THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GANG ACTIVITY AND SOCIAL INJUSTICE

IN THE CARIBBEAN

Grade 65%
By Cornelius, Collin, Christine, Ann [cookspringer@yahoo.com] Richard ( I had to
search for this and insert it) full name and UWI ID
INTRODUCTION

The phenomenon of gang activity in the Caribbean has impacted greatly on the society.

This level of activity has been shown in the rise of crime and violence throughout the

region. The gangs impact communities either through fear of them or by victimization

from their crimes. Nowadays, gangs in the Caribbean are acting like the mafia; it is

becoming frightening to see how gang violence has escalated within the last decade.

Jamaica was the only Caribbean island that was usually associated with gang violence.

But with the explosion of the media revolution one is now aware that gang violence is

seriously affecting the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas, St. Vincent and the

Grenadines and Barbados are under siege due to rise in crime and violence. Gang

violence is linked with other criminal activities such as drugs, larceny, rape and

homicide. The concept “One ring to rule them all,” from the trilogy “Lord of Rings”

shows that the one who controls the ring has ultimate power. This way of operating is

reflective of the gangs operating within some of the Caribbean. In light of these issues,

this project attempts to show the relationship between gang activity and social injustice in

the Caribbean with special focus on Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica.

1
METHODOLOGY

This methodology is largely inductive because it is utilizing literature sourced from the

University of the West Indies, St Augustine; a research paper from the Criminology and

Social Psychology Department by Roy D McCree; internet sources “Into the Abyss” by

Mike Carlie; newspaper clippings from the Trinidad Guardian, Newsday, Jamaican

Observer, The Jamaican Gleaner, and Caribbean Network News. Two informal

interviews were done by two of the group members with three young persons from the

Gonzales community.

DEFINITION OF GANGS

According to Roy D. McCree: “The term ‘gang’ has been used and bandied about in the

local media without any clear idea as to its meaning. In this paper, a “gang” refers to a

particular group of individuals or a collectivity possessing some common aims and

values, which might be formally as well as informally organized to engage in certain

activities which can be deemed illegal or unlawful. With such usage, the term ‘gang’

deviates from the conventional and stereotypical meaning- groups of individuals who

operate mainly on the “streets” or in the public domain- and also include those who

operate within the formal and legitimate occupational structure be it in the public or

private sector together with the elite in the society.”1 The FBI also defines a gang as “a

criminal enterprise having an organizational structure acting as a continuing criminal

conspiracy, which employs violence and other criminal activity to sustain the

enterprise.”2
1
Roy D McCree. “Violence: A Preliminary Look at Gangs in Trinidad and Tobago” Caribbean Journal of
Criminology and Social Psychology. January/July 1998. Trinidad. Pg 155.
2
FBI (www.fbi.gov)
http://www.faculty.smsu.edu/m/mkc096f/what_I_learned_about/GANGS/gangs.htm#©

2
THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND GANGS

Klein refers to a gang as, “any identifiable group of youngsters who: 1) are generally

perceived as a distinct aggregation by others in the neighborhood; 2) recognize

themselves as a denotable group (almost invariably with a group name); and 3) have been

involved in a sufficient number of delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent negative

response from neighborhood residents and/or law enforcement agencies.”3

Consistent with that definition, most studies have focused on the period of gang

involvement and have not delved into the periods before and after gang association.4

Terence P. Thornberry and four other researchers in their treatment of gang membership

as ‘a life-course orientation,’ have sought to look at life before and after the gang through

longitudinal observation.

They see gang membership as a trajectory that some people enter and others do not and

offer some explanation as to the reasons for this. “It is unlikely that the social and

psychological forces that lead to gang membership are only those established early in the

life course. The life-course perspective highlights the importance of unfolding

relationships and developmental influences that are more proximal to the outcome.”

They have concluded that the genesis of gangs has to be more than just social structural

position or family relationships but must also include, ‘ the broader social ecology’ of

neighbourhood, school, peer, and individual characteristics.

3
M.W. Klein, “ Street Gangs and Street Workers ” (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971)
4
Terence, P. Thornberry, et al “ Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective” (Cambridge:
University Press, 2003) 7.

3
WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GANGS?

Most studies suggest two basic variables, structural factors and psychological factors. In

our local context the structural factors would consist of minorities, young and mostly

male whose lifestyles are characterized by poverty, high crime, under-education and

underemployment.

The psychological factors, which are largely products of the structural, include status

needs, identity and belonging needs, social disabilities and psychological characteristics.

Status needs refer to the gang member’s need for social status, which is supplied in part

by gang affiliation. Within the gang you are somebody, people respect you, you’ve got a

name.

Identity and belonging needs are conferred to members through a sense of identity

especially for those who lack a sense of self. This can be as a result of single parents or

abusive parents or basically a lack of proper role models (See appendix 1).

Social disabilities generally range from poor table manners to poor conversational skills.

These social disabilities have the effect of lowering an individual’s self-esteem,

withdrawal from school, law and a total rejection of the values of adult authority and an

increased dependency on acceptance by the gang.

Psychological characteristics are reflected generally in the hard-core members who differ

from the fringe members in the areas of intelligence, control, school performance, and

group dependence. Core members tend to be more anti-social, in fact some studies show

that gangs attract psychopathic youth and some seek out that type of youth for their

4
violence. Klein in his book, ‘The American street gang,’ says “ the gang is seen as an

aggregate of individuals held together more by their own shared incapacities than by

mutual goals.”5

Once formed gangs are held together by other variables such as inter-gang rivalry, by a

shared perception that things will never improve and oppositional institutions like police

or school.

TYPES OF GANGS

There are different types of gangs in terms of size, composition, length of time in

existence, the nature of their activities, the scope of their operations (whether national or

regional, or international), level of organizations and nature of their links, if any to the

state and to many agencies. This being said, there are various types of gangs: street,

skinheads, bikers, soft, semi-hardcore, posh and hardcore.

Street gangs: Shown as hanging around street corners, openly. They are usually

drinking, smoking, messing around with a few girls, or move around the streets in a

possessive, get outta – our way fashion- street gang seems aimless.

Skinheads: They usually do not fit the street gang picture. They are insiders; they are

working on their written materials, or if outside, they are looking for a target, not just

lounging around aimlessly.

Bikers: They are focused on their machines, cruising or dealing drugs in an organized

manner, and like the skinheads, they are deliberately recognize rather than recognizable

by default.

5
M. W. Klein, “ The American street gang: its nature, prevalence and control.” New York: Oxford
University Press Inc, 1995).

5
Soft: These gangs refer largely to bands of teenage youths involved in such activities as

stealing, fruits and the like or what is called praedial larceny. They are not violent and

possess no instrument of terror, which can threaten life, limb or property. Most of us have

some boyhood or girlhood association with these.

Semi- Hard Core: These are gangs usually comprising of unemployed youths and adults

whose activities include more serious forms of praedial larceny such as burglaries,

breaking and entering, assault, and minor robberies ( of individuals). These gangs do

possess weapons of terror and are capable of murdering or wounding to achieve their

aims and objectives.

Posh: The posh gang refers largely to the upper class and the middle class individuals in

society including the entrepreneurial and professional elites who engage in white collar

type crime and the drug trade. These gang members are normally legally employed and

are among the respected in society. They may not necessarily possess weapons of terror

and murder is not normally part of their operational strategy although it can never be

ruled out.

Hardcore: This type of gang can often span the wider gamut of criminal activity engaged

in, by its semi-hard core and posh counterparts, but their activity also includes

institutional robberies (banks, stores), rape – murders, killing, molotov cocktails and

dismemberment. The hardcore gang, is therefore, distinguished primarily by the character

of the violence it inflicts on the victims. Its members are drawn largely from the working

class and lower income communities and are usually unemployed in the legal sense of the

word (See Appendix 2).

6
MEMBERSHIP OF GANG AND GANG IDENTIFICATION

Characteristics such as having a gang name, wearing clothes of common colour, being

tattooed, and the throwing of a sign (the sign language of the different gangs) are used in

the various gangs. Members of the group interact with each other in an ongoing

relationship.

STRUCTURE OF GANGS

Gangs must perform certain functions in order to survive. They must recruit members,

provide for the well- being of the members, make decisions about immediate (and

perhaps about long term) goals and settle internal disputes. Based on the organization of

gangs, there are many and varied opinions on the issue. 6 According to research done on

gangs, there are two patterns in terms of structure. There is the vertical and the horizontal

approach to the theory of the organization of gang leadership.

The vertical structure refers to the hierarchy, and includes differentiation between leaders

and followers, age groups, who may move from one level to another as they get older or

the gangs move on.7 The horizontal structure refers to the leadership style which is not

vertical in nature, including linkages from the neighbourhoods from which gang members

are drawn and the combination of different, separate, gangs into “nations”, “super gangs”,

alliances or federations.

GANG ACTIVITY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

6
Covey, C, Herbert. Juvenile Gangs. Pg. 3
7
Ibid., 3.

7
 The exponential increase in the level of violence over the last two years has a direct

correlation to increased gang activity. Already for the year 2005 the country has seen a

record breaking ninety-six murders, most of which are linked to gang warfare.

The level of delinquency, crime and violence within the 10- to 19 year old population,

have been the focus of growing concern for the government and the people of Trinidad

and the region. Equally, the matter of drug dealing and teen gangs is said to be a difficult

one. Understandably then, it is probably not unreasonable to make a link between

Trinidad and Tobago’s recent political turmoil, poverty level, the prevalence of American

media, and the increased murder rate in the country. So too, the division that comes with

placing students in school after examination can lead to some amount of resentment and

hostility in the government run schools since most of the students are from the poorer

classes of the society. Joann E. Headley quoting Deosaran states: “one in every three

youths in the government-run schools is afraid to go to school because of fear of being

hurt, attacked, or bullied.”8 It therefore means that the school should be seen as central to

the understanding of delinquency and teen gangs in Trinidad and Tobago.

The need for belonging and a sense of purpose are factors that have influenced some of

the teens to join the Jamaat Al Muslimeen, a group of Muslim extremists that staged a

coup in Trinidad on July 27, 1990. It is said that the country was alarmed to learn how

many teens and youths were recruited for the Jamaat Al Muslimeen mission. The writer

cites the Muslimeen group as slightly different in its formation to other gangs in Trinidad.

Headley states: “the Muslimeen is a consistent and sustained group formed around its
8
Maureen P. Duffy, Teen Gangs: A Global View. (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004) 196

8
religious affiliations. Abu Bakr, the group’s leader, entices his young male followers with

the promises of schooling abroad in Libya, monetary security, fame, and religious

absolution from any illegal or unlawful activities.”9 So too, McCree cites similar factors

which would lead to the formation of gangs and criminal behavior in Trinidad and

Tobago. He states: “the role of poverty, social and status deprivation, social

disorganization, values and family background, and identity formation of the

individual.”10 Based on his research, the need for money figured very prominently on the

list of factors that pushes teens to join gangs.

Trinidad and Tobago is an oil rich country but there are wide discrepancies between the

classes, effectively eliminating the middle class and expanding the lower classes. The

result of this uneven distribution of wealth has allowed the criminal element in society to

use the disillusionment of the masses to their advantage. The first indications of this was

seen in the failed 1990 coup attempt that was largely orchestrated by the Abu Bakr led

Muslimeen movement.

The problem of gang violence begins in the schools as teens are encouraged into gang

violence with the lure of financial gain. Young people are used to peddle drugs among

their peers and are eventually initiated, according to their performance, into the more

serious crimes of murders and kidnappings.

9
Ibid 200
10
Ibid

9
Peculiar to the local scene is the fact that there is not that sense of permanence that is

normally associated with gang affiliation, but rather, persons tend to join for the duration

of a job. It is only the hardcore members who persist and fight for turf as seen in areas

such as Laventille, Morvant, and Gonzales for example.

GANG ACTIVITY IN JAMAICA

The gang dilemma in Jamaica is extremely serious, affecting young people, their

families, the wider community, and Jamaica’s reputation around the world.11 One writer

provides this revealing story:

When Jermaine awoke to the sound of gunshots he knew exactly what to do-grab

his weapon and return fire. “We have to defend our community,” the 17 year old

said, “if we don’t, they’ll kill everyone. They know we don’t support the

government.” He joined other gunmen who engaged the police and army in three

days of street battle that erupted in poor corner of Kingston… Gang violence is

as endemic as poverty in Jamaica, a country of 2.6 million people that has a

murder rate five times that of the United States.12

The example cited gives a clear idea of the level of gang activity and its attendant effects

in the Jamaican context. It speaks of a situation that has alarmed and destabilized the very

fabric of Jamaican life. The ordinary Jamaican citizen is terrified and weary of the

engulfing dilemma.

11
Maureen P. Duffy, Teen Gangs: A Global View. (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004) 124.
12
Ibid. ,

10
The increase of gang activities in Jamaica in the last twenty years has reached epidemic

proportions and has gained worldwide notoriety. Some theorists align this level of gang

activity and high levels of crime with Jamaica’s strategic position as a major

transshipment point for the South American drug trade. So too, other commentators have

linked the increasing gang and crime activity to the large number of individuals who were

deported back to Jamaica from the United States of America, Canada, and Great Britain

in the late 1980s and 1990s. Lorna Black states: “these individuals, known as deportees,

were Jamaicans who had been convicted of crimes in the foreign countries in which they

resided and served their sentences. They were then sent back to Jamaica, often with

nothing to their names, few friends, and no visible means of support.”13 The literature

also said that the deportees were often schooled in the culture of gang rivalry, gang war,

turf control, and violence in their country of residence. As such when they arrive in

Jamaica, the deportees become quickly entrenched in the existing environment that

supports gang and criminal activities. So too, in some cases, the deportees took over the

reigns of power by becoming new gang leaders with their ability to introduce

management techniques learned from their criminal experiences in North America and

Europe. Quite understandably then, they became the masterminds who directed the

locals, the actual perpetrators of the crimes.14

It is said that gangs in Jamaica have accounted for about one-third of all homicides since

1995 (Jamaica Constabulary Force Gang Specialist, personal communication, February

2002). Identifiable gangs in Jamaica numbered 118 for the last quarter of 2001, with an

13
Ibid. 122
14
Maureen P. Duffy, Teen Gangs: A Global View. (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004) 123

11
average membership ranging from three to ten individuals (Jamaica Constabulary Force

Gang Specialist, February 2002). According to the Jamaica Constabulary Force, gangs

can be classified as active, inactive and dormant. The active gang is the term used to

describe the group that is actively participating in criminal activities in the country. It is

interesting to note that: “of the 118 identifiable gangs, about 20 percent are considered

highly active.”15 It therefore means that the gangs’ criminal activities amount to large-

scale operations across entire communities in Jamaica. It is said that some of the gangs

are closely aligned with the major political parties in the country. Some of these gangs

are said to be maintaining their relationship with gang members who migrate to the

United States and Europe.

Most of the gangs in Jamaica operate in the inner-city communities, largely in the capital

city of Kingston. It is said that there are two different types gangs operating in the

country. They are called the community and the criminal gangs. The community gang is

said to be a group of young males between 12 and 35 years of age who congregate

together for the purpose of ‘solidarity and peer group socializing’ and ultimately

defending turf.16 It is believed that the gangs are formed and maintained by situational

factors. Lorna Black quoting Moncrieffe states: “that many of the youths in a particular

community simply drifted to the only accessible and comforting structure available, that

is, the gang structures. The typical criminal gang is organized specifically to conduct

criminal activities. These criminal activities include involvement in the drug trade,

carjacking, and other forms of serious crimes, such as robbery and assault.”17 So too,

15
Ibid. 125
16
Ibid. ,
17
Maureen P. Duffy, Teen Gangs: A Global View. (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004) 125

12
Moncrieffe says that like gang members in other parts of the world, initially they become

members of a gang to seek identity and belonging. The writer said that criminal gangs

operate under the cover of community gangs. Moncrieffe identified gangs on three

different levels such as: high structure, moderate structure and lower-structure gangs. The

high structure gang is involved in: transnational drug trafficking, money laundering, and

arms dealing. In moderate structure: vehicle thefts, extortion of community members, and

robberies of banks, and businesses. The lower-structure gangs: small robberies, sexual

assault, and turf wars.

Historically gang creation in Jamaica can be traced back to the ghettoes of Kingston. The

organizations began as street gangs, somewhat similar to the gangs in the urban United

States. The gangs were said to have ties with the two major political parties in Jamaica

since many were spawned during the political upheaval that engulfed Jamaica in the mid-

1970s. According to Lorna Black: “political parties hired gangs of armed street youths to

intimidate their opponents in the struggle for power. During this era of political and

social disaffected youths who felt the future held little for them sought empowerment

through the respect they gained as armed enforcers for the political parties.”18

Having analyzed the situation of gangs in Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica, the

following social and economic factors lend support to causes for the rise in gang violence

and criminal activities in the above-mentioned territories.

18
Ibid. 127

13
SOCIAL INJUSTICES IN THE CARIBBEAN

According to Pope John Paul II, "It is essential for every human being to have a sense of

participating, of being a part of the decisions and endeavours that shape the destiny of the

world. Violence and injustice have often in the past found their root causes in people's sense

of being deprived of the right to shape their own lives. Future violence and injustice cannot

be avoided when the basic right to participate in the choices of society is denied."19

A portrait of the overwhelming majority of those in prison for violent crimes would be: a

male between 18 and 29 years of age. He would be functionally illiterate with no work

related skills and virtually no work experience. He would come from an urban slum and

have no assets, with little access to basic necessities (food and shelter) on a regular basis.

This portrait helps us to identify some important factors our sociologists usually link to

recent increases in crime in the Caribbean20:

a. Increased urbanization and high population density (decline in agriculture);

b. Increased income inequality between rich and poor;

c. Increased migration (and corresponding family disintegration);

d. Increased deportation from other countries of convicted criminals;

e. Increased unemployment (a growing urban wage-less class);

f. Declining living standards;

g. Level of economic discrimination (exclusion based on skin colour, family ties,

regional identity, language differences, social circumstances and religion).

19
World Day of Peace Message (Pope John Paul II, 1985), § 9.
20
Crime and Violence in Jamaica: Causes and Solutions, ed. Peter Philips & Judith Wedderburn
(UWI, 1988), pp. 19-48.

14
 h. Certainly one of the principal causes of much regional violence is the feeling of

frustration, betrayal and even alienation felt by many, especially the young, in a

post-independent Caribbean.

CONCLUSION:

As we have noted gangs are a product of the environment we have created for ourselves.

From the study these are identified as poverty, illiteracy, high unemployment rate,

unequal distribution of wealth, dysfunctional families, and anti social structures.

The above ideas constitute some of the root causes to the phenomenon of gang and gang

related activities in Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. The psychological factors such as

the need for belonging, low self esteem, to name a few, supports the view.

In order to address the phenomenon of gang activities, Caribbean leaders must approach

these social justice issues from a psychological, sociological, religious, and economic

perspective. To aid this process, the following recommendations have been forwarded for

consideration.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMBATING GANGS ACTIVITIES:

1. Introduction of and sustained youth and self-awareness development programmes

within the school, community and church.

2. Involvement and encouragement of leadership, peer-counselling training

programmes or workshops in order to bring about a better understanding and

vigilance within the family and community to deal with gangs and gang activity.

15
3. Implementation of adolescent development programmes, similar to that of Servol

should be implemented in schools especially junior and senior secondary.

4. Employment and on the job training programmes should also render

psychological training and development.

5. There should be collaboration and networking with government, law enforcement

agencies media and businesses to implement preventative measures within the

community. They can also render their services at various levels.

6. There should be hotlines and gang anonymous groups for gangsters who desire to

transform their lives. Centres similar to that of rehabilitation of drugs and

substance abuse should be set up.

7. Counselling and consultation by professionals should be made available to assist

individuals who are directly or indirectly connected or affected by gangs or gang

activities.

8. Support systems and pressure groups should be implemented to address the

situation of gang activity.

9. Media should sensitise the public through advertisement and other helpful

programmes.

10. Financial and social support services are needed and should be provided to assist

in gang prevention, reform and intervention measures.

11. Stringent measures by the powers that be and pressure groups should be

implemented to deal with delinquent parents. Parental guidance and training

support systems should be put in place to help parents to improve their parenting

role.

16
12. Religious denominations should have pastoral plan which should entail careful

strategic planning at all levels to be implemented to deal specifically with gang

prevention, reform and intervention measures on an ongoing basis.

13. The Government in addressing this problem must look at ways of alleviating the

extremes of poverty, wealth distribution, and the empowering of people,

especially along the East-West corridor. Better training must also be given to law

enforcement agencies and those involved in education so that there can be a

proactive approach to the problem of gang activity and by extension, crime, in

this twin island republic.

It is important for everyone to make a significant contribution in order to eliminate

the presence of gangs or gang activities from the society. Each one has an important

role to play. The task before us is alarming but it is not insurmountable. It has to

begin in the home and filter out into the wider society. Individually and collectively

we can make a difference as we collaborate our time, talent and treasure to bring

about the type of change that would challenge all for the betterment of a gang free

society.

17
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bird, Lester B. “A War on Crime". 5th September 2003.

http://www.antiguabarbuda.com/business_politics/prime_minister/pm_speech_policewee

k.asp

Chance, Kenton. “St Vincent and Grenadines Minister calls on police to be more

confidential.” Caribbean Net News Correspondent. January 26, 2005.

http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/01/26/confidential.shtml

18
“Crime in the Caribbean: Bubba, Bobo, Zambo & Zeeks.” Ttgapersweb Caribbean postal.

November 21. 2004. http://www.ttgapers.com/Article1068.html

Duffy, Maureen P. Teen Gangs: A Global View. (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004)

FBI (www.fbi.gov)

http://www.faculty.smsu.edu/m/mkc096f/what_I_learned_about/GANGS/gangs.htm#©

Herbert, Covey, C. Juvenile Gangs.

McCree, Roy D. “Violence: A Preliminary Look at Gangs in Trinidad and Tobago”

Caribbean Journal of Criminology and Social Psychology. January/July 1998. Trinidad.

Philips, Peter. Crime and Violence in Jamaica: Causes and Solutions, ed. & Judith

Wedderburn (UWI, 1988)

Pope John Paul II. World Day of Peace Message (1985)

Thornberry, Terence P., Krohn, Marvin D., Lizotte, Smith Alan J. Carolyn A., Tobin

Kimberly. “Gangs in Developmental Perspective: Substantive and Policy ”

Gangs and delinquency in development perspective.

Wiener Valerie “Ultimate…The Youth’s Choice.” Winning the War against youth gangs

London: Greenwood press. 1999.

19
20
 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

Why Gangs Form What Gangs Offer Why Youths Join

Gangs form due to the Acceptance They are discriminated

impact of social against and long to be

discrimination and accepted and have a sense

rejection. of belonging.
Gangs form due to the A surrogate family. The need for a family,

absence of a family and its unconditional love, positive

unconditional love, positive adult role models, and

adult role models, and proper discipline.

proper discipline.
The absence of a family its A surrogate family Their need for a family,

unconditional love, and unconditional love,

positive adult role models, positive adult role

and proper discipline. models, and discipline.

Gangs form due to a feeling Power and control over one's To overcome their feeling

of powerlessness. self, others, and life situations. of powerlessness.

Gangs form due to abuse, To escape abuse, reduce

fear, and a lack of security. Security feelings of fear, and to feel

secure.
Gangs form due to economic A means of earning money. For economic gain.

deprivation.
Gangs form due to school An alternative to school and Out of their frustration with

failure and low self-esteem. high self-esteem. school

Gangs form due to a lack of Opportunities to build positive To acquire high self teem.

self-esteem. self-esteem.
Gangs form due to the lack A rite of passage into To accomplish the passage

of acceptable rites of adulthood. from childhood to

passage into adulthood. adulthood.

Gangs form due to a lack of Activity To keep from being bored

legitimate free-time .

activities.

21
 Gangs form by building upon A setting in which an individual To vent their anger and

a pathological offender's can act out his or her rage in an accepting setting

needs. aggression
Gangs form due to the Any of the aforementioned. Any of the aforementioned.

influence of migrating gang

members.

APPENDIX 2

Type of Gang Membership Means Activities

Soft Teenagers Stone, slicks (sling Praedial larceny(fruit stealing)

shots)
Semi Hardcore Unemployed youths, Guns, knives, cutlasses Praedial larceny (burglary); Assault/

adults (individuals)
Posh Social elites, professional “Cooking the books” White collar crime; drugs

guns/murder

(complicity)
Hardcore Unemployed/working Guns, contract Robbery (organizations), drugs, rape

class killings,kidnappings

molotov cocktails,

dismemberment

22