HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK Heraungegeben von B. SeuLe bit von 78011, W. HUCK. B. HROUDA, N-pf LeLuw und F, Vos mgsusercims vos 5. GONDA SECHSTER BAND INDIAN MUSIC HISTORY AND STRUCTURE LEIDEN/KOLN, E.J. BRILL 1974 INDIAN MUSIC HISTORY AND STRUCTURE ww EMMIE TE NIJENHUIS Wah 14 Plates LEIDEN/KOLN E.J. BRILL 1974ISUN 90 04 03978 3 Copyright 1974 by EJ. Beil, Leiden, Netherlands AU rights reserve No part of this book may be repraucd or Translated in any fom, by print. photpein, microfin microfiche ‘OF any ether néanswithoul writen peroision from the publisher PRINTED IN ELGIUS Preface Abbreviations 1. Documentation II. Melody I. Rhythm. IV, Composition Bibliography Discograhy Index Plates 1-14. CONTENTS vn vat 1 see B 60 80 122 128 130 al the end of the bookPREFACE When I was invited to write in this series ubout Indian music, 1 realized that a volume of about 125 pages would not suffice to cover this vast field of research. But, since a considerable number of Introductions to Indian Music have already been published during the last twenty years, it would not be wise to write one more book of this type. So instead of discussing superficially the many aspects of Indian music 1 decided to make a selection of topics to be dealt with. Without entering into a detailed discussion of the history of the individual ragas and tilas 1 have tried to survey the historical development of the Indian tone, scale, riga- and tila-systems as well as the structure ‘of musical compositions, us described in the various Sanskrit treatises and in modern musicological literature. ‘Therefore, { warn the reader that he will find neither a lively description of the rich musical life at the famous royal courts, nor a detailed discussion on the music and dunce performed in the temples. Insicad he will have to face a mass of reference literature. But I hope this publication will contri- bute 10 a more critical study of the history and structure of Indian music. Utrecht 1974Nis, bs Aun, Mi SugSC. Nandi, Pass. ‘SirnSk. Nas. NaN Sua, Kusk Soons Rims Pundit SARK. Somkv Venkcr, Damsp, Hak ae ANSP. LookT, Sant. Tass Gorse, Prass, hak PM, Sambb Sambi SambsiM, before ts. BC ire BC before sth ¢. AD. nine. AD. 12101287 tithe take 1 Peery late H5uh 1830 late 16th, late 16th € v0 ri a, 1025 late 1th late 1h toes late 17h late 17h € Ins late Ith late Ith late ith c 2h othe duc ABBREVIATIONS. rai Siksd Simavediyd [Nityatinta by Bharata ‘Aumapatam Bharatirnava by Nandikesvara ‘Samgitasamayasira by Parsvadews ‘Sampataratnakara by Siragadeva Samgitamakaranda by Narada Catearimsacchatariganitopana by Nica Samitopanigatsiroddhins by Sudhakalass ‘anual oy Panga tout y rsa Haz by Soman eee ulead by Yesatanokbin seedsfag by Dimata suas Ha Hdgapeat S67 Mekyondynades Selanne Able faprortapl ty acta Raerctaneotha by iii Songiasrameay Tl samertecoaiay my vida seat ty Paton SEE Poa Mais by Bahan estan octet satay Ta dba Mate oy Sambar) Seainlan Many Sumbuoorhy CHAPTER ONE DOCUMENTATION ‘The oldest document of Indian music is the widely known colle religious hyunns (adman) mgant to be sung during the suerfices (especialy the Soma sacrifice) and called Simaveds which, being the textbook of the rudy priest, mostly contains the sane lyanns seventy-five excepted) as the Reveds (the collection of verses, re, In the Samaveda the Ryvedie accent arava (kt), anudirta (ka. the non-aecentuated pliable) and ait (it, the Thiet tone, “raised” secend. probably only used to indicate the rise and fall of the voice insteael of Fixed musical pitches. are replaced by the Symbols 1, 2 and 3. Assording to Rieatd Simon amongst others the primary purpose of both the Rgvedie and the Simavedic notations was Fraicate the grammatical accent, which leaves the problem of the relation: Ship between the notation and the actual recitation oF singing unsolved ‘The three Simavedic collections that have come down to us, the Parvircika, the Uttardrcika and the Aranyakasamhitd (0 collection to be sang exclusively in the seclusion of a wood (aransa) and only used by some Vedic. sects), are in fiet the textbooks for the priestsinger who wity Supposed to know the appropriate melodies by heart. The POr dre aarits of 585 single stanzas (wuni) invoking Indra and other gods. each Song to a particular melody. The Uttarireiki, which for the greater Pett can ins songs consisting of three stanzas, ws & more complete textbook nat includes the solo songs (rarscinun) usually sung by the Prastous> that are not found in the Parvarcika, possibly because their use was net confined to the Soma sacrifice alone. ery likely it was for the sake of Vedic students that the sonys of the parvarcika and the Aranyakasambita were compiled in song books (gad) the songs of the former collection in the grdmegevainy Gt. the ind 10 e sung ina village), and the songs ofthe latter eolletion in he damned fier the gana to be sung in a wood). These song books provide the susiest totation (eypher oF syllabic notation) of the melodies, while the words of f dhe Kunde d. Mongo2 DOCUMENTATION the songs are presented in a more elaborate way than in the drcikds and sumhités, namely according to the manner in which they are sung, as for instance by prolonging vowels, repeating. syllubles inter Polations (stabhus, lit. “praises”. comparable to the jubili of European plainsong). The names of the melodies are mentioned in the first and second prapithaka (is. lesson) of the Uttarircika, but it was left to the priest singer to adapt the melodies of the basic stanzas (yoni) to the other stanzas in accordance with the rules of correct liturgical recitation. At a later date this oral tradition of adaptation (dia) was laid down in the Puspastira.* Finally even study of the Puypasatea no longer suffived for the Vedie student, since exactly how the melodies of the gramegera- and dranvegevagdna were to be adapted wats set out in the ihagdna and alivagdna (ihya = tihurahasyas rahusya = dranyaku, i to be used in the wood only) respectively." Several Brahmunas* und Satras® allude to the singing of particular simans and to the playing of musical instruments, Some Siksis? mention the notes or intervals (srara) and the basic scales (grim) of an ancient ‘musical system which is generally considered to have developed from the Vedic chant. The author of the Naradiya Siksa" compares the notes of secular and religiouy music. He is the first to associate musical notes with particular deities,” social classes," animals,"" and colours"? ~~ a prevalent concept in Indian musical aesthetics — as well as with parts of the fingers," which reminds us of the Guidonian hand in European music during the Middle Ages. > edited by Richard Simon. ins ADA. d. Phils-Phibol, KI dl. Kyl. Bayer. Ad, Wise, 23 (190, p. $6178, * For the historical dexclopment of the Samavedic texts and thei iterrlationship compare W, Calund, Pabeasinsa-Brdtimana, Calous 1931, Initadustion. The four jin laid down scoring tw the Kavthums tradition are availahle im an ediion prepared by Salyasesta ‘Simairimi. Bibiothecs Indica, vols. LV. Caleuts IK. For htrature on the Samaveds ad Vedic music see abo L. Renou, Biblugrapine sediquc, Parts 13. p. 219; RUN. Dandchar, Vedic tibliograph. 1. Womnbay 16. p. 22:11 Poona 1961, pth: 490: HL, Poona 1973 ph, TE: I. Gonds. Vedie Literature Wieden 1974. ch vt, S Tanda (= Patcavinos Beihasana 3,3, 4b: 8,6 AS TK ibd Sota 317. Apsstumbs Seautnde and 4.1. Somkhisana Scautanits 18, 10017, 34 * Manguki Sis 1. XI: Viyhavalhy3 Siksi 1. 66 Sais Saks 178, Panmniya Sikad 12. * Niradiya Siksd 125.1, Naradiya Sind 1 "* Natadiya ily 1,3. 1 Narauiya Sis 1.5. 2 Narada Sig IF 1 Nieadiya Sigs 17.) snd Juiminiys Beals 2, 6 7 iy r 17-0 Logyayuna Stawtasates 3, 128 LOCUMENTATION 3 Not only Vedie literature affords proof that music in India dates from very carly times: secular literature too, as for instance the great epics, the Mahabharata '* and the Ramayana,’ ins numerous references. to the terminology of ancient Indian music. Systematic treatment of the theory and instruments of Indian music first ‘appears, however, in a teatise on dramaturgy, Bharata’s Natyasistra Why music should be so elaborately dealt with in a treatise on dramatic art is explained by the fact that music had an important function in the ancient Indian theatre, It was performed not only before the play started (during the preliminaries), but also during the course of the play in the form of hurt (= dhruvupada) songs. From the time when Bharata wrote his chapters on musi¢ (chapters 28-32) of his Nalyasdstra (compiled in the first century B.C. oF the first century A.D.) up to the next hindmark in the history of Indian musi Mataiiga’s Brhaddesi (ca. eighth century A.D.) which introduces folk mate- rial (desi rdgas) in standardized (ie. classical) music, only one treatise, the Datiilam (in its extant form a summary of ancient musical theory but originally a larger work), has come down to us, though several ancient authorities on music (Durgaiakti, Visakhila, Vastik, Kohala, Tumburu, Kasyapu, ete.) must have lived during that period, as they are mentioned by later authors. ‘Only a vague idea of the music of that period can be gathered from the few minor references found in general literature. The chapters on music in the Visnudharmottara Purana, the Vayu Purina and the Markandeya Purina!” merely reflect the ancient theories described in the Nityasistra Whereas the treatises of the ancient period (the Naradiyi Siksi, the Nityasastra and the Purana chapters) only mention five or seven basic gas (grdmardgas), by the commencement of the Middle Ages the Brhaddest reveals an existing elaborate system of rags, consisting of parent rigas (i.e. the grdmardgus) and secondary melodie patterns called bhisds, bhdsdiigas and upaiigardgas. It must have taken centuries to develop such an intricate system, Unfortunately we do not know which tradition was handed down by Matufga, the author of the Brhaddesi, All we can find are a few % Compare Leola Omicherry, Classical Music in the Mahibhirata, am: Sangeet Nstak ournal of the Sangeet Natak Academy) $ Uuly-Sept, 1967). p. Tks Compare P-C. Dharma, Musical Culture i the RémSyana, in: Tndian Culture 4 (1937-38), pi 7453, Compare chapter 4 (composition) p. L171 "See Alain Danizlou and N-R. Bhatt, Tex Pondichery 1959, rote 14. des Purana sur ta theo musa, sol 14 DOCUMENTATION references to ancient riga will be given hereafter. Harivamsa 93, 22 refers to a “derugdndhdra” chalikya (= chalika) song. In the music of later centuries devagdndhdra is the name of a well known raga. In the next verse the author of the Harivaméa defines the musical structure of the above mentioned song as “agdndhdragramardgam”, i. “being based on the grimardga up to the [note] gindhira”. The fact tha the song is elucidated in terms of the ancient system (ie. the system of grimarigas), may indeed indicate that this musical reference dates from the older period, The sixth century prose-romance Vasavadatti'* refers to a raga vibhdsa sung by the Krpatika minstrels. Kalidasa (ca. fifth century) prescribes that the righ kakubha should be sung in the fourth of his drama Vikramorvasiya."® However, these references to rigas do not conclusively prove that the melodies were already in existence during the ancient period, that is to say, before the time of the Brhaddesi, the names of the ragas may have been inserted in the original text by later copyist. A similar problem arises, when we try to date Bharata’s Gitdlamkira 2? alo known as Vadimattayajankusa, In the introduction to this book (p. VID, Alain Daniélou suggests that the Gitdlumkara must be a very old text — prior even to the Nityasdstra — because it is quoted in various recensions and most probably also in the original version of the Paficatantra (dated between 300 B.C. and 750 A.D.). I myself, however, could only find the suid reference, which is a reference to the 36 surnus (obviously fo runners of the later ragas).2" in the Pafcakhy3naka recension of the Paivcatantra by the Jaina Monk Parnabhadra.2? dating from 1199 A.D. tn the oldest recension, entitled Tantrakhyayika,*? the whole story of the singing ass propounding musical theory is missing. This means that the varwas of the Gitélamkara certainly existed before 1199 A.D., but not necessarily hefore the Natyasistra or the Brhaddest. In addition to the above mentioned Sanskrit references there is a famous ‘Tamil poem, the Silappadikaram,** written in the second century A.D. by in general literature, some examples of which 4 Edited by LH. Geay. Delhi 902, p. $8, 0, "© Raja Tagore’s Sanskrit Library no. 26, Caleuta 1873 Fited by A. Daniclow and N’R. Bhat, Pon Compare chapter 14 ofthe Gila iy edited by J. Hectel, Hansard Unis.. Cambridge, Massachisetts, 1908, book 8 5 edited by J, Hertel, Harvard Uni. € Man. 1915 2 A, Danigou, Shilappaiharam (The Ankle tracele) by Price hang Adipal (Translation) New York 1968, epecily canton 7 and 8: S. Ramanathan, Giappatikarat eat aumubks silahkan, Madras 1956 DOCUMENTATION 3 Prince Mlango Adigal, which contains some interesting information about the ancient Karak modes. (pan) and the carly arched harp type of vind (ra. So apart from Matanga's Brhaddesi.?® seareely any material iy at hand regarding Indian music in the carly Middle Ages and that work has unfortunately come down to us in an incomplete and rather corrupt manuscript dealing only with the basic scales (grdma), micro-intervals Gruti), notes oF intervals (svard), secondary scales (anirchand), basic modes (ard), melodic patterns (raga) and the structure of musical composition (prabandha). The original work must have been much larger since, inthe opinion of later authors (Simhabhapala, Abhinavagupta. Nanyudeva and Damodaragupta in his Kultinimata), Matafiga was also an expert on musi instruments (especially on the flute) and dramaturgy. In the eleventh century several commentaries on the Natyasistra appeared. First, at the beginning of the century, Abhinavagupta wrote his Abhinava- bhirati?® und towards the end of the century Nanyadevt his elaborate commentary, the Bharatabhisya2? also named Sarasvatihydaydlambin which is a complete treatise in itself, The dating of Nandikesvara’s wo works, Bharatérnava™ (dealing with dance movements and rhythm) and Abbinayadarpana2? (“The Mirror of Gestures”, @ treatise on the emotion (rasa) expressed in dancing), still remains uncertain. A certain Nandikesw is quoted by Mataiga in connection with the mirchands of twelve notes.’ but I doubt whether the author mentioned by Mataiiga is the same person ats ‘our dance expert. According to M. Ramakrsna Kavi®? the Bharatirnava was written after the eleventh century. Personally 1 would date this work even later, that is 10 say afier the twelfth century, since it often cites the twelfth century author Haripala In the twelfth century some important works on music were written by royal authors. First to be mentioned are the two Chalukya kings Somesvara and his son Pratipacakravartin (= Jagadekamalla). King Somesvara nasivs Sine, Trivandrum ihahe commentary Ablinavabliral, edited by M. Ramakyss Kove “Gackwad's Oriental Sees no, 36, 64, 124, 148. Baroda 1926, 1934, ited by K 2 The Nyasa and J.S. Pade, 4 vols. 1984 and 1968 The Bharatabhigya of Nanyadeva, edited by Chaitanya P. Desi vl. 1, Khsitogsrh 190L 2 Bharatienava of Nandikesvara, with qransbation in English and Tamil, edited by S.K Vasudeva Sint, Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Series no. 74, Tanjore 1957, SNandiksivata’s Abbinayaduepanm, ct. ed. and English transl by Manomohan Chet, ales 21987 28 Bphaddest,p. 32 9 haratakos., Te 10. 1951, Introduetion pI6 DOCUMENTATION devoted vo chapters of his encyclopaedia Minasollisa (= Abhilisi- ‘thacintimapi), compiled in 1131 A.D., to music." King Jagadekamalla, who ruled from 134-1143 A.D., wrote a treatise on music named Samgitactidimapi? Another Chalukya king, Bhimadeva's son Haripila, Who lived about 1175 A.D. and only ruled for four yeurs between the reign of Bhimadeva and Ajayapata, composed the AD. Somarija (= Somabhapata, one of king Ajayapaila’s body guards (ettradhara) weote work on music entitled Samgitaratndvali.?* Another Samgitaratndivali°® was written about 1240 A.D. by Jayana, the commander of the elephant forces of Kakatiya Ganapati of Warangel (1198-1263 A.D.) During the first half of the thirteenth century SGrigadeva wrote his Samgitaratnikara®” (“The Ocean of Music”), a treatise which has been Preserved in many manuscripts and is frequently quoted by later authors. This famous work gives a clear exposition of the theory of Indian music and dance from the ancient period to the date of writing. It became the classie amongst Sanskrit works on Indian music and is often cited as authoritative fon contemporary music by musivologists living even alier the sixteenth eemtury, As late as 1735 Tulaja, author of the SamgitasSrdmrta,2® goes on ‘quoting lenghty passages of that work as if they were still applicable when, asa matter of fact, by that time the Samgitaratnakara must have been quite out of date. Although the exact dates cannot be given, it is safe to assume that soon after the Samgitaratndkara, towards the end of the thirteenth century, two other important works oa music appeared, the Samgitasamayasira>” by the Jain author Parsvadeva and the Samgitamakaranda*? by Narada. To a large extent both authors base their opinions on Sirhgadeva. The author of An edition of these (wo chapters on music, which unlike the other chapters of this cencgelopuedia hive never exh eed. 1 1m course of preparation by V. Raghavan The incomplete Malayalam palnteat mandi of this work has been edited by D.K. Velunkar, Gackwad's Oriental Series no, 12, Baroda 1988 M Sumpiasudhikara by Hanpila, mss. in Tanjore, Ward, Madras and Trivandn 2 Sumitarainival by Somardja, mss. in Wikaner, Baroda und Calta 2 Bharatakoss,p, XVI 2 Sungititamabara by Siengideva. with the commentaries Kalimdht of Kalliniths and edited by S. Subrahmanya Site, 4 vol Madras 193, 14 (evo res. ey Pandit V. Krishnamacharya, Midess 1999), 1951 and 1983, English teansltion Eng. of vol im 23 (parts 3,4 Dex. 1959). i. Madras 1982 tasumayanica by Parwadevs, edited by T. Ganapati Sst, Trivandrum Sanskrit 3 no BT, Tevandeun 2S ** Samgitamakarands by Narada, edied by Mangesh Rimubribbna Telang, Gackwad’s Onital Sees no. 16, Baroda 192. DOCUMENTATION 1 akaranda however evolves a system of mile and female rigs which is not found in the Samgitaratnakara or in any other chissical treatise on music except the Gititamkira. This system puts forward in elementary form the well known ragasrdga system —— mostly consisting fof six main rigay and thirty secondary niginis which way developed by later, especially North Indian, authors. To the Jain author Sudhikalass, who wrote the Sangitopanigatsiro- duhara*? in 1350, we owe the first iconographical description of rages, which personifies the melodie patterns as pseudo-deities of the Jainist religion. However. iti likely that this kind of raga personification in verses (dhyana. tit, “contemplation formula”) way already in existence before Sudhakalasa's days, as a particular verse’? in the Behaddesi points in this direction, ‘Atler the fourteenth century there was a fiver exchange of culture between the Hindu and Muslim worlds. Musicians from Persian and) Arabian countries had begun to take great interest in fudian music+® About 1378 the author of the Farid-ul-Zam ham, 2 treatise on Persian Arabian music, also wrote a work on Indian music entitled Ghunyat-ul Munya. In it he cites Bharata’s Natyasastra and other, less Known works on Indian music such as the Samgita Vinoda, the Sam the S. and the Rigirava. Umar Sama Yahya, an Afghan who studied Indian ‘music in India, wrote (in Persian) the Lahjat-iSikandar Shahi, quoting the Samgitaratnakara, the Samgitamatanga, the Nrttasangraba, the Udbharat (= the NityaSistra), the Sudhanidhisangitasamassiya (2) and the Sangita- alpataru. “The fourteenth century Suli noble of Turkish origin, Amir Khusrau, who is said to have introduced the sitar and the tabla in Indian music and invented compositions such as the qau! (now gawwali) and the tarand, is also alleged to have invented new rigas by combining Persian and Indian ‘melodies. The story about Amir Khusrau’s contest with the Deccan musician Naik Gopal is ficicious, since the latter lived two centuries aver during the reign of Akbar. Amir Khusrau composed the Ijaz-i-Khusravi in which the section HarCi-Siyum is of special interest to musi + SamptepaniatsGreldhara by Vacancy Sodhihalass, edited by U.P. Sha ‘Orica Series Baroda el * ehaddes p. HOE. sere 367 +9 The flowing teferenees to Persian and Arabian bterature om Andis ease fram: A. Rashi, Socisty and Culture in Medieval India. Caleta 196%, p. 107 NA. duiracbiwy, The Rigs of Noch dian Muse. London 1971, p. 16-26, One might abso consult, R-V, Poduval, Minis and the Muslin Coutts in India. sw Madras Music Academy ‘Annual Conference Souvenir (Dex. WS3), Maas 19548 pocus NIATION References to music are abo made in Khusrau’s masnavis Qir din and Nub Sipihe, ay well ay in his other works such as the Hasht Bahishe Although orthodox Muslim religion regarded music with disupprov: an eception being the Sufi movement which considered music a means towards realizing God most of the Muhammadan sovereigns showed keen interest in Indian music, Akbar (1555-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shahjahan (1028-1058), Bahiidur Shah (1707-1712) and Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) were all patrony of music and art in_general. Only Aurangzeb (16581707), though fond of music, preferred an ascetic life. {In the Fifteenth century sultan Sahi of Kada (Forty miles from Allahabad). who was at vassal of king Ibrahim of Jaunpur, was so interested in Indian hat he formed a large library of books on Indian musie and dine 1429 A.D. invited famous musical experts 10 a congress for the Purpose of compiling # work (in Sanskrit) on the theory of classical Indian muyic, The greater part of this work, known as the Saigitasiromani.!* generally reproduces well established opinions; but in respe it supports a tradition adhered to by only a minority whose views are confined to the Gitalambara and a few other works. Umar Sama Yahya’s Perstan treatise on Indian music, the Lahjat-i-Sikander Shihi.:* appeared under the patronage of sultan Sikander Lodi of Delhi (1489-1517), Although Hindu kings spent a great deal of time fighting their Muslim conquerors, they did not negleet the arts. Twenty yeurs after the San Siromani (449 A.D.) the Rajput king Kumbhakarna of Ci the Samgitardja** This voluminous compilation on the classical theory of music closely Follows the Samgitaratnakara, but the dhy’nas of the rigas are obviously borrowed from Sudhakalasa’s Samgitopanisatsiroddhara, At about the same time the Bengal author Subhamkara. probably wrote his Samgitadimodira!” Many of the rigas mentioned in this work, which ‘only describes them iconographically and omits their musical definition, are not found in the classical raga system, This divergence in systems may be due to the fact that by this time various regional styles had already developed. The schism between North and South Indian music which may already have originated in Saengudeva’s times (ie. the thirteenth century) of the grimas ult wrote ¢ Samgtsstomani being. prepared hy Pandit att Pant snd the present writer Ms. at Lusknom. ef Navir Ahmed, The Lat Sikander Shabl, in Islamic Culture 28984, p AOAIT © Sumgitaraa by Malis Kmbh fd hy Premfats Sharma, Banaras 1963 ‘Sis and G. Mukhopahy ga, Caleuts Salut 1960. DOCUMENTATION 9 and finally resulted in two completely diflerent types of music — the North Indian or Hindustani style and the South Indian or Karndtak style became rigidly fixed by the sixteenth century during Akbar’s reign During the beginning of the sixteenth century the famous king Mina Simha Tumira of Gwalior (1486-1517), who was a patron of music and the Manakutahat** himself a composer, wrote his Hindi treatise on musi which was translated into Persian in the seventeenth century by Fagir Ullah” In his Svaramelakakinidhi (1550)° the Karnitak expert. Ramat presents a new system of riga classification. This no longer classifies ragits according to their basic modes (iti), as the musicologists of the Middle Ages did, but them according to theie scales (mela). In the second half of the sixteenth century Pumdarikavitthals, a South, Indian musicologist who migrated to the North. introduced the Karndtak ‘mela system is the author of three works on musi juri) and one treatise on dancing (Nartananimaya* His pupil Srikanth. who was alo a South Indian who settled in the North, wrote the Rasakaumudi $* which reveals his master's influence. Alongside this Karnatak mela system, another system of riga chissifieation was developed by the North Indian authors which was bayed on six. or more, primary male rigas and a number of secondary female rigats (riginis), some of which are referred to ay female even although their iconographi description indicates the opposite. In the sixteenth century: this system of rg casi obviously traceable to the ancient notion of male is spplied in works such as Narada’s Catvarimsucchatars "and Pumdarikavitthala’s: Ragamila.*? in the pameninn ofthe Nawab of this work (Muha ila edit hy DK So Moy 19164 © Rapamanjat by Pumdarikanitha, edited by DY K toni, Poon 118 9 Ranakauma by Srikanth cite! by A.N. Jat, Banda Cats arinaceatariganirdpana by Narada. eel by 1 rncripis of Keemakaraa’s Ragamata in; tnlis 01 Osford and tikanse Che $210 DOCUMENTATION These texts do not mention the musical characteristics of the ras, but only contain iconographic or poetic descriptions regarding the pictorial represen- tation of the melodies. But the Rasakaumudi by Srikantha and. the Samgitadarpana™ by Dimodara (probably late sixteenth or early seven- teenth century) furnish the iconographic or poetic descriptions (dhyana) together with the musical definitions Vakyuna) of the ras An interesting tink between Karojjak and Hindustani musie isthe Ragavibodha,® written in 1609 by the South Indian expert {In describing the musical characteristics of the Figus this author som follows he adopts the opinions of the North Indian author Pumurikavitthala, who often deviates from Rimiimatya’s mela system. This explains why some of Somanitha’s rigas are still practised in modern Karaiitak music, while other gas of his only figure in modern Hindustan’ musi Ii the seventeenth century South Indian musicologist Ven ‘who really laid the theoretical foundations tor modern Karn his Caturdangiprakasika"* written in 1620 he and mela kiss anged Ramamatya’s raga 9 into a system which, with slight modi hweemth century authors Tulaja (Samgi 1735)°? and Govinda (Sumgrahacud: "towards the end of the eighteenth century), is still used in modern Karniak music. But even in the centuries following Venkatamakbin the ancient theories of music were not abandoned completely. As a rule later musicologists devoted the greater part of their works to the classification of ragas and treated the ancient theory of svaras, Srutis, ete. less exhaustively. The seventeenth century author Cikkabhapala, however, wrote a large compi- lation entitled Abhinavabharatasarasangraha,®* which summarizes the an cient theories discussed in the Natyasistra and also refers to medieval and ‘contemporary treatises In the seventeenth century Hindus change. music underwent considerable Whereas Pumdarikavitthala has preserved the Karniqak basic notes % Sumgitaduepans by Dimodara, eed with mtroduction and m0 Tani by K. Vasinesa Sint, Saraswathi Mall Serie no. 34, Madras Govern Series no. 66, Tanjore 1982. Translation wf chapter Fand 2° A.A Bake, Biglage tot de Ke ddr Your nditie Musick, Thows, Uitech 193 Sagas ty Somanatha. edted by M.S. KSmaswimi Anat, Madeay 133 CCaturdandiprakiuha by Venkatamakhin, adued by S. Subeahananya Sint, T.¥. Subhe Roo and TL, Venkatarimis, Madey 19, "CH, Note 3 1 Samgruhacudimani by Gail, edited by 8. Sub Abhinusabharatosirasangisho o Cikkabhapala,elied by Re Sahs.narayana, Mysore ea LOCUMENTATION n (Suddha svaras): sa = d.ri = ©. ga = fo, ma = g, pa = a, dha = be, ni = e» (representing Rimimitya's interpretation of the ancient basic scale sadjagrima: su= di = e. gt =F. ma = gpa = a, dha nth century North Indian authors, namely Locani * and Hydayandrayanadeva (in his Hydayaprakisa ® autuka'”), introduced new basie seale in Hind consisting of the notes: sa = dri =e gt = [ma = g pa dha = b, ni = ¢. However not only the basic scale way altered; there was change too in the musical structure of the individual rigas. Some of the older is became obsolete and new ragits were invented. Hindustani music never developed such a rigid system of ria classili- cation as Karnitak music did, Towards the close of the nineteenth century the North Indian musicologist Bhatkhande" obviously influenced by the twelve sumsthdinas of Locana and Hrdayandrayanadeva —- invented aa system of ten shias which hits gained general recognition, The peculiarities igus regarding execution CAulfuhrungyprasis’), tines of performance and aesthetic content obviously defy classification aecording to purely scalar principles. Many of the modern Hindustini gas in their jtaparijita (1665). a work hich is closely followed by Srinivasa’s Rigatativavibodha.”” Some Hindus= ani Fagus are not even older thin Pratipasimha’s Sangit Sir.”! a Hindi compikition of the theory of ancient Indian and contemporary Hindusti music written towards the end of the eighteenth century, Nevertheless a number of rigas that have retained several of their ancient character are still used in modern Hindustini music In 1784 the English orientaist Sir William Jones wrote his essay “On the | Modes of the Hindus”.?? Muhammad Reza, the author of a Per ws 190% g Munte States of ioe VIN. Uhitkhande, A Comparative Study of Som : the 15th Hoth, 1thand 1th Cems, Bombay 198, Madras 21489 Hy th nae sath Hints Lapaddhati, Krank Pustak Malki, yobs, EVE, Mathes 19SK19S7. a Saigitpaddhats, Sangista, vols. AAV. Hthray 1986-1987 i etapa by hs i hy KV an 3 Fits Cat ibodh by. Srintins, cated by. Wabhokumar 8) Desa, Gash» One Sig 136 Ha Sina Dow of Aoapur UI EVI, Poona on CS Pk 14 atk Pu a: Mas’ f Tas ty W, Jos and NLA. Wabad Cals Y ot dyes DD, ps NIT Tn Mans tn Nin tt. in Cysts Sus Sons NIN, Waa Ib ac 12) TS2 DOCUMENTATION Xo ~ SOM EMERLE treatie on Indian music, the Naghmiti-Asalf (1813),7° is said to have (applet introduced the biléral scale (comparable to the Western major scale) a standard.”* Viynu Narayana Bhatkhande, to whom we owe the chissification of Hindustani rigas into ten basic scales (vids), wrote several tmnt works on Indian music, His Samgita Sastra?S deals with the histo j development and different traditions of the Indian ragas. In his Kramik u Pustak Malika" the author illustrates the Hindustini ragas and their MELODY traditional styles (ghardaa) by furnishing numerous, valuable music examples taken from contemporary practic One of the fundamentals of a musical culture is its tone-system that is ace to say the system according to which it divides the octave (Sanskrit 2 El th Parssad, Calcutta INS2-49: #1916, ‘saptaka, “series of seven” Sas against octave, “series of eight") into smaller 8 Sthovt Hist intervals. The result of such a division is a series of notes which, if taken consecutivel regular ascent or descent, consitute the basic scale of that anata ea estan culture. The Indian musical culture is of special interest, sinceit has in course eae one er ay od eet asGcaN PeA Saag Kae of time developed several completely different basic scales, tte Musical treatises dating from the ancient period and the middle ages eall ‘the basic scales grima, which literally means “village or “community but ina musical context denotes a “collection of intervals” (searasaniiiha)," 4 Asa rule the term grama is used for a basic scale Tromt Which are derived ‘number of secondary scales (mifirchand). According to Sirhgadeva's commen: ~ tator Kallindtha ® grama ws also “the foundation for pentatome and hexatonic series of notes (1dnu), melodic line (varna), figuration and ornamentation (alamkdray and mode (aui)". Originally three different grimas, viz. the 3 gindhira-grama, must have existed in ancient Indi probably the oldest ~~ is seldom referred 10 by musivologists,’ who that it disappeared from the human world and is only: practised in he which suggests that this grama was already out of use by th: early centuries of the Christian era. ‘The structure of the three ancient grimas, which are cbviously named after the notes on which they start, ie. sudja, madhyama and gandhdra, is determined by measuring the intervals between the seven notes of the saptaka: sadja (abbreviated sa), rsubha (ri), gandhiira (xe), madhyama (ma). paiicama (pa), dhaivata (dha) and nistida (ni). ‘The reader should bear in mind that in the ancient Indian theory of music sadja, rsabhe, ete, not only denote } TWvE) CHAPTER TWO kanya the notes but also the corresponding intervals helow these_notes (for example: sadia is NOt only the note sada (sa) itsell but ao the interval * Compare SienSR. 1,4. 15 NaeSM. 1.1.9, = Katha on Sasa. 1 2 NeS 1 26: NUASB, 1 1 540; SuraSR. 14. AE: MBA.S 4“ betwoen the not “"Wieasured™ sadjagrima mapa pacdha = 3 Sruis dha-ni = 2 Srutis In addition to the above mentioned “pure” (iuddha) notes sadja, ete, the following Feconized : the ¢ in terms of micro-intervals (éruti, to distinguish the three types of grin of érutis comprised in cach of the seven basic intervals. MELODY nnisdda und. sada, ni-sa). The at madhyamageima = 4srutis gama = 4 érutis = 3irutis— ma-pa = 3 srutis = 2srutis —puedha = 4 srutis, ASeutis — dha-ni AStutis ni srutis 4 Srutis 3 gratis yuta (“fallen’ ient Indian intervals are ‘audible unit”), In order the theorists* determined the number gindharagrima Fi-ga = 4 Srutis gama = 3 Srutis ma-pa = 3 srutis pacdha = 3 Srutis dha-ni = 4 Srutis niesa = 3 Srutis sari = 2 érutis reubha, ered” (wikrta) notes or accidentals were generally ie. one Sruti lower) notes cya sudja, cute madhyama, triiruti or evuta paitcama, the slightly raised ( one Stuti higher) notes silhirana yandhira and kaisika nisida and the raised fie. two srutis higher) notes antura gdndhdra and kakuli nis. Theoretically the an Indian octave (saplaka) contained twenty-two Srutis of ficro-intervals. Mathematically considered these Srutis are equal, each sruti being ';,2 of the octave, = @ micro-interval resembling the ancient Greek enharmonic q $5 cents, Calculating the ancient Indian intervals Sruti system (1 sruti_= $4,5 cents) — of course a purely theoretical thematically valid —- the iuddha and corresponding to these intervals could be reconstructed as follows: of ratio 4, to the calculation only mathe names of notes “ia x 1200 cents® 54.5 cents itertone ceording la_-notes Seutis cents Western equivalents Suda sa Obudiosni 0d Suda i 3wsa 164 oe suddha ga Sts pra) 7 sidharana ga Gis 327 antara ga Tio sa 1 382 fe eyuta ma srosa MUM lags, teem * For the structure of the sa fe: Ghosh, Tram Mh che 3 aan fom some Existing Noah an, 36k, Oca division of the vst int 1200 exnts 25.28): for aemonie Musical So madhmagrdoa compare UH. 28. 2629 dombay e sete ofthe gandiagrina of. SiraSR ' 4 MELODY 15 910 sa 491 Dosa 655 Bost 709 160 sa 473 Bos 982 kaisika ni vos 1036 kakali ni 2010 sa 1091 eyuta sa ws 146 — Suddha sa (Gray 22 ts 1200 However, itis highly unlikely that equal temperament existed in ancient Indian music and much“MOFE probable that the old melodic instruments (arched harp, tute and Mute) were tuned by ear, which means that only harmonigs of simple frequency ratios (1 :2:3:4:5:6:7 etc. up to 16) could hhave been used. Duniclou® has attempted to reconstruct the ancient Indian temperament by combining the ancient Greek Pythagorean temperament ~ (which derives every interval from the cycle of filths, "/y x 4px 4) etc.) with the harmonics." and *\ of just intonation. According to him/the Indian Sudha and vikrta notes were tuned as follows: names of notes _srutis ratios _cents_ Western _egui Suddha sa 0, but 4t0S.ni 1 oO © Suddha ti Jo sa “in 2s dt Suddha ga Sto sa 2, ot Sidhirana ga 6 10 st “1, M6 es ara ga Tio sa 4 Mo eM eyuta ma, Boss Hig 408 guddha ma Ysa Ay 498, trisruti pa Res Seay OM Suddha pa Bos ay 02 Suddha dha 16 twos 5 Bad Sudha ni 18 to sa "hy 996 kaisika ni Vos “108 2010 sa 13, 1ORK eyuta sa to sa 10 suddha sa (tira) 220 sa 1200 Inhan Musi, Lomo GK, p AOE: Wem, Hana chery 198K ‘Conmparat des Interalles Manica, Plo MiLODY For purposes of presenting th iy more convenient than a e-scale sine ancient Tdi pure (uddfay Wiotes By waturals, it aand sharps) in the ease of the basic notes of the sadjagrima. Comparing Daniclou’s ealeukition with the 22ruti (= 1200 cents) system, the number of ents in Daniglou’s ancient sruti system, Hower Widely from their ancient equivalents. For example, his suldhu ga ("2 3, 294 cents) is 21 cents more than the sudha ga (= 273 cents) in the ancient Stuti system. In my opinion Daniélou is mistaken when he takes the Suda ca x Hg 94 cents) as a perfect fifth (downwards) Indian [asa perteet fourth on sualdha ma: 4), since the an comonanee” did not regard the notes. ma. ani is ec sani. which means that they were not in a perfect fourth relationship, The present writer suggests that in the ancient period the Indian musicians might have used the harmonic seventh (°/, = 969 cents) as siudilit ni and the harmonic minor third (7), = 267 comts) as suddha ga. In conformity with ancient theory these notes (ie. gu and mi) constituted a consonant felationship, whereas mu and ni didnot. The intervals "jy and 7, may “appear To be rather Tow interpretations of the ancient suldha ga and suddha ai, but thiy becomes less conspicuous, if we consider Ramimdtya’s inter- pretation of these intervals. Applying the Pythagorean temperament, which he obviously borrowed from the Arubs, to the sixteenth century Karnik sind (a fretied lute with four playing strings), this South Indian musicologist interpreted these notes (or eather intervals to sa) much lower, that is 10 say. Sudha ga as iy = 204 cents = f>°* and Sudha ni as ?/yy = 906 cents on (>The present writer proposes substituting ri of ratio "jy9 = 165 cent | which is almost equal to the mathematically calculated. threé-ruti ri VAG x 545 cents (" should the ancient musicians not have used this harmonic of ratio '/,9. which is an easily recognizable interval when played in the third octave bya wind instrument, for example by a flute, There are grounds for regarding this interval, «riiruti rsubha, as a very significant one in ancient Indian 7 Compare HN. 2, 23 (Butods ed.: Ghosh, Trans hp. ch, 26,220; MBRH. 64, p14: SienSR_1, 3, 849, KUSR. 2,1, 1,244; SomRV. 1,37 and TUS, pI icient Indian notes in Western notation. in representing the AVDHs accidentals (flats ulation according 10 the tervals (Wo sa sdvaaa ga (5), artara gor (84), Suda mat (iy), saa pat Pb Sudha die (°'5) and kakall ni 25/4) corresponds reasonably well with the the other intervals suggested by him differ ‘on sukdha ui 4 = 996 cents). ‘The latter interval is incorrectly calculated 163.5 cents), for Daniélou’s ri (*/, = 204 cents). Why\, MELODY 7 ~ “ music. Three of these intervals of ratio '" yy (= 165 cents)_constitute at fourth of 495 cents (3 x 165 cents), which very CTosely matches the perfect fourth */5 498 cents) as well as the nine-sruti ma 491 cents) of the -sruti system, the so-called mut amin, ble ma® which was probably a fundamental note in the system. Ri of ratio "yy (= 165 cents) can which, according to the ancient theory. yx consonant. ie, constituted w perfect fifth of ratio *, with ri (dha x = _ Moreover, the tatio "i iF OF interest because it on of th string into 11 equal parts, 11 being a factor of the total number of ingperish: Srutis (22) eaistng inthe o 7 “Bur fest and foremostthe interval ri of ratio "yy is of vital importance because without this interval Bharata’s well know experiment with the two vinis” would not be possible. In order to prove the existence of the sruti id especially of the main Sruti (prumina sruti), which constitutes. the difference between the four-sruti pur of the sedaagrdind and the three-srutt pa ol the niadhyamagrama, the author of the Natyasistia’(dated first eentiiry B.C. or first century”A.D.) recommends taking two vinas (most probably arched harps), one of which has fixed (dhrwa), while the other has changeable (culo), tuning, First Bharata states that one should lower the ‘pa of the cala-vind one sruti, Obviously the author cannot use-the sruti aya val for measuring the new three-scuti pu whilst at the same time 8 to prove the very eXisience of the Sruti itself. In my opinion Bharata's statement does not imply that the three-srut pa of the mudhyamagrdma can be tuned by subtracting one micro- (rut from the four-sruti pa of the sudjagrdma. Theoretivally the three-Sruti pu is indeed one srutifower than the fo In practice, that is to say when produced Grr ihe ancient vind (ie. the arched harp with 7 or 9 strings "® sounding sw ri ‘ga (ant, ga) ma pa dha ni (Ki. nid) the threescuti pa must have been tuned as a perfect fourth (*/, = 498 cents) on ri (9 = 165 cents), since | My ters © Compare MBH. 251, po 68, TH; BRN. 24, 72-73 Qombay ed.. Ghosh, Transl Up. 72. ch. 38, 72.79, The experiment the (40 cade is obviously, meant for the ached ini; ef, Simhabhipils on SieaSR. 101, 1016, vol ep TA LW and RUSK 2 1 For the experiment itll compare BON 2%, 27 rods ed vol WW. p. 20. Li: Transl Up. Mh E2h, oh, 28, 24: MBRh. 29, po S12 trom the bottom wv p.&, 1. SiraSR 1, 3, 1822: KuSK, TS Compare BhN. 29, 118 Barwake sks Ghost Trash Ue pe a5. th. 295 120). AK. Coomaraviamy, ‘The Parts of a Vind, in: LAOS. $0 (1930): Vidvan $. Kr Research on Musil Instruments of India, in JM.A.M. 33 (1962), p. Ik. Marcel-Dubors UML, p. MOF Sachs, MALL p. 138 6 Handbuch der HW, Abt. Bd. VE at