PREPARING LANDSCAPE PLANS

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ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Design is as individualistic as the person

who designs. However, the elements
and principles of design are means
through which a designer monitors the
effectiveness and success of a project.
These elements and principles serve as
structures and guidelines for design
development. The design elements are
the tools a designer uses to accomplish
the design principles in a project. No
consensus exists within the design world
on the finite list of elements and
principles. Definitions and understanding
differ from one person to another.

The elements of design are line, form,

texture, and color. A designer uses these
elements to generate a design. The
principles of design are focalization, proportion and scale, balance, order and unity, repetition, rhythm and sequence,
and interconnection. Use the elements of design to accomplish these design principles.

Most artists incorporate the principles of design into their projects. However, some artists “break the principles”.
Experienced artists who “break the principles” with solid intentions are usually successful. These artists use line,
form, texture, and color to complete a composition*. However, the artists may or may not incorporate all the
principles of design into the composition.

Landscape designers are artists. The same elements and principles of design found in works of art also apply to
landscape design. These elements and principles of design make up the art and science of landscape design.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

The elements of design are the visual and physical features of the plant and hardscape components that make up a
landscape design. These features include line, form, texture, and color. A landscape designer uses these features to
enhance the design principles.

*Underlined words are defined in the Glossary of Terms.

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Line

Line plays an important role in a landscape. This design

element causes physical and/or visual movement. Line
leads the viewer’s eyes through the landscaped space.
It defines and delineates space. A skilled designer
recognizes the use of line. He/she applies line in all aspects
of the landscape.

As a designer, incorporate line into a landscape by using

contrasting plant material and by forming patterns with
similar plant materials. Pattern is line organized in a
repetitive sequence. Examples of lines created in a
landscape include ground patterns, edges of contrasting
plant materials, and tree tops meeting the sky.

Steer physical or visual movement directly through the environment. Use straight lines to represent formality or a
contemporary concept. Intersecting straight lines suggest hesitation, change of view or direction, or a pause.

Meandering or curved lines suggest a more relaxed, slower movement. Use these to create a casual, informal concept.

Form

Form is the two or three-dimensional shape and structure of an object or space. Whether it is two or three
dimensional, form is line surrounding mass. The shapes of trees and the areas of grass bound by edging are
examples of form expressed in a landscape. The air space created by two plant materials set side by side is also an
expression of form.

All the components in a landscape have a distinctive and natural form. The forms of plants contribute to the total
design composition. The basic form of each plant depends on the plant’s natural growth habit. Some of the more
common forms of landscape plants include round, conical, oval, weeping, horizontal, and upright.

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Most deciduous trees and shrubs have a rounded form. A conical form is characteristic of many evergreen trees.
Evergreen shrubs have more of a horizontal form.

The concept or theme for a landscape dictates which forms are most appropriate within that concept or theme.
Formal concepts suggest the use of very tailored forms of plant material and ground beds. Such a formal landscape
would include very straight, crisp, and precise planting beds; topiaries; and other visually clean-lined plants. Informal
or woodland concepts mandate much more irregular or natural forms. Casual curving ground beds and loosely
branched trees and vines have forms to satisfy this concept.

As a designer, incorporate form into a landscape to manipulate a person’s emotions. Use vertical forms for strong
accents and for adding height. Horizontal or spreading forms add visual width to tall structures. Incorporate
weeping or drooping forms to create soft lines and to provide a transition to the ground plane. Rounded plant forms
create large masses and are effective as borders and enclosures.

Consider the element of form when making design decisions regarding design details for plants, structures, and
ground patterns.

Texture

Texture is the surface quality of any plant material or structure in the landscape. It is the feature of a plant or
structure’s physical surface qualities as determined by form and size. Texture is also a feature of the aggregation of
the minor units that make up the plant or structure.

Texture is relative. It must be seen as a comparison. Texture is analyzed by comparison between objects, by
association of these objects with each other, and by distance.

Texture is associated with the senses of touch and sight. Referring to the physical surface of plants (smooth, rough,
shiny, or dull), texture is tactile. Texture is also viewed as the organization of the size and arrangement of a plant’s
component parts (leaves, stems, and branches).

In addition to being a physical feeling like rough or soft, texture also describes how one perceives a visual difference.
For example, the leaves of one plant are rough and coarse when compared to the smaller leaves of a second plant.
However, when compared to the larger leaves of a third plant, the smaller leaves of the first plant appear smooth
and fine. As another example, consider coarse-grade pea gravel. Next to fine sand, the pea gravel has a coarse
texture. When compared to granite or marble chips, the coarse-grade pea gravel has a finer texture.

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Visually coarse textures have border impacts. Coarse textures keep the viewer’s eyes busy. Progressing from fine
textured plant material to coarse textured plant material in a landscape tends to contract the composition. The coarse
textured plant materials appear to advance toward the viewer, making a large space seem smaller and more intimate.

Finer textures are easier for the viewer’s eyes to span. With finer textures, the eyes continue searching for an
accent on which to focus. Progressing from coarse textured plant material to fine textured plant material in a
landscape tends to expand the composition. Fine textured plant materials visually recede and appear farther away.
They make an area seem larger and more expanded.

Texture gives a designer an added dimension for providing greater variety and interest to a landscape. As a
designer, proceed with texture changes in a logical and graduated manner. Proceed in sequence so the continuity
of the landscape is not disrupted.

ACTIVITY: Acquire several specimens of landscape plants. Compare their textures in relation to each other.
How does the texture of each specimen change when compared to the texture of each of the other specimens?

Color

Light is the source of color. Light consists of several visible wavelengths. Each wavelength produces a characteristic
color. Color and light are inseparable. Without light, color does not exist. White is the accumulation of all light.
Black is the absence of light.

The colors that people see are reflected wavelengths. For example, the color perceived as red is the red wavelength
reflected from an object. This reflected wavelength is received by the eyes and perceived in the brain. The other
visible wavelengths are absorbed by the object and not received by the eyes.

Artists and designers use the color wheel to study colors and their relationships. A position for all colors exists on
the color wheel. Red, blue, and yellow are referred to as the primary colors. These colors cannot be made from
any other color.

Combining any two of the primary colors produces a secondary color. The secondary colors are violet, green,
and orange. Mixing red with blue makes violet. Blue mixed with yellow creates green. Mix yellow with red to
get orange.

red + blue = violet

blue + yellow = green
yellow + red = orange

The primary and secondary colors make up the color spectrum. The color spectrum can be seen when visible
light passes through a prism. The prism separates, or refracts, the light into the individual colors making up the
color spectrum.

Combining equal parts of a primary color and an adjacent secondary color produces a tertiary color. The name of
a tertiary color consists of the names of both colors from which it was created. The primary color is always named
first. For example, red mixed with orange creates red-orange. Six tertiary colors exist on the color wheel. These
colors are red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and red-violet.

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White, gray, or black added to any of the twelve
pure colors (hues), respectively produce a tint
(pastel), tone, or shade of the color. White, gray,
and black are neutral colors. Value describes the
lightness or darkness of a hue. A pure hue has full
value or intensity. Decrease value by adding white to
make a tint. Increase the value by adding black,
which creates a shade. Adding gray makes a tone of
any hue.

Using color in a landscape is the same as with any other form of art. Knowing the effects of color is important
to the designer when contemplating the landscape design. Designers use color in the landscape as a background
or basic “gentle wash” to harmonize the view onto the landscape. Colors used in this manner are pleasing and
smooth. Another use of color in the landscape is for accent. In this manner, color is an “emphasizing factor” for
the composition.

Color combinations incorporated in a design influence the moods of those who interact with the design. Bright
colors excite or stimulate emotional responses. Subdued or cool colors slow down emotional responses and
express a sense of restfulness.

Yellows, reds, and oranges are warm and advancing colors. These colors are associated with warmth because
they are the colors of the sun, fire, and heat. Warm colors add a dramatic and excited feeling to an environment.
These colors appear to advance and move toward the viewer. Warm colors can infuse a high energy level into
those with whom they have contact. Objects or plants with these colors stand out and are the first to be seen.

The cool colors of blue and green express restfulness and coolness. These colors are associated with ice, sky, and
water. Cool colors have a receding visual effect. These colors provide the viewer with a sense of depth. Cool
colors make the object of interest appear to be receding into the background.

Warm, yellow sunlight and cool, blue moonlight have very different effects on color in the landscape. Artificial
lighting also has a dramatic impact on color.

As a designer, consider several factors concerning the influences of color in a landscape design.

1. People have a psychological tendency to “lean toward” light and vivid colors.
2. Bright light and warm colors excite emotional responses. These conditions encourage the viewer’s eyes to
move throughout the landscape.
3. Subdued light and cool colors are more conducive to moody reflections of thought.
4. Warm colors (red, yellow, orange) appear nearer or advanced. Cool colors (blue, green) appear receded or
farther away.
5. Plants or plant masses must blend with their surroundings. If a color change is desired in a plant mass,
proceed in a sequence. A gradual color change in the plant mass maintains the continuity in the design.
6. Colors and textures relate. Delicate colors (tints and pastels) express fine textures. Earth-tone colors
(brown, rust, red) express coarse textures.

ACTIVITY: Research and identify the different types of light bulbs available for lighting purposes. Observe the
light spectrum of several of the examples. Perform an experiment on the effects the different types of lights have on
the color of plants. Which lights would be most appropriate for use in the landscape?
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PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

The principles of design serve as guidelines that

govern the organization of the design elements and
materials in accordance with the laws of nature.
Landscape design principles include focalization,
proportion and scale, balance, order and unity,
repetition, rhythm and sequence, and
interconnection. Landscape designers use these
principles of design to create landscape designs that
are both functional and aesthetically pleasing.

Focalization

Focalization is created as a visual break in the sequence and flow of the landscape. The focal point is the point or
area of the landscape that attracts the viewer’s eyes. The visual break captures the attention of the viewer and
draws it to the focal point. Without a point or area on which to focus, the viewer’s eyes become lost and confused
throughout the landscape.

As a designer, create an accent or focal point that is strong and effective. Do not incorporate too many focal points
into the landscape. Otherwise, their effect will be lost. Use the design elements (line, form, texture, and color) to
move the viewer’s eyes through the landscape to the place of the focal point.

In addition to using the design elements to create and draw attention to a focal point, incorporate similar plant forms of
varying sizes. Create a focal point with a contrast in spacing between the plants or by grouping several plants together.

Most landscapes usually contain visual focal points such as plants and structures. However, running water and
rustling leaves are effective as focal points, capturing the sense of sound.

The focal points in a landscape may also be focal areas. These focal areas may change throughout the year. For
example, the trees with their changing foliage are the focal area during the autumn. In the spring and summer the
focal area changes between colorful groups of annual bedding plants and groups of blooming trees and shrubs in
the landscape.

The focal area attracts the viewer’s eyes in the same manner as the focal point. However, the focal area consists
of more than a single element or component. Focal areas consist of a group of parts or components.

Minor focal points are effective in advancing the viewer’s eyes through the landscape to the main attraction or
dominant focal point. When incorporating minor focal points into a design, take caution so as not to confuse the
viewer. Keep the minor focal points minor, compared to the dominant or major focal point.

If color is the element to be used as the focal point on a site with great depth, use blues or whites as minor focal
points. Advance these minor focal points to a dominant red, orange, or strong yellow focal point. Why advance
with this color sequence? Remember that warm, bright colors advance toward the viewer and cool, subdued
colors recede from the viewer. In this color sequence, the viewer’s eyes move from blue to blue until they focus on
the red.

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Proportion and Scale

Proportion is the relationship that exists among the components of a landscape. It also describes the relationship
between the components of the landscape and the landscape as a whole. Proportion involves the size relationships
between and among the components making up the landscape.

Proportion describes the mathematical relationships among the dimensions of space and site components making
up an area. These mathematical relationships are totally separate from human perception dimensions. In a sense,
proportion is similar to a ratio. For example, corner plantings next to a house that are two-thirds the distance from
the ground to the eave are proportional to the house. The height of the corner plantings is proportional to the height
of the eave.

Scale is the human perception of the size of space and form related to the human dimension. Scale is relative to the
perception of the viewer. For a large two-story house, corner plantings that are proportional to the house may
appear out of scale to the viewer.

Because scale is relative to perception, a designer can manipulate scale psychologically within the site. Although
the components of the site may remain proportional, a change in the placing of the components will dramatically
affect the scale.

Plan for trees in settings relative to the size of the matured trees. Plant tall trees near a tall, narrow house or
building. A small house surrounded by large trees appears smaller than it actually is. A large house surrounded by
small trees appears larger than it actually is.

A design is in proper proportion and scale when a pleasing relationship exists among and between each component
and the design as a whole.

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Balance

Balance is a design principle defined in terms of weight.

It is the equalization of visual weight from one area of a
landscape composition to another. Two distinctly different
types of balance exist in landscape design: symmetrical
and asymmetrical.

Symmetrical balance is a formal balance. It is sometimes

referred to as bi-lateral symmetry. Symmetrical balance
is recognizable in that an exact sameness occurs on either
side of the composition. The same components are
repeated on both sides of the composition. If a line (center
axis) were drawn through the middle of the form or space,
each side would be identical. The visual and actual weight
is equally distributed on each side.

A symmetrically balanced landscape compares to a level balance scale. Both sides of the scale are level with the
exact same weights on each plate.

Asymmetrical balance is an informal balance. It does not repeat the same plant material in the same quantity or in
the same relative position on either side of the center axis. An asymmetrically balanced design implies equal
weights on either side of the center axis. However, it does not have the “sameness” on each side.

An asymmetrically balanced landscape compares to a level

candy scale. A quantity of candy is balanced by weight
similar to the weight of the candy. Although the objects
are different on either side of the candy scale, the scale is
still balanced because the weights are equal.

While viewing an asymmetrically balanced landscape, the

viewer feels a sense of stability. If one side of a landscape
does not equally offset the other, an imbalance results.
Such an imbalance is similar to an unbalanced scale.
Imbalance in a landscape is not desirable.

Order And Unity

Order and unity are emotional and visual reactions to the overall structure and organization of the design elements.
The designer blends the design elements and the design detail decisions of materials with the existing site conditions
to establish order and unity. The concept created by order and unity is carried out throughout the design.

Order is the overall organization and structure of a design. It is the basic scheme or “skeleton” of the design.
Order is created and carried out through the composition. Examples of order in a design may be symmetrical
versus asymmetrical balance or a formal versus naturalistic arrangement.

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Unity is the harmonious relationship among all elements and characteristics of a design. A unified design is
homogeneous and congruous. A design lacking unity appears disorderly and haphazard.

Too many components and materials and the complex use of the elements create competitiveness and a lack of
integration within a design. To establish unity in a design, stay simple and minimize differences. Limit the complexity
of the design elements incorporated into the design. Group the elements in groups of three or uneven numbers.
Always remember to simplify diversity and reduce the number of differences between the components in the landscape.

Repetition

Repetition involves repeating or using an element more than once throughout a design. It helps establish and add order
and unity to a design. Repetition provides a common feature throughout the design that pulls the design together.

Rhythm a nd Sequence

Rhythm and sequence describe the dynamic unity or the related, orderly movement that implies continuity. They
are the apparent flow of lines, textures, and colors that express a feeling of motion rather than confusion.

Order and repetition help establish rhythm and sequence in a design. Rhythm and sequence characterize continuity
and connection from one part of the design to another part. They group the components together, drawing the
design together. This keeps the viewer’s eyes busy and allows them to follow easier through the design.

Rhythm and sequence lead the viewer’s eyes easily and smoothly along a deliberate, dominant, and visual path.
The viewer’s eyes move back and forth with a feeling of smooth motion between the components of the site and
the focal point.

As a designer, accomplish rhythm and sequence in a design by repeating one or more of the elements such as line
(creating a pattern), form, texture, and color. In addition, build on the other design principles to create rhythm and
sequence in a design.

Interconnection

Interconnection is a design principle for producing

unity in the design. Various components in the design
are physically linked together. Repetition helps in
establishing interconnection. A designer may
incorporate interconnection into the entire design or
into only a small space within the design.

SUMMARY

Every design a designer creates is unique. However, the elements and principles of design are probably included
in each design. Use the design elements of line, form, texture, and color as guidelines in design development. In
addition, consider the principles of focalization, proportion and scale, balance, order and unity, repetition, rhythm
and sequence, and interconnection.

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 Acknowledgements

Keith Zamzow, Curriculum Specialist, Instructional Materials Service,

Texas A&M University, developed this topic.

Vickie Marriott, Office Software Associate, Instructional Materials Service,

Texas A&M University, edited and prepared the layout and design for this topic.

Christine Stetter, Artist, Instructional Materials Service,

Texas A&M University, prepared the illustrations for this topic.

REFERENCES

Hannebaum, Leroy. Landscape Design: A Practical Approach. Reston Publishing Company, Inc.: Reston, VA.

Ingels, Jack E. Landscaping: Principles and Practices. Delmar Publishers, Inc.: Albany, NY.

Johnson, James L., McKinley, William J. Jr., and Benz, M. “Buddy.” Flowers: Creative Design. San Jacinto
Publishing Co.: College Station, TX.

Nelson, Wm. R., Jr. Landscaping Your Home. University of Illinois College of Agriculture Cooperative Extension
Service: Urbana-Champaign, IL.

Piercall, Gregory M. Residential Landscapes: Graphics, Planning, and Design. Reston Publishing Company,
Inc.: Reston, VA.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Aggregation – The collecting of units or parts into a mass or whole.

Composition – The putting together of a whole (make-up).

Congruous – Appropriate or harmonious agreement among the components of the site.

Tactile – Relating to the sense of touch.

Topiary – A form of pruning in which plants are severely sheared into formal, unnatural shapes.

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 SELECTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES

SHORT ANSWER/LISTING: Answer the following questions or statements in the space provided.

1. Name the elements of design.

a. _______________________________ c. _______________________________
b. _______________________________ d. _______________________________

2. List the principles of landscape design.

a. _______________________________ e. _______________________________
b. _______________________________ f. _______________________________
c. _______________________________ g. _______________________________
d. _______________________________

3. Explain the differences between primary colors, secondary colors, and tertiary colors.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

4. Explain how designers incorporate color into landscape design.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain the function of a focal point in a landscape composition.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

6. Differentiate between symmetrical balance and asymmetrical balance.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

7. Explain how to establish unity in a landscape design.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

8. Explain the design principle of interconnection.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

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 ADVANCED STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1. Sketch the forms of several landscape plants in your neighborhood.

2. Observe several landscapes in your neighborhood. For each landscape, observe how effectively each of
the elements and principles of design are incorporated into the design.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Reproduction prohibited without written permission.

Instructional Materials Service
Texas A&M University
2588 TAMUS
College Station, Texas 77843-2588
http://www-ims.tamu.edu

2007
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