually (but not
always) smaller than hailstones.[30] They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do
not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is
PL.[28]

Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 metres (4,900 ft)
and 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it.
This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As
they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets.
However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not
have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile
showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front
during the cold season [31], but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front.

[edit] Hail
See also: Hail

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.36 in) in diameter

Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on
contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to
the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the
updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[32] Within
METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25
in). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use
the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil.[28] Stones just larger than golf ball-
sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes.[33] Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres
(6 in) and weigh more than .5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[34] In large hailstones, latent heat released by
further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet
growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.[35] The hailstone gains an
ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to
be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.[36]

Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid
water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud
layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F).[32] Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their
green coloration.[37][38] The growth rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes
vanishingly small much below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For
this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail
formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet
(3,400 m).[39] Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the
frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of
thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less
common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-
latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth.
Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.[40]

[edit] Snowflakes

Main article: Snowflake

Snowflake viewed in an optical microscope

Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze.
These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (0 °F), because to
freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement
similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus." Experiments show
that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than
−35 °C (−31 °F).[41] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or
in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make
efficient ice nuclei is poor — what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud
condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles
may be effective,[42] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include particles of silver
iodide and dry ice, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding.[43]

Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment, which is one where air is
saturated with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point. The droplet then
grows by diffusion of water molecules in the air (vapor) onto the ice crystal surface where they
are collected. Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to
their sheer abundance, the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers or millimeters in
size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the Wegner-Bergeron-
Findeison process. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate,
meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient
source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide
and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the
type of ice particle that falls to the ground.[44] Guinness World Records list the world’s largest
snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm
(15 inches) wide.[45]

The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain controversial. Possibilities include
mechanical interlocking, sintering, electrostatic attraction as well as the existence of a "sticky"
liquid-like layer on the crystal surface. The individual ice crystals often have hexagonal
symmetry. Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and
hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection
of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.[46] The shape of the snowflake is
determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.[44] Rarely, at a
temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry — triangular
snowflakes.[47] The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect
snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two
snowflakes are alike due to the 10,000,000,000,000,000,000 water molecules which make up a
snowflake,[48] which grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing
temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to
the ground.[49] The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.[28]

[edit] Diamond dust

See also: Diamond dust

Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching
−40 °F (−40 °C) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface
based air.[50] They are made of simple ice crystals that are hexagonal in shape.[51] The METAR
identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.[28]

[edit] Causes
[edit] Frontal activity
Main article: Weather fronts

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic

systems (on the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm
fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma-head
precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones.[52] A wide variety of weather can be found
along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with
a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[53]
Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than Earth. When it gets cold, Mars has
precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.[3]

[edit] Convection

Convective precipitation
Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or
cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation
falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal
extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested
that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[52][54] Graupel and hail indicate convection.[55] In mid-
latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries
such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[56]

[edit] Orographic effects

Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States
rainfall climatology

Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising
air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic
cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent
winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward
side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic
lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side
where a rain shadow is observed.[22]

In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has
the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches (12,000 mm).[57] Storm
systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary
considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and
leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides
face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and
sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[58]

In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that
continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[59] The Sierra
Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave
Deserts.[60][61]
[edit] Snow
See also: Snow

Preferred region of heavy snowfall ("Banded Snowfall") around the comma head of a
wintertime low pressure area, shaded in green

Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula

Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with
winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph),[62] (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The
band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak
upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and
produces precipitation within an elongated band,[63] which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling
out of nimbostratus clouds.[64] When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning
snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band. In the Northern
Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere,
poleward is towards the South Pole, or south.

Within the cold sector, poleward and west of the cyclone center, small scale or mesoscale bands
of heavy snow can occur within a cyclone's comma-head pattern. This pattern is a comma-
shaped area of clouds and precipitation found around mature extratropical cyclones. These snow
bands typically have a width of 20 miles (32 km) to 50 miles (80 km).[65] The bands in the
comma head are associated with areas of frontogenesis, or zones of strengthening temperature
contrast.[66]
Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively
warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong
localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes
efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 °C or
23 °F) between the water surface and the air above.[67] Because of this temperature difference,
warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see
satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud
depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The
stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the
precipitation rate becomes.[68]

In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains
and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the
form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall
remains a significant challenge.[69]

[edit] Within the tropics

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that
location

See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone

Main article: Wet season

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the
average annual rainfall in a region falls.[70] The term green season is also sometimes used as a
euphemism by tourist authorities.[71] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the
tropics and subtropics.[72] Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers
and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their
rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[73] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will
see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough
move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season.[25] When the wet season
occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early
evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,[74] freshwater quality
improves,[75][76] and vegetation grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases.
[25]
Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. Unfortunately, the
previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.
Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to
food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[77]

Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred
miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in
either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).[78]
Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be
important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-
needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[79] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of
rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[80]

[edit] Measurement

Standard rain gauge

See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be
found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[81] The inner cylinder is filled
by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have
markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require
use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder
is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer
cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer
cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder
and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to
their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge.[82] Once the
snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as you approach 300 mm (12 in), one can either bring it
inside to melt, or use luke warm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen
precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently
subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted.[83]

Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most
fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[84] The wedge and tipping
bucket gauges will have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming
the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept
much above freezing. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the
funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those looking to measure rainfall the
most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out
in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler you use to measure the rain with. Any of
the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[85]

When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and
elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as
CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[86][87] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the
nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.[88]

[edit] Return period

See also: 100-year flood

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the
return period or frequency.[89] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and
storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.[90] The term 1 in 10 year
storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it
has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be
worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a
rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a
century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and
flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible to
have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.[91]
[edit] Role in Köppen climate classification

Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map[92]

Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET

Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
Aw BSh Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd

Main article: Köppen climate classification

The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation.
The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A
through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold
mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary
classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid
continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice
cap, and desert.

Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual
rainfall between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in).[93] A tropical savanna is
a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical
latitudes, with rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year.
They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America,
Malaysia, and Australia.[94] The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and
sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east.
Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[95]
Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40°
degrees away from the equator.[96]
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes
of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is
accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.[97] The Mediterranean climate regime
resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America,
parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile.
The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[98] A steppe is a dry
grassland.[99] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[100]

[edit] Effect on agriculture

Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from July 20–27,
2009.

Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some
water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to
agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little
rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion,
[101]
while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.[102] Plants need varying amounts
of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[103] while
tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.

In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet
season.[25] Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous
dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.[104]
Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to
food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[77]
[edit] Changes due to global warming

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect
to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

See also: Global warming

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. As

average global temperatures have risen, average global precipitation has also increased.
Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has
declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant
overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region
and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and
central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of
southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy
precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the
1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in
precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and
high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower
latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United
States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent per century since
1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per
century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (-
9.25 percent).[105]

[edit] Changes due to urban heat island

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool
temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white.

See also: Urban heat island

The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) to 5.6 °C (10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs
and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional
shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48%
and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between
20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[106] Some
cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[107]

[edit] Forecasting
Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast

Example of a five day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction

Center

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid
precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[108] A QPF will be
specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any
hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such
as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or
based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.[109] Starting in
the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to
rivers throughout the United States.[110] Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity
levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which
decreases with height.[111] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a
qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[112] Radar imagery forecasting
techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar
image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gage measurements, weather radar
estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value
of the rainfall forecast.[113]
Cloud
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Clouds)

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Cloud (disambiguation).

Part of the Nature series on

Weather

Calendar Seasons

Spring · Summer

Autumn · Winter
Tropical Seasons

Dry season · Wet season

Storms

Thunderstorm · Supercell
Downburst · Lightning
Tornado · Waterspout
Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)
Extratropical cyclone
Winter storm · Blizzard · Ice storm
Dust storm · Firestorm · Cloud
Precipitation

Drizzle · Rain · Snow · Graupel

Freezing rain · Ice pellets · Hail
Topics

Meteorology · Climate
Weather forecasting
Heat wave · Air pollution
Weather Portal

v • d • e
A cloud is a visible mass of droplets of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere
above the surface of the Earth or another planetary body. A cloud is also a visible mass attracted
by gravity, such as masses of material in space called interstellar clouds and nebulae. Clouds are
studied in the nephology or cloud physics branch of meteorology.

On Earth the condensing substance is typically water vapor, which forms small droplets or ice
crystals, typically 0.01 mm (0.00039 in) in diameter. When surrounded by billions of other
droplets or crystals they become visible as clouds. Dense deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance
(70% to 95%) throughout the visible range of wavelengths. They thus appear white, at least from
the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation
decreases with depth into the gases, hence the gray or even sometimes dark appearance at the
cloud base. Thin clouds may appear to have acquired the color of their environment or
background and clouds illuminated by non-white light, such as during sunrise or sunset, may
appear colored accordingly. Clouds look darker in the near-infrared because water absorbs solar
radiation at those wavelengths.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Classification
o 1.1 High clouds (Family A)
o 1.2 Middle clouds (Family B)
o 1.3 Low clouds (Family C1)
o 1.4 Low to middle clouds (Family C2)
o 1.5 Vertical clouds (Family D)
o 1.6 Other clouds
o 1.7 Cloud fields
• 2 Colors
• 3 Clouds and climate
o 3.1 Global brightening
o 3.2 Bacteria in clouds
• 4 Other planets
• 5 Gallery
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Bibliography

• 9 External links

[edit] Classification

A cumulus cloudscape over Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia

Cloud types or genera are grouped into three general categories: cirriform (wispy), stratiform
(layered in sheets) and convective or cumuliform (heaped, rolled and/or rippled). These
designations distinguish a cloud's physical structure and process of formation. All weather-
related cloud types form in the troposphere, the lowest major layer of the earth's atmosphere. The
individual genus types result from the categories being cross-classified by height range within
the troposphere. This is determined by the base height of the cloud, not the cloud top, and base
height ranges may vary depending on the geographical zone. Each cloud genus is divided into
species and/or varieties determined by more specific aspects of its structure and/or process of
formation in any particular situation. All Cirrus clouds are classified as high and thus constitute a
single genus. Cumulus and stratus clouds in the high altitude range carry the prefix 'cirro', while
similar genera in the middle range are prefixed by 'alto'. Any cumuliform or stratiform genus in
the low or low to middle range either has no prefix or carries one that refers to a characteristic
other than altitude. A vertically developed cloud genus or species typically occupies all altitude
ranges and therefore has no height related prefix. This system was proposed in 1802, when it was
presented to the Askesian Society by Luke Howard.

A sky of cirrus clouds.

[edit] High clouds (Family A)

High clouds will form between 10,000 and 25,000 ft (3,000 and 8,000 m) in the polar regions,
16,500 and 40,000 ft (5,000 and 12,000 m) in the temperate regions and 20,000 and 60,000 ft
(6,000 and 18,000 m) in the tropical region.[1]

Clouds in Family A include:

• Genus Cirrus (Ci)

• Genus Cirrocumulus (Cc)
• Genus Cirrostratus (Cs)

[edit] Middle clouds (Family B)

Middle clouds tend to form at 6,500 ft (2,000 m) but may form at heights up to 13,000 ft (4,000
m), 23,000 ft (7,000 m) or 25,000 ft (8,000 m) depending on the region. Generally the warmer
the climate, the higher the cloud base. Nimbostratus clouds are sometimes included with the
middle clouds.[1] The World Meterological Organization classifies Nimbostratus as a middle
cloud that can thicken down into the low height range during precipitation.

Clouds in Family B include:

• Genus Altocumulus (Ac)

• Genus Altostratus (As)
[edit] Low clouds (Family C1)

Stratocumulus clouds, between Cumulus in the foreground and background

These are found from near surface up to 6,500 ft (2,000 m)[1] and include the stratus (dense and
grey). When stratus clouds contact the ground, they are called fog.

Clouds in Family C1 include:

• Genus Stratocumulus (Sc)

• Genus Stratus (St)

[edit] Low to middle clouds (Family C2)

These clouds can be based anywhere from near surface to about 10,000 ft (3,000 m). Cumulus
usually forms in the low altitude range but bases may rise into the lower part of the middle range
during conditions of very low relative humidity. Nimbostratus normally forms from altostratus in
the middle altitude range but the base may subside into the low range during precipitaion.

Clouds in Family C2 include:

• Genus Cumulus[2] (Cu)

o Species Cumulus humilis (Cu hum)
o Species Cumulus mediocris (Cu med)
• Genus Nimbostratus (Ns)

[edit] Vertical clouds (Family D)

A typical anvil shaped Cumulonimbus incus

These clouds can have strong up-currents, rise far above their bases and form at many heights.

Clouds in Family D include:

• Genus Cumulonimbus (associated with heavy precipitation and

thunderstorms) (Cb)
o Species Cumulonimbus calvus (Cb cal)
o Species Cumulonimbus capillatus (Cb cap)
o Variety Cumulonimbus incus (Cb inc)
o Variety Cumulonimbus with mammatus (Cb mam) Official WMO term
Cumulonimbus mamma.
• Genus Cumulus (Cu)[3][4]
o Species Cumulus congestus (TCu)
• Pyrocumulus (No official abbreviation, not recognised by WMO as a distinct
genus or species.)

[edit] Other clouds

A few clouds can be found above the troposphere; these include noctilucent and polar
stratospheric clouds (or nacreous clouds), which occur in the mesosphere and stratosphere
respectively.

Some clouds form as a consequence of interactions with specific geographical features. Perhaps
the strangest geographically specific cloud in the world is Morning Glory, a rolling cylindrical
cloud which appears unpredictably over the Gulf of Carpentaria in Northern Australia.
Associated with a powerful "ripple" in the atmosphere, the cloud may be "surfed" in glider
aircraft.

[edit] Cloud fields

A cloud field is simply a group of clouds but sometimes cloud fields can take on certain shapes
that have their own characteristics and are specially classified. Stratocumulus clouds can often be
found in the following forms:

• Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel.

• Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar to a
filled honeycomb.
• Open cell, which resembles a honeycomb, with clouds around the edges and
clear, open space in the middle.
[edit] Colors

Cloud iridescence occurring in clouds

Sunset reflecting shades of grey and pink in clouds.

The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud.
Clouds form because warm air tends to absorb water vapor, which is lighter than air, thus helping
the mixture to rise. As it rises the air containing it cools and the vapor tends to condense out of
the air as micro-droplets. These tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot
penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color.
As a cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets, which
may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By this process of accumulation, the
space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the
cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, it
may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before it is
absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog.
This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.
For the same reason, the undersides of large clouds and heavy overcasts can appear as various
degrees of grey shades, depending on how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to
the observer.

Other colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the
cloud. In the visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths,
while red and yellow are at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water
droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such
scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in the cloud.

A greenish tinge to a cloud is produced when sunlight is scattered by ice. A cumulonimbus cloud
emitting green is an imminent sign of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes.

Yellowish clouds are rare but may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest
fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke.

Red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the
scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. The clouds do not become that color; they are reflecting
long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. The effect is much
like if one were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. In combination with large, mature
thunderheads this can produce blood-red clouds.

[edit] Clouds and climate

Global cloud cover, averaged over the month of October, 2009. The outlines of the
continents can often be traced through observations of clouds alone, with the
sharpest outlines where very dry land is surrounded by ocean. NASA composite
satellite image; larger image available here.

See also: Cloud cover and Cloud feedback

The role of clouds in regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty in
projections of global warming.[5] This uncertainty arises because of the delicate balance of
processes related to clouds, spanning scales from millimeters to planetary. Hence interactions
between the large scale (synoptic meteorology) and clouds becomes difficult to represent in
global models. The complexity and diversity of clouds, as outlined above, adds to the problem.
High clouds, such as cirrus, tend to have both shortwave and longwave (i.e., albedo and
greenhouse) effects that nearly cancel, while low clouds like stratocumulus have a strong
shortwave effect but almost no longwave effect. As such, much research has focused on the
response of low clouds to a changing climate. Leading global models can produce quite different
results, though, with some showing increasing low-level clouds and other showing decreases.[6][7]

[edit] Global brightening

New research indicates a global brightening trend.[8] The details are not fully understood, but
much of the global dimming (and subsequent reversal) is thought to be a consequence of changes
in aerosol loading in the atmosphere, especially sulfur-based aerosol associated with biomass
burning and urban pollution. Changes in aerosol burden can have indirect effects on clouds by
changing the droplet size distribution[9] or the lifetime and precipitation characteristics of
clouds[10].

[edit] Bacteria in clouds

Bioprecipitation, the concept of rain-making bacteria, was proposed by David Sands from
Montana State University. Such microbes - called ice nucleators - are found in rain, snow, and
hail throughout the world, according to Brent Christner, a microbiologist at Louisiana State
University. These bacteria may be part of a constant feedback between terrestrial ecosystems and
clouds and may even have evolved the ability to promote rainstorms as a means of dispersal.
They may rely on the rainfall to spread to new habitats, much as plants rely on windblown pollen
grains, Christner said.[11][12]

[edit] Other planets

Main article: Extraterrestrial atmospheres

Within our Solar System, any planet or moon with an atmosphere also has clouds. Venus's
clouds are composed of sulfuric acid droplets. Mars has high, thin clouds of water ice. Both
Jupiter and Saturn have an outer cloud deck composed of ammonia clouds, an intermediate deck
of ammonium hydrosulfide clouds and an inner deck of water clouds. Uranus and Neptune have
cloudy atmospheres dominated by methane gas.

Saturn's moon Titan has clouds believed to be composed largely of droplets of liquid methane.
The Cassini–Huygens Saturn mission uncovered evidence of a fluid cycle on Titan, including
lakes near the poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the moon.

[edit] Gallery

Wind
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Wind (disambiguation).

Wind, from the Tacuinum Sanitatis

A breeze lifts a veil

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air.
In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the sun through
space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's
atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the
types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest
observed winds on a planet in our solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn.
In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction the wind
is blowing from. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts. Strong winds of intermediate
duration (around one minute) are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names
associated with their average strength, such as breeze, gale, storm, hurricane, and typhoon. Wind
occurs on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes
generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global winds resulting from the
difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth. The two main
causes of large scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and
the poles, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect). Within the tropics, thermal low
circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the
sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds; in areas that have variable terrain, mountain
and valley breezes can dominate local winds.

In human civilization, wind has inspired mythology, influenced the events of history, expanded
the range of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity,
and recreation. Wind has powered the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. Hot air
balloons use the wind to take short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce
fuel consumption. Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to
dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and man-made structures are
damaged or destroyed.

Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of Aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile
soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from
its source region by the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and
associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world
because of their significant effects on those regions. Wind effects the spread of wildfires. Winds
disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as
well as flying insect populations. When combined with cold temperatures, wind has a negative
impact on livestock. Wind affects animals' food stores, as well as their hunting and defensive
strategies.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Cause
• 2 Measurement
• 3 Wind force scale
• 4 Global climatology
o 4.1 Tropics
o 4.2 Westerlies and their impact
o 4.3 Polar easterlies
• 5 Local considerations
o 5.1 Sea and land breezes
o 5.2 Near mountains
• 6 Average wind speeds
o 6.1 Wind power density
• 7 Shear
• 8 Usage of wind
o 8.1 History
o 8.2 Transportation
o 8.3 Power source
o 8.4 Recreation
• 9 Role in the natural world
o 9.1 Erosion
o 9.2 Desert dust migration
o 9.3 Effect on plants
o 9.4 Effect on animals
• 10 Related damage
• 11 In outer space
o 11.1 Planetary wind
o 11.2 Solar wind
• 12 On other planets
• 13 See also
• 14 References

• 15 External links
 [edit] Cause

Surface analysis of Great Blizzard of 1888. Areas with greater isobaric packing
indicate higher winds.

Wind is caused by differences in pressure. When a difference in pressure exists, the air is
accelerated from higher to lower pressure. On a rotating planet the air will be deflected by the
Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large
scale winds (the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the
poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the
planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds
tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be
slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into
low pressure areas.[1]

Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis
of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for
making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds. The
geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure
gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above the atmospheric
boundary layer in the midlatitudes.[2] The thermal wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind
between two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in an atmosphere with horizontal
temperature gradients.[3] The ageostrophic wind component is the difference between actual and
geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over time.[4] The gradient
wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or centripetal
acceleration).[5]
[edit] Measurement

A windmill style of anemometer

An occluded mesocyclone tornado (Oklahoma, May 1999)

Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For example, a northerly
wind blows from the north to the south.[6] Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the
wind.[7] At airports, windsocks are primarily used to indicate wind direction, but can also be used
to estimate wind speed by its angle of hang.[8] Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most
commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed
(such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound
signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire.[9] Another type of
anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner
tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is
then used to compute the wind speed.[10]

Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height and are averaged over a
10 minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 2 minute average,[11] while India
typically reports winds over a 3 minute average.[12] Knowing the wind sampling average is
important, as the value of a one-minute sustained wind is typically 14 percent greater than a ten-
minute sustained wind.[13] A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust, one technical
definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten
minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the wind speed above a
certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.
To determine winds aloft, rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS, radio navigation, or radar
tracking of the probe.[14] Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be
tracked from the ground visually using theodolites.[15] Remote sensing techniques for wind
include SODAR, Doppler LIDARs and RADARs, which can measure the Doppler shift of
electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules, and
radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or
airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over
oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds throughout the
atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one image to the next. Wind Engineering
describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment, including buildings,
bridges and other man-made objects.

[edit] Wind force scale

See also: Tropical cyclone scales and Surface weather analysis

Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale provides an empirical description of wind speed based
on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale, but during the 1940s, the scale
was expanded to 17 levels.[16] There are general terms that differentiate winds of different
average speeds such as a breeze, a gale, a storm, tornado, or a hurricane. Within the Beaufort
scale, gale-force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots (102 km/h) with preceding
adjectives such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to differentiate the wind's strength
within the gale category.[17] A storm has winds of 56 knots (104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h).[18]
The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally. Most ocean
basins use the average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone's category. Below is a
summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide:

[hide]General wind Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10-

classifications minute averages)

10-
NE
minut
Pacific
Beauf e Gener N SW
Austr SW NW NW &
ort sustai al Indian Indian
alia Pacific Pacific Pacific N
scale[1 ned term[19 Ocean Ocean
6] ] BOM FMS JMA JTWC Atlantic
winds IMD MF
NHC &
(knots
CPHC
)

0 <1 Calm Depressi Tropical Tropic Tropical Tropical Tropical Tropical

on disturba al low depressi depressi depressi depressi
Light nce on on on on
1 1–3
air

2 4–6 Light
breeze
 Gentle
3 7–10
breeze

Modera
4 11–16 te
breeze

Fresh
5 17–21
breeze

Strong
6 22–27
breeze

28–29 Deep Tropical

Modera
7 depressi depressi
te gale
30–33 on on

Fresh
8 34–40 Moderat Tropic
gale Tropical
Cyclonic e al Tropical
cyclone
storm tropical cyclon storm
Strong (1)
9 41–47 storm e (1)
gale Tropical Tropical
storm storm
Whole Tropic
10 48–55 Severe Severe Tropical Severe
gale al
cyclonic tropical cyclone tropical
cyclon
storm storm (2) storm
11 56–63 Storm e (2)

Hurrica Very Severe Typhoon Hurrican

12 64–72 Severe
ne severe tropica e (1)
tropical
cyclonic l
Tropical cyclone
storm cyclon Hurrican
13 73–85 cyclone (3)
e (3) e (2)

14 86–89 Major
Severe
Severe Typhoon hurrican
tropica
15 90–99 tropical e (3)
l
cyclone
Intense cyclon
100– (4) Major
16 e (4)
106 tropical hurrican
cyclone e (4)
17 107– Severe Severe
114 tropica tropical
l cyclone
115– Very Super
 119
intense
Super tropical typhoon Major
>120 cyclonic cyclone cyclon (5) hurrican
storm e (5) e (5)

Wind plotting within a station model

The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses a wind barb to show both wind direction
and speed. The wind barb shows the speed using "flags" on the end.

• Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots (9.3 km/h) of wind.

• Each full flag depicts 10 knots (19 km/h) of wind.
• Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts 50 knots (93 km/h) of wind.[20]

Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the barb is facing. Therefore, a northeast wind
will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast, with flags indicating
wind speed on the northeast end of this line.[6] Once plotted on a map, an analysis of isotachs
(lines of equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing
the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts, and are usually located at or
above the 300 hPa level.[21]

[edit] Global climatology

Main article: Prevailing winds
The westerlies and trade winds

Winds are part of Earth's atmospheric circulation.

Easterly winds, on average, dominate the flow pattern across the poles, westerly winds blow
across the mid-latitudes of the earth, to the north of the subtropical ridge, while easterlies again
dominate the tropics.

Directly under the subtropical ridge are the doldrums, or horse latitudes, where winds are lighter.
Many of the Earth's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge, where descent
reduces the relative humidity of the air mass.[22] The strongest winds are in the mid-latitudes
where cold Arctic air meets warm air from the tropics.

[edit] Tropics
See also: Trade wind and Monsoon

The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in
the tropics towards the Earth's equator.[23] The trade winds blow predominantly from the
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.[24] The
trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world's oceans.[25] Trade
winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well
as portions of southeast North America.[26]

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts for several months within tropical regions.
The term was first used in English in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and neighboring countries to
refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest
bringing heavy rainfall to the area.[27] Its poleward progression is accelerated by the development
off a heat low over the Asian, African, and North American continents during May through July,
and over Australia in December.[28][29][30]

[edit] Westerlies and their impact

Benjamin Franklin's map of the Gulf Stream

Main article: Westerlies

The Westerlies or the Prevailing Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes
between 35 and 65 degrees latitude. These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east to the
north of the subtropical ridge,[31][32] and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner. The
winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest
in the Southern Hemisphere.[24] They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over
the poles, and weakest during the summer and when pressures are higher over the poles.[33]

Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships
crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong
ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of
western intensification.[34] These western ocean currents transport warm, tropical water
polewards toward the polar regions. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the
southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to
amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are
within a band known as the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the
equator.[35] The Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and
winds to the western coasts of continents,[36][37] especially in the southern hemisphere because of
its vast oceanic expanse.

[edit] Polar easterlies

Main article: Polar easterlies

The polar easterlies, also known as Polar Hadley cells, are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow
from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and south poles towards the low-
pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes. Unlike the Westerlies, these prevailing
winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular.[38] Because of the low sun
angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an
equatorward outflow of air;[39] that outflow is deflected eastward by the Coriolis effect.

[edit] Local considerations

Local winds around the world. These winds are formed trough the heating of land
(from mountains or flat terrain)

[edit] Sea and land breezes

Main article: Sea breeze

A: Sea breeze (occurs at daytime), B: Land breeze (occurs at night)

In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing
winds. The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat
compared to land.[40] As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air
above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense than the surrounding environment and so it
rises. This causes a pressure gradient of about 2 millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler
air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows inland into the lower pressure,
creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When large-scale winds are calm, the strength of the sea
breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea. If
an offshore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.
At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific
heat values. This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the
temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be
lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong
enough to oppose it.[41]

[edit] Near mountains

Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first
oscillation (A). A second wave occurs further away and higher. The lenticular clouds
form at the peak of the waves (B).

Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the
same altitude above sea level, creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing
any thermal lows that would have otherwise existed,[42][43] and changing the wind circulation of
the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the
environmental wind flow, the wind circulation between mountains and valleys is the most
important contributor to the prevailing winds. Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow
by increasing friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting as a physical block to the
flow, deflecting the wind parallel to the range just upstream of the topography, which is known
as a barrier jet. This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45 percent.[44] Wind direction
also changes because of the contour of the land.[45]

If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed
because of the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and
pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the
flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.[45]
Cool winds accelerating through mountain gaps have been given regional names. In Central
America, examples include the Papagayo wind, the Panama wind, and the Tehuano wind. In
Europe, similar winds are known as the Bora, Tramontane, and Mistral. When these winds blow
over open waters, they increase mixing of the upper layers of the ocean that elevates cool,
nutrient rich waters to the surface, which leads to increased marine life.[46]

In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow becomes severe. Jagged terrain combines to
produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors, which can be topped by
lenticular clouds. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and
down valleys. Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused
by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, also known
as upslope flow, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the
world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist
climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind
side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air on the descending and generally
warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[47] Winds that flow over mountains
down into lower elevations are known as downslope winds. These winds are warm and dry. In
Europe downwind of the Alps, they are known as foehn. In Poland, an example is the halny
wiatr. In Argentina, the local name for downsloped winds is zonda. In Java, the local name for
such winds is koembang. In New Zealand, they are known as the Nor'west arch, and are
accompanied by the cloud formation they are named after that has inspired artwork over the
years.[48] In the Great Plains of the United States, the winds are known as a chinook. In
California, downsloped winds are funneled through mountain passes, which intensify their effect,
and examples into Santa Ana and sundowner winds. Wind speeds during downslope wind effect
can exceed 160 kilometers per hour (99 mph).[49]

[edit] Average wind speeds

The average windspeeds at 80 m altitude

Main article: wind atlas

As described earlier, prevailing and local winds are not spread evenly across the earth, which
means that wind speeds also differ by region. In addition, the wind speed also increases with the
altitude.

[edit] Wind power density

Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is
referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the
wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level
over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are
prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at
50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the
National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD
calculation, the higher it is rated by class.[50] At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity
of wind-powered generators was 120.8 gigawatts.[51] Although wind produces only about
1.5 percent of worldwide electricity use,[51] it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three
years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of
penetration, accounting for approximately 19 percent of electricity production in Denmark,
10 percent in Spain and Portugal, and 7 percent in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008.
One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70 percent wind is
attainable at today's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.[52]

[edit] Shear

Hodograph plot of wind vectors at various heights in the troposphere, which is used
to diagnose vertical wind shear

Main article: Wind shear

Wind shear, sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed
and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth's atmosphere.[53] Wind shear can be
broken down into vertical and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear seen across
weather fronts and near the coast,[54] and vertical shear typically near the surface,[55] though also
at higher levels in the atmosphere near upper level jets and frontal zones aloft.[56]

Wind shear itself is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small
distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as
squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by
thunderstorms,[57] weather fronts, areas of locally higher low level winds referred to as low level
jets, near mountains,[58] radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and calm winds,
buildings,[59] wind turbines,[60] and sailboats.[61] Wind shear has a significant effect during take-off
and landing of aircraft because of their effects on control of the aircraft,[62] and was a significant
cause of aircraft accidents involving large loss of life within the United States.[57]

Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave
front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa.[63] Strong
vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development,[64] but
helps to organize individual thunderstorms into living longer life cycles that can then produce
severe weather.[65] The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed with height
are dependent on horizontal temperature differences, and explains the existence of the jet stream.
[66]

[edit] Usage of wind

[edit] History

Winds according to Aristoteles.

As a natural force, the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression
of the supernatural in many cultures. Vayu is the Hindu God of Wind.[67][68] The Greek wind gods
include Boreas, Notus, Eurus, and Zephyrus.[68] Aeolus, in varying interpretations the ruler or
keeper of the four winds, has also been described as Astraeus, the god of dusk who fathered the
four winds with Eos, goddess of dawn. The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of
the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens.[68] Venti are the Roman gods of
the winds.[69] Fūjin, the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods. According to
legend, he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear
the world of mist.[70] In Norse mythology, Njord is the god of the wind.[68] There are also four
dvärgar (Norse dwarves), named Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri, and probably the four stags of
Yggdrasil, personify the four winds, and parallel the four Greek wind gods.[71] Stribog is the
name of the Slavic god of winds, sky and air. He is said to be the ancestor (grandfather) of the
winds of the eight directions.[68]

Kamikaze (神風) is a Japanese word, usually translated as divine wind, believed to be a gift from
the gods. The term is first known to have been used as the name of a pair or series of typhoons
that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan that attacked Japan
in 1274 and again in 1281.[72] Protestant Wind is a name for the storm that deterred the Spanish
Armada from an invasion of England in 1588 where the wind played a pivotal role,[73] or the
favorable winds that enabled William of Orange to invade England in 1688.[74] During
Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign, the French soldiers had a hard time with the khamsin wind:
when the storm appeared "as a blood-stint in the distant sky", the natives went to take cover,
while the French "did not react until it was too late, then choked and fainted in the blinding,
suffocating walls of dust."[75] During the North African Campaign of the World War II, "allied
and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid-battle because of sandstorms caused
by khamsin ... Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical
disturbances that rendered compasses useless."[76]

[edit] Transportation

RAF Exeter airfield on 20 May 1944, showing the layout of the runways that allow
aircraft to take off and land into the wind

There are many different forms of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common.
Except for rotor ships using the Magnus effect, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least
one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship.[77] Ocean journeys by sailing
ship can take many months,[78] and a common hazard is becoming becalmed because of lack of
wind,[79] or being blown off course by severe storms or winds that do not allow progress in the
desired direction.[80] A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands.[81] Sailing
ships can only carry a certain quantity of supplies in their hold, so they have to plan long
voyages carefully to include appropriate provisions, including fresh water.[82]

While aircraft usually travel under an internal power source, tail winds affect groundspeed,[83]
and in the case of hot air balloons and other lighter-than-air vehicles, wind may play a significant
role in their movement and ground track.[84] In addition, the direction of wind plays a role in the
takeoff and landing of fixed-wing aircraft and airfield runways are usually aligned to take the
direction of wind into account. Of all factors affecting the direction of flight operations at an
airport, wind direction is considered the primary governing factor. While taking off with a
tailwind may be permissible under certain circumstances, it is generally considered the least
desirable choice because of performance and safety considerations, with a headwind the
desirable choice. A tailwind will increase takeoff distance and decrease climb gradient such that
runway length and obstacle clearance may become limiting factors.[85] An airship, or dirigible, is
a lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered and propelled through the air using rudders and
propellers or other thrust.[86] Unlike other aerodynamic aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft and
helicopters, which produce lift by moving a wing, or airfoil, through the air, aerostatic aircraft,
such as airships and hot air balloons, stay aloft by filling a large cavity, such as a balloon, with a
lifting gas.[87] The main types of airship are non-rigid (or blimps), semi-rigid and rigid. Blimps
are small airships without internal skeletons. Semi-rigid airships are slightly larger and have
some form of internal support such as a fixed keel. Rigid airships with full skeletons, such as the
massive Zeppelin transoceanic models,[88] all but disappeared after several high-profile
catastrophic accidents during the mid-20th century.[89]

[edit] Power source

This wind turbine generates electricity from wind power.

See also: Wind power and High altitude wind power

Historically, the ancient Sinhalese of Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka used the
monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BCE.[90] The furnaces were constructed on the
path of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power, to bring the temperatures inside up to
1,200 °C (2,190 °F). An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to power
an organ in the first century CE.[91] The first practical windmills were later built in Sistan,
Afghanistan, from the 7th century CE. These were vertical-axle windmills, which had long
vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[92] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed
matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were
used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[93] Horizontal-axle windmills were later used
extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many Dutch
windmills still exist. High altitude wind power is the focus of over 30 companies worldwide
using tethered technology rather than ground-hugging compressive-towers.[94] Oil is being saved
by using wind for powering cargo ships by use of the mechanical energy converted from the
wind's kinetic energy using very large kites.[95]

[edit] Recreation
Otto Lilienthal in flight

Wind figures prominently in several popular sports, including recreational hang gliding, hot air
ballooning, kite flying, snowkiting, kite landboarding, kite surfing, paragliding, sailing, and
windsurfing. In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing
phases of flight of a glider. Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches, also
known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden, or both,
and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly
exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal
with the effect of the gradient.[96] When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when
the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to
landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate
prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach
speed to compensate for it.[97]

[edit] Role in the natural world

In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind.[98] The general wind circulation moves small
particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of
origin,[99] which is known as deflation. Westerly winds in the mid-latitudes of the planet drive the
movement of ocean currents from west to east across the world's oceans. Wind has a very
important role in aiding plants and other immobile organisms in dispersal of seeds, spores,
pollen, etc. Although wind is not the primary form of seed dispersal in plants, it provides
dispersal for a large percentage of the biomass of land plants.

[edit] Erosion

A rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia, sculpted by wind erosion

See also: Aeolian processes

Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First,
wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called
deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by
abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no
vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is
the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert.[100] Loess is a homogeneous, typically
nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow
or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment.[101] It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit
that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in
either steep or vertical faces.[102] Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate
climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world.
[103]
Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore,
windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind
erosion of loess.[98]

[edit] Desert dust migration

During mid-summer (July), the westward-moving trade winds south of the northward-moving
subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean Sea into southeastern North
America. When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge within
the belt of trade winds moves over land, rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to
a white appearance, which leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air
quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates.[26] Over 50 percent of the African dust that
reaches the United States affects Florida.[104] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened because
of periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean
and Florida from year to year.[105] Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral
reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[106] Similar dust plumes
originate in the Gobi desert, which combined with pollutants, spread large distances downwind,
or eastward, into North America.[99]

There are local names for winds associated with sand and dust storms. The Calima carries dust
on southeast winds into the Canary islands.[107] The Harmattan carries dust during the winter into
the Gulf of Guinea.[108] The Sirocco brings dust from north Africa into southern Europe because
of the movement of extratropical cyclones through the Mediterranean Sea.[109] Spring storm
systems moving across the eastern Mediterranean Sea cause dust to carry across Egypt and the
Arabian peninsula, which are locally known as Khamsin.[110] The Shamal is caused by cold fronts
lifting dust into the atmosphere for days at a time across the Persian Gulf states.[111]

[edit] Effect on plants

Tumbleweed blown against a fence

See also: Seed dispersal

Wind dispersal of seeds, or anemochory, is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind
dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively,
they can flutter to the ground.[112] The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include
dandelions (Taraxacum spp., Asteraceae), which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds
and can be dispersed long distances, and maples (Acer (genus) spp., Sapindaceae), which have
winged seeds and flutter to the ground. An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for
abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for
germination. There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For
instance, species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e.,
larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to the same species on the mainland.[113] Reliance
upon wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of
wind dispersal include tumbleweeds. A related process to anemochory is anemophily, which is
the process where pollen is distributed by wind. Large families of plants are pollinated in this
manner, which is favored when individuals of the dominant plant species are spaced closely
together.[114]

Wind also limits tree growth. On coasts and isolated mountains, the tree line is often much lower
than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because
strong winds reduce tree growth. High winds scour away thin soils through erosion,[115] as well as
damage limbs and twigs. When high winds knock down or uproot trees, the process is known as
windthrow. This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains, with severe cases generally
occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older.[116] Plant varieties near the coast, such as the
Sitka spruce and sea grape,[117] are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline.[118]

Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion. Strong winds will pick up loose sand
and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25-40 miles per hour. Such
windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings because it ruptures plant cells,
making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought. Using a mechanical sandblaster in a
laboratory setting, scientists affiliated with the Agricultural Research Service studied the effects
of windblown sand abrasion on cotton seedlings. The study showed that the seedlings responded
to the damage created by the windblown sand abrasion by shifting energy from stem and root
growth to the growth and repair of the damaged stems. [1] After a period of four weeks the
growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the
windblown sand abrasion occurred. [119]

[edit] Effect on animals

Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures,
when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph) that renders their hair and wool coverings
ineffective.[120] Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against
coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest
climates such as Antarctica, emperor penguins use huddling behavior to survive the wind and
cold, continuously alternating the members on the outside of the assembled group, which reduces
heat loss by 50%.[121] Flying insects, a subset of arthropods, are swept along by the prevailing
winds,[122] while birds follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions, in order to
either fly or glide.[123] As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with
converging winds, are dominated by insect returns.[124] Bird migration, which tends to occur
overnight within the lowest 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of the Earth's atmosphere, contaminates wind
profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the WSR-88D, by increasing the environmental
wind returns by 15 knots (28 km/h) to 30 knots (56 km/h).[125]

Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the
food from being blown away.[126] Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of
potential predators, such as toads, to survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the
wind, and help them survive half of their attacks.[127] Elk has a keen sense of smell that can detect
potential upwind predators at a distance of 0.5 miles (800 m).[128] Increases in wind above
15 kilometers per hour (9.3 mph) signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial
attacks on thick-billed murres.[129]

[edit] Related damage

See also: Severe weather

Damage from Hurricane Andrew

High winds are known to cause damage, depending upon their strength. Infrequent wind gusts
can cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway. When wind gusts are at a similar
frequency to the swaying of the bridge, the bridge can be destroyed more easily, such as what
occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.[130] Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43
km/h) can lead to power outages due to tree branches disrupting the flow of energy through
power lines.[131] While no species of tree is guaranteed to stand up to hurricane-force winds, those
with shallow roots are more prone to uproot, and brittle trees such as eucalyptus, sea hibiscus,
and avocado are more prone to damage.[132] Hurricane-force winds cause substantial damage to
mobile homes, and begin to structurally damage homes with foundations. Winds of this strength
due to downsloped winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint
from cars.[49] Once winds exceed 135 knots (250 km/h), homes completely collapse, and
significant damage is done to larger buildings. Total destruction to man-made structures occurs
when winds reach 175 knots (324 km/h). The Saffir-Simpson scale and Enhanced Fujita scale
were designed to help estimate wind speed from the damage caused by high winds related to
tropical cyclones and tornadoes, and vice versa.[133][134]

Australia's Barrow Island holds the record for the strongest wind gust, reaching 408 km/h
(253 mph) during tropical cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996, surpassing the previous record held
by Mount Washington (New Hampshire) of 372 km/h (231 mph) on the afternoon of 12 April
1934.[135]

Wildfire intensity increases during daytime hours. For example, burn rates of smoldering logs
are up to five times greater during the day because of lower humidity, increased temperatures,
and increased wind speeds.[136] Sunlight warms the ground during the day and causes air currents
to travel uphill, and downhill during the night as the land cools. Wildfires are fanned by these
winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys.[137] United States wildfire
operations revolve around a 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. because of the predictable
increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.[138]

[edit] In outer space

The solar wind is quite different from a terrestrial wind, in that its origin is the sun, and it is
composed of charged particles that have escaped the sun's atmosphere. Similar to the solar wind,
the planetary wind is composed of light gases that escape planetary atmospheres. Over long
periods of time, the planetary wind can radically change the composition of planetary
atmospheres.

[edit] Planetary wind

Main article: Atmospheric escape

Possible future for Earth due to the planetary wind: Venus

The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical
elements such as hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where
the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles
of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[139] Such a
process over geologic time causes water-rich planets such as the Earth to evolve into planets
such as Venus over billions of years.[140] Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in
humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.[141]

[edit] Solar wind

Main article: Solar wind

The plasma in the solar wind meeting the heliopause

Rather than air, the solar wind is a stream of charged particles—a plasma—ejected from the
upper atmosphere of the sun at a rate of 400 kilometers per second (890,000 mph). It consists
mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV. The stream of particles varies in
temperature and speed with the passage of time. These particles are able to escape the sun's
gravity, in part because of the high temperature of the corona,[142] but also because of high kinetic
energy that particles gain through a process that is not well-understood. The solar wind creates
the Heliosphere, a vast bubble in the interstellar medium surrounding the solar system.[143]
Planets require large magnetic fields in order to reduce the ionization of their upper atmosphere
by the solar wind.[141] Other phenomena include geomagnetic storms that can knock out power
grids on Earth,[144] the aurorae such as the Northern Lights,[145] and the plasma tails of comets that
always point away from the sun.[146]

[edit] On other planets

Strong 300 kilometers per hour (190 mph) winds at Venus's cloud tops circle the planet every
four to five earth days.[147] When the poles of Mars are exposed to sunlight after their winter, the
frozen CO2 sublimes, creating significant winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 kilometers
per hour (250 mph), which subsequently transports large amounts of dust and water vapor over
its landscape.[148] Other Martian winds have resulted in cleaning events and dust devils.[149][150] On
Jupiter, wind speeds of 100 meters per second (220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams.[151]
Saturn's winds are among the solar system's fastest. Cassini–Huygens data indicated peak
easterly winds of 375 meters per second (840 mph).[152] On Uranus, northern hemisphere wind
speeds reach as high as 240 meters per second (540 mph) near 50 degrees north latitude.[153][154]
[155]
At the cloud tops of Neptune, prevailing winds range in speed from 400 meters per second
(890 mph) along the equator to 250 meters per second (560 mph) at the poles.[156] At 70° S
latitude on Neptune, a high-speed jet stream travels at a speed of 300 meters per second (670
mph).[157]