Mycotoxins: Contact:

Managing a Unique CAST

Council for Agricultural
Obstacle to Successful Science and Technology
4420 W. Lincoln Way
Dairy Production Ames, Iowa 50014

Lon W. Whitlow
Telephone
North Carolina State University 515-292-2125
Raleigh
Report # 139

The Mycotoxin SUMMARY

1. Mycotoxins are prevalent in feeds
Blue Book
2. Mycotoxins are toxic to dairy cattle

Nottingham University 3. High levels cause acute effects in cattle, including death
Press 4. Low levels cause the greatest economic loss - chronic
losses in milk production & more disease

Edited by 5. Mycotoxins can be the root cause

of health and production problems.
Dr. Duarte Diaz
6. Prevention is important
7. Treatments are effective

Primary Toxigenic Molds and Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin: * Those Thought Most Prevalent and Toxic to Dairy Cattle
Fusarium Aspergillus Penicillium
*Deoxynivalenol *Aflatoxin Ochratoxin
Poison *Zearalenone Ochratoxin *PR Toxin
*T-2 Toxin Sterigmatocystin Patulin
Produced By *Fumonisin Fumitremorgens Roquefortine C
Mycophenolic Acid
Moniliformin Fumigaclavines
Penicillic Acid
Molds Nivalenol
Diacetoxyscirpenol
Fumitoxins
Cyclopiazonoic Acid Citrinin
Gliotoxin Penetrem
(Filamentous Fungi) Butenolide
Cyclopiazonic Acid
Neosolaniol
Fusaric Acid
Fusarochromanone
Wortmannin
Mycotoxins are a diverse group of fungal metabolites
(chemicals produced by a mold) that cause an Alternaria Claviceps
undesirable effect in exposed animals. Stachybotrys AAL toxin Ergots
Stachybotryotoxin Lupinosis Fescue Alkaloids

1
 Primary Toxigenic Molds and Mycotoxins
* Those Thought Most Prevalent and Toxic to Dairy Cattle Why do fungi produce mycotoxins?
Fusarium Aspergillus Penicillium
*Deoxynivalenol *Aflatoxin Ochratoxin
*Zearalenone PR Toxin As a secondary metabolite, mycotoxins have no direct
Ochratoxin function in fungal metabolism.
*T-2 Toxin Sterigmatocystin Patulin
*Fumonisin Fumitremorgens Penicillic Acid
Moniliformin Fumigaclavines Citrinin
Nivalenol Known
Fumitoxins Penetrem
Postulated Main theories for their production are:
Mold Species
Diacetoxyscirpenol Cyclopiazonoic Cyclopiazonic acid
1,100 Acid 1,500,000
Butenolide Gliotoxin
Secondary Metabolites 3,200 3,000,000
Neosolaniol
Mycotoxins > 300 30,000 1. Protection of the fungus
Fusaric Acid
Fusarochromanone
Wortmannin 2. Assist the fungus in creating an
environment for survival and growth.
Alternaria Claviceps
Stachybotrys AAL toxin Ergots
Stachybotryotoxin Lupinosis Fescue Alkaloids John Deere Co.

Do mycotoxins also assist fungi Do mycotoxins also assist fungi

to infect animals? to infect animals?
Fungal infections in animals are termed mycoses. Fungal infections in animals are termed mycoses.
Fungal pneumonia, abortions, mastitis and intestinal infections Fungal pneumonia, abortions, mastitis and intestinal infections
Animals resist mycoses unless immune suppressed. Animals resist mycoses unless immune suppressed.
Mycotoxins produced by fungi cause immune suppression, Mycotoxins produced by fungi cause immune suppression,
and thus may assist fungi in infecting animals. and thus may assist fungi in infecting animals.
In studies of A. fumigatus
infections in ruminants,
gliotoxin and/or T-2 toxin, which are
both potent immune suppressing
mycotoxins, were always present,
when analysed.
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome
Caused by A. fumigatus Caused by A. fumigatus
Forsberg Forsberg

Do mycotoxins also assist fungi Mycotoxin Occurrence and Concentrations in Feeds

to infect animals? From North Carolina Producers Over 13 Years
Fungal infections in animals are termed mycoses. Aflatoxin Deoxynivalenol Fumonisin T-2 Toxin Zearalenone
Fungal pneumonia, abortions, mastitis and intestinal infections
Number 3266 5053 822 5136 4563
Animals resist mycoses unless immune suppressed.
Total
Mycotoxins produced by fungi cause immune suppression, Positive, % 10 46 42 8 15
and thus may assist fungi in infecting animals.
In studies of A. fumigatus Low, % 6 18 33 2 7
infections in ruminants, (<20 ppb) (<500 ppb) (<5000 ppb) (<100 ppb) (<300 ppb)
gliotoxin and/or T-2 toxin, which are
both potent immune suppressing
mycotoxins, were always present, High, % 4 28 9 7 8
when analysed. (>20 ppb) (>500 ppb) (>5000 ppb) (>100 ppb) (>300 ppb)
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome
A mycotoxin binder may prevent HBS Caused by A. fumigatus
Forsberg

2
 Mycotoxin Contamination of 1988 Corn
Collected from July to December from 82 Dairyland Laboratories 2002 Mold Counts

Feed Manufacturers in 7 Midwestern States 60%

State N Aflatoxin, % T-2, % 50%

40%
Iowa 40 5 18 Percent of Total 30%
Nebraska 22 0 18
20%
Minnesota 27 0 15
Illinois 46 13 7 10%

Indiana 5 0 7 0%
2001 - 1987 samples 2002 - 2303 samples
Ohio 27 7 11 10-10,000 44% 50%
15% 14%
Michigan 9 0 33 10,000-100,000
100,000-10,000,000 37% 33%
>10,000,000 4% 3%

TOTAL 186 5% 13%

Russel et al., 1991

Mycotoxins &
Mold Count Interpretations* Molds Occur in
Most Feeds
Including Grain,
Safe Levels < 10,000 CFU/g Hay and Silage
Questionable Levels 10,000 - 100,000 CFU/g

Caution Levels 100,000 - 1,000,000 CFU/g

Problem Levels > 1,000,000 CFU/g

Significance of mold counts are highly subjective,

depending on mold identification, mycotoxin formation
and feed deterioration.
John Deere Co.

Unique Concerns about Ruminant Primary Mechanisms Through Which

Mycotoxicoses Mycotoxins Affect Animals
Consumption of a variety of feedstuffs, including grains, by- • Reduction of feed intake
product feeds, pasture, hay and silage, results in potential
exposure of ruminants to a broad array of mycotoxins and
multiple mycotoxin exposure. • Reduced nutrition of the animal
– reduced nutrient content of the feed,
This array of mycotoxins includes some not normally found in – reduced nutrient absorption and
– alter/block nutrient metabolism
grains and not routinely analyzed, and results in toxicities not
seen in monogastric animals. • Suppression of immunity
Mycotoxin degradation and transformation in the rumen may
reduce the incidence of acute toxicity, but may increase the • Hormonal effects - primarily estrogenic
problem of chronic, sub-clinical toxicity. • Antibiotic effects on rumen fermentation
Rumen transformation of mycotoxins may alter expected • Cellular death - various target tissues
symptoms.
• Increased stress - interactions with other stress

3
 Mycotoxins and Immunity Normal Immune System Function
Around Parturition in the Dairy Cow as Indicated by
Aflatoxin T-2 Toxin Neutrophil and Lymphocyte Function
Mechanisms 140
Inhibition of Protein Synthesis +++ +++ 120

Immune Function
(% of Controls)
Thymus Atrophy +++ +++ 100
Neutrophil
80 Function
Necrosis of Gut-
Lymphocyte
associated Lymph Tissue +++ 60
Function
40
Cell Mediated Immunity +++ +++ Calving
20
Humoral effects, 0
Antibody production + +++ -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Week Around Parturition
+ to +++ lesser to greater effect Kehrli et al., 1989.
Pier, 1994

Pasture Associated Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin Concerns Have Increased
Fescue fungus Ergot alkaloids
Ryegrass staggers lolitrems-tremorgens
• Learned more about mycotoxins & their toxicity Paspalum (Dalisgrass) staggers paspalitrems (ergots)
• Better analytical methods – cheaper & faster Diplodiosis D. maydis toxin
(Grazed corn fields)
Photosensitization
• High producing cows are more susceptible
(Facial Eczema-NZ) sporidesmin
– More stress - more disease
(Geeldikkop-Africa) ?
– Nutrient deficiencies
(Lupinosis - Europe) phomopsin
Slobber Syndrome slaframine (red clover)
• Low ruminal mycotoxin degradation - increases toxicity Locoism swainsonine
– Higher feed (and grain) consumption increases rumen turnover ------------------------------------------------------------------
– Lower fiber diets - low rumen pH - fewer protozoa Common mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, DON, ZEN, T-2,
and others.

Fumonisin is produced by
ERGOTS
Claviceps
Lameness
Necrosis of extremities
Reduced performance FGIS
Agalactia Univ Nebraska
Tolerance
Reduced fertility
< 0.3% sclerotia

Fescue Fungus Lameness

Necrosis of extremities
Fescue foot
Fat necrosis
Agalactia Fusarium verticillioides, formerly moniliforme
Summer toxicosis NCSU Univ. Georgia

4
 Effects of Fumonisin on Dairy Cattle
Diets fed during the last week of the dry period and for 70 days in milk.
Fumonisin was supplied from corn screenings.
Cows per treatment = 13 (14 Holsteins, 12 Jerseys).

Diet Daily Daily Feed AST GGT

Fumonisin Milk Intake
(ppm) (Lb) (Lb) (IU/L) (IU/L)
Penn State
<5 70.6 41.6 80 31
Penn State 100 53.2 30.1 156 93
*P < 0.05 * * * *
Fumonisin Induced Equine Leucoencephalomalacia AST= Aspartate Amino Transferase
Penn State University GGT= Gamma glutamyl trranspeptidase Diaz et al. 2000. North Carolina State University

Daily Milk Production of Dairy Cows (Holsteins and

Jerseys) Consuming Diets With or Without Corn
Naturally Contaminated With Fumonisin
Diets Contained <1 ppm or 100 ppm Fumonisin
90
FB
36 kg 80
CON
70 20 lb
M ilk Y ie ld (lb )

27 kg 60
50
40 FDA
30 Recommends
20 < 15 ppm for Pink Ear Rot Scab on Wheat
10 dairy cows USDA
0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66
Fusarium graminearum or roseum
Diaz et al. 2000. North Carolina State University Days
and also labeled Gibberillium

Deoxynivalenol Symptoms Early (1979) Field Report of Cattle

Affected by DON and ZEN, Minnesota
Altered feed consumption
Digestive disorders – diarrhea
Case Mycotoxins Symptoms Source
Reduced milk production
Weight loss A 110 ppb Zen
Reduced immunity 1000 ppb DON Unthriftiness Corn

Increased incidence of disease B 245 ppb Zen

65 ppb DON Unthriftiness Corn

Mirocha, C. J. 1979.

5
Effect of Corn Infected by Gibberella Zeae on Dairy Cattle Relationship of Deoxynivalenol
Diets to Change in Rolling Herd Average Milk
Infected corn in diet, % 0% 20% 40% 300 HERDS 50,000 COWS

Diet Zen (ppb) 0 100 200 Deoxynivalenol level in Concentrate, ppb

0
Diet DON (ppb)* 0 2400 4800

10

30

50

70

90
Rolling Herd average Milk, Lb.
200
D.M. Intake (% BW) 2.90 2.85 2.79 n.s. 0
-200
Milk, (kg/day) 22.7 22.9 23.2 n.s. -400
-600
4% FCM, (kg/day) 22.1 22.2 22.6 n.s. -800
-1000 Rolling Herd
Bodyweight Gain, (kg/d) 0.87a 0.60b 0.49b -1200 Ave. Milk
N.S. = not significant, a & b, p < .05 -1400
-1600
Actual corn not analyzed, but corn form the same field which reduced intake in swine contained
DON. 3x3 Latin Square. 18 cows total. Periods of 21 days. -1800

Noller, et al., 1979. J. Dairy Sci. 62:1003

Whitlow et al. 1991. North Carolina State University, 1982-1983

Effect of DON on First Lactation Dairy Effect of DON on Ruminal Protein Synthesis
Cows in Mid-lactation (6 cows/group) Danike et al., 2005 J Animal Physiol.
Rumen ammonia levels post-feeding a
and Animal Nutrition 89:303-315. control diet or DON contaminated diet
Diet Mean Difference
Control DON
A B C B+C A-(B+C) P>
Duodenal 3.1 ppm
Flow of:
DON, ppb 36 2686 6393 4539 Crude Protein, 1180 950
DMI, lb 35.9 35.0 35.9 35.5 0.4 n.s. g/day
Milk, lb 50.2 47.1 47.4 47.2 3.0 .16 RUP, g/day 225 186
Fat Test, % 3.9 2.8 3.3 3.0 0.9 .05 Microbial 862 680
Protein, g/day
4% FCM, lb 47.6 39.9 42.7 41.3 6.3 ND
Metabolizable 1091 871
Statistics: Only linear and quadratic effects were tested. There was a sign. Quadratic effect for fat. Protein, g/day*
A second study confirmed the reduced
Means for diet A vs B or A vs C were not tested. * 20% less MP flow of metabolizable protein.
Means for diet A vs B+C were tested only for milk, which was not sign. at p> .16
Danike et al., 2006 J Animal Physiol.
The effect on fat and FCM were much greater than on milk alone.
and Animal Nutrition 90:103-115.
Charmley, et al. 1993. J. Dairy Sci. 76:3580.

Toxicity of Deoxynivalenol in Dairy Cattle Milk Production (lb/d) for Dairy Cows
5 ppm DON Reduces FCM 2.6 kg or 5.7 lb (Holsteins and Jerseys) Consuming Diets Naturally
Contaminated With 2500 ppb DON and 270 ppb ZEN,
49 With and Without a Clay Sorbant (0.5 lb/cow daily)
48
47
4% FCM 56 P < 0.05
lb/d
46
45 55
55.04
Average Daily Milk (lb)

3.2 lb Milk
44 54 Added
43
53
51.85 Adsorbent Control
42
52 Sorbant
41
No
40 51
Adsorbent
DON Control 2.5 ppm 5.0 ppm 5.0 ppm 50
MTB-100 0 0 0 10 g/cow/d N = 83 N = 82
49
All Cows
North Carolina State University
Acosta, Mieres, and La Manna, Uruguay, Unpublished

6
 Zearalenone
Estrogenic effects

Competes with estrogen for binding sites

Reduces reproductive performance

Pigs most susceptible

- swollen reproductive organs

Sheep - rectal prolapse

Fusarium graminearum or roseum and also labeled Gibberillium

Zearalenone Affected Open Heifers Zearalenone Affected Open Heifers

Showing Mammary Enlargement Showing Mammary Enlargement

A Field Report of Zearalenone Toxicosis Conception rate for dairy heifers administered
pure zearalenone at 250 mg1 daily for one estrous
Ration Contents: Zearalenone 660 ppb cycle prior to insemination plus 45 days afterward.
Deoxynivalenol 440 ppb
Aflatoxin 88 ppb Conception Rate, %

Herd Effects Diarrhea in 1/3 of cows Control 87

Irregular estrus cycles
Pregnant cows in estrus Zearalenone 62
Failure to conceive
Vaginitis n = 36 P < .065
Low erratic milk production
Mammary gland enlargement in heifers Based on expected DM intake, Zen was approx. 25,000 ppb.
Coppock et al., 1990. Vet. Weaver et al., 1986. Am J. Vet Res. 47:1395.
Human Toxicol. 32:246

7
 Zearalenone: Reproductive Effects in Dairy Relationship of herd fertility with dietary “zearalenone” and
Heifers Fed Zearalenone Contaminated urinary “zearalenone” in pastured dairy cows in New Zealand
Hay (~ 500 ppb) or Clean Control Hay
Dietary Blood
Farms ZEN (est.) “ZEN”
Services/Pregnancy Mean
Location Pregnancy n ppb ppb
Unit 1 Unit 2 Mean Rate % Low Fertility 8 400 1.14

Clean Hay 1.23 1.54 1.38 72 High Fertility 6 220 0.27

ZEN Hay 1.90 2.00 1.95 51 Low fertility = 10-30% of cows failing to conceive after multiple services
Symptoms included mammary enlargement and swollen and redden vulvas
“Zen” = Zearalenone and derivatives reactive to custom ELISA
n = 40
North Carolina State University, Unpublished Sporsen and Towers 1995. Ruakura Research Center, New Zealand

Theoretical Response of Heifer

Conception Rate to Dietary Zearalenone
Conception
Rate, %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0
2
6
10
14
18
22
26
30
34

Dietary Zearalenone, ppm

Fusarium sporotrichoides University of California, Davis

T-2 Toxin Symptoms Effect of 350 ppb Dietary T-2 Toxin on Daily Milk
Production at the Randleigh Jersey Research Farm
46
Digestive disorders 44
Binder Added
-Lower intake and production 42
Daily Milk, Lb.

40
-Acidosis Binder Removed
38
-Ulcers 36
-Intestinal hemorrhage 34
32
-Diarrhea (Bloody) Binder Added
30
Poor fresh cow transition
1
5
10
14
18
22
26
30
34
38
42
46
50
54
58

Increased disease (Metabolic & Infections) Days

Reduced fertility
Whitlow, NCSU, 1986

8
 Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin

Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome associated with T-2 toxin

Estimated Milk Production Loss in Dairy Cattle

Following a One Month Exposure to Aflatoxin.
14

12

10

8
Milk Loss, lb.
6

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Example of aflatoxin effects on the liver of the Legal limit Dietary aflatoxin, ppb
guinea pig, from high to low levels of aflatoxin Of 20 ppb
Richard, USDA, ARS, National Disease Center, Ames, Iowa and CAST, 1989.

Relationship Between Aflatoxin B1 Intake (mg/day) and

Mycotoxin Excretion Via Milk Milk Concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (µg/L), Van Egmond, 1989

Milk aflatoxin concentration = 1.7% diet conc.

AFM1
30
Excretion, % of diet conc. .
25 . .
Aflatoxin 1.7 Range 1 – 2 Milk 20 .
..
.
.
Deoxynivalenol < 0.02 Aflatoxin 15
.. . .
M1 . ... .
Zearalenone < 0.70 (µg/L) 10 ..
. .. ..
.

T-2 toxin < 0.20 5 . . ..

.. .
0 ...
Fumonisin < 0.01 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Ochratoxin < 0.03 Aflatoxin B1 Intake (mg/day)

Van Egmond, 1989

9
 Selected Penicillium Mycotoxins
Dairyland Laboratories 2002
Mold Identification • PR Toxin - Related to reduced intake, rumen stasis,
intestinal irritation, abortion and retained placenta in
35%
dairy cattle. A marker for problem silages (Seglar)
30%

25% • Roquefortine C - Implicated in toxic silage

20%
Percent of
• Mycophenolic Acid - Implicated in toxic silage
Total 15%

10%
• Ochratoxin - Kidney Toxin, toxic to calves but, not
5%
toxic to functional ruminants -adults
0%
Cladospori
Penicillium Aspergillus Mucor Rhizopus Fusarium Other
um • Patulin - A common mycotoxin in silage. Effects
2001-581 30% 6% 18% 8% 18% 17% 3%
2002-665 35% 10% 20% 8% 12% 11% 3% ruminal fermentation. Has been implicated in deaths of
Specific Molds
N=1950 N=2200 cows (Lacey), but has received little study.

Managing A Mycotoxin Problem Managing A Mycotoxin Problem

• Treatment
• Diagnosis
– Encourage feed intake
– Observe for general symptoms
– Process of elimination (Rule out other possible causes such as – Remove or dilute contaminated feeds
nutrition, disease, and management)
– Feed “CLEAN” feed to
– Add a mycotoxin binder (sorbant) to the diet transition cows
– Test feeds for common mycotoxins
(DON, T-2, ZEN, FB, AF) – Evaluate nutrients:
Antioxidants: Vitamin E, Cu, Zn, Mn, Se
• Prevention Vitamin A and/or carotene
Protein, Fat, Adequate Effective Fiber
– Manage feed to reduce spoilage
– Use mold inhibitors – Feed additives: buffers, microbials
– Use transition rations – reduce stress
– Mycotoxin binders are shown to be effective

Clearance and Appearance of Aflatoxin in Milk

Potential Methods for Treatment & Associated With Consumption of Aflatoxin
Prevention of Aflatoxin Toxicity Contaminated Corn in Diets
CHEMICAL
BIOLOGICAL PHYSICAL
With or Without the Addition of Clay Products
•Ammoniation 1.0
•Microbial •Grain Cleaning/Seperation
9Commonly used on 0.9
9Enzymatic 9Effective
cottonseed and corn 0.8 NO CLAY
degradation of specific
9Reduces fines where
9Irreversible if done mycotoxins 0.7
concentration of aflatoxin is
properly 0.6
9Potential treatment high
9Can be used in the Milk 0.5
•Non-Toxic strains •Heating - peanuts
feed mill or on the Aflatoxin, 0.4 CLAY
farm 9May compete with or 940-80% reduction ppb ADDED
0.3
exclude toxic strains of (mean of 3
•Sodium Bisulfite •Irradiation 0.2 clays)
aflatoxin
9Decreased 9Exposure to UV light 0.1
palatability 0.0
9Practical?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
•Adsorbents Days
9Clays, carbons, glucans, Aflatoxin Aflatoxin Aflatoxin
(Eaton and Groopman, 1994) inorganic polymers removed added removed

10
 Efficacy of Adsorbents Added Diets at at Different Inclusion Rates
Effect of Feed Additives on % Reduction (Clay at 1.2%, Glucan at 0.05% and Carbon at 0.25%) to Reduce
Milk Aflatoxin Concentrations in Diets Containing 55 ppb Aflatoxin
in Milk Aflatoxin Residues
Study A 95
% 100
90 Study B
80 69*

Milk Aflatoxin
80

% of Control
67.3 64.6 70
60 * P < 0.05
70 61.2 58.5 46* 41*
54.1 50 35*
60 40 33* 39*
30
50 20
10
40 31.4 0

Mycrosorb
MS FG AB- AB- RC MTB- AC-A
30 20 20 100
Adsorbent Product
20 Type Amount In Vitro
Bentonites 5.4 Product % Binding, %
10 MS - Mycrosorb - Clay - 1.2% 98.4
added at 1.2% FG - Flowguard - Clay - 1.2% 95.1
0 AB-20 - Clay - 1.2% 98.0
Diaz et al., 2004, RC - Red Crown- Clay - 1.2% 98.5
Mycopathologia 156:223-226 & 157:233-241 MTB-100 - - Glucan - 0.05% 96.6
Mycosorb 0.05% Activated Carbon 0.25% AC-A - - Carbon - 0.25% 99.9

Efficacy of Various Adsorbents Added to Diets at Sampling &Testing Feeds for Mycotoxins
0.5% to Reduce Milk Aflatoxin Concentrations When
Diets Contain 170 ppb Aflatoxin B1 Mold spore count - Reflects deterioration but not mycotoxins
* Significant P < .05 Mold I.D. - Suggests potential mycotoxins
120 100 104 92 93
Mycotoxins - AF, DON, ZEN, FB and T-2.
Milk
100
80
**
58 65
87
* *
52 55
Aflatoxin Sampling - Imprecise and difficult.
60
% of Occurs in unevenly distributed spots
40
Control Blend feed prior to sampling
20
0 Take numerous subsamples and composite
U

To l+

C l+
C

M
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on
on

ov

str n A
TB

ex

ilb n 20
xi

Labs -Identify accurate, fast, and cost effective lab

as

di
as
t

si l

a
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ro

-1

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or

Be e
l

00

d-
b

TX
d

Mailing -Freeze wet samples, dry samples in paper bags

Stroud, J.S., et al. 2006. J Dairy Sci. (abstr.) -Use overnight delivery

The problem of sampling a non-uniform lot of feed Effect of Sample Size on Estimated 95% Confidence Interval

Protein of Test Results for Cottonseed Containing 100 ppb Aflatoxin

Aflatoxin
12 12 11 13 95% Confidence Interval
0 0 0 0 0 Sample Size Sub-samples Low High
lb. No. ppb ppb
12 13 12 13 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 0 271
12 13 11 12 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 0 222
9 20 13 187
12 11 12 13 0 0 8000 0 0 18 41 37 163
13 12 11 12 0 0 0 0 0
35 78 53 147
Average = 12 70 159 64 136
Average = 400
Whitaker, Dickens,Giesbrecht. 1991. In: Mycotoxins and Animal Foods. CRC Press.

11
What concentrations of Conditions in Silage Leading to Deterioration,
Mold Growth and Mycotoxin Formation
mycotoxins are safe?
Aeration Starch and Sugars
No amount of mycotoxin can be considered safe
Errors in sampling and analysis may be misleading Yeast Growth Ethanol

Only a few mycotoxins are analyzed Consumption of

Increased pH
Lactic Acid
Presence of one mycotoxin suggests presence of others Penicillium Other Molds
and many mycotoxins exist Other Aerobic
Mold Growth
Microorganisms
Listeria
Mycotoxins interact with other mycotoxins and other
factors such as nutrition and stress producing Mycotoxin Formation
variable results Deterioration

Mold Mushrooms Moisture Silage Management – Summary

Choose appropriate hybrids
Harvest At Proper Stage of Maturity
and Moisture
Consider Processing
Fill the Silo Fast (Not too fast)
Pack for Good Density
Cover Well
Use Effective Fermentation Aid
Manage the Feeding Face
Discard the Spoilage
Silos need to be sized to the herd for rapid feed out

SUMMARY Final Question:

How much poison is acceptable in a dairy ration?
1. Mycotoxins are prevalent in feeds
2. Mycotoxins are toxic to dairy cattle
3. High levels cause acute effects in cattle - death
4. Low levels cause the greatest economic loss - chronic
effects – milk loss – greater disease
5. Mycotoxins can be the root cause of various problems.
6. Prevention is important
7. Treatments are effective Thanks
8. Adsorbents are the best treatment

12