Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass

Transfer

Robert Tauscher
Lehrstuhl A für Thermodynamik, Technische Universität München
D-85747 Garching, Germany

Abstract: This article mainly provides a selection of various applications of holographic in-
terferometry in heat and mass transfer research. investigations of compact heat exchangers,
the cooling of electronical equipment, simultaneous heat and mass transfer, mixing processes
and mass transfer in agitated vessels, condensation of steam bubbles and the supersonic hy-
drogen combustion will be presented. But also other engineering fields in which this tech-
nique is implemented, such as the non-destructive material testing, are described.

1
Introduction

With the availability of lasers with adequate light power and coherent length, the op-
tical measurement technique of holographic interferometry has become a powerful
tool for various investigation involving heat and mass transfer. Under the auspices
of Professor Mayinger many research projects using this technique as a measur-
ing tool have been performed. The studies cover a wide field such as compact heat
exchangers, the cooling of electronical devices, supersonic hydrogen combustion,
three-dimensional mixing and mass transfer in liquids, boiling and condensation,
simultaneous heat and mass transfer as well as non-destructive material testing. A
short selection of practical applications of holographic interferometry in the fields
mentioned above will be given in this chapter. All of the presented applications make
use of the basic principle of holographic interferometry as the measuring technique.
Additionally, some of the applications show how further developements or combi-
nations of the basic principle can make these technique even more powerful and
applicable to research tasks. The examples presented in the following do not claim
completeness, they should rather illustrate possibilities for the application of this op-
tical technique in heat and mass transfer research. The interested reader may kindly
refer to the profound list of references at the end of this chapter. Overviews on opti-
cal measurement techniques and the applications are given in [18], [19], [20], [30],
[31], [33], [37], [38], [39], [40], [42], [52] and [64]. Emphasis is laid on holographic
interferometry in [35], [41], [51], [59] and [60].
2 Robert Tauscher

2
Holography
A new method, called holography, for the recording and storage of optical informa-
tion was invented by Gabor [12] in 1949. As opposed to photography which can
only record the two-dimensional distribution of the radiation emitted by an object
holography can store and reconstruct three-dimensional images. This is due to the
fact, that as well the amplitude and frequency of the light waves as the phase in-
formation can be stored. By using these possibilities, completely new interference
methods could be developed.
However, it required the invention of the laser as a coherent light source, to
discern the large variety of this technique. The general theory of holography is very
comprehensive.For a detailed description, one must refer to the literature [12], [21]
and [37]. Here only the principles which are necessary for the understanding of the
holographic measurement technique can be mentioned.
The principles of holography can be explained by comparing this measurement
technique with conventional photography. By choosing a camera position for pho-
tography, only a fixed perspective will occur at the camera. Holography, however is
not restricted to a fixed perspective and a limited depth of sharpness. The primary
feature of holography is that it stores the whole wave field which emerges out of the
object in the hologram. Fig.1 illustrates the principle of storing the phase of a wave.
The spherical wave coming from an object point P (= object wave- shown as circles
in Fig.1) does not cause any interference pattern on a film in the hologram-plane H-
H (Fig.1a (4)), it only darkens the film. This fact results from the permanent change
of the phase distribution of the light in the hologram-plane (Fig. 1 a (1), (2), (3) with
a phase difference of 4 each).
By superimposing a coherent reference (in this case a planar wave with the
same wave-length as the object wave) a constant distribution of the interference-
minima (Fig.1b) is produced. This fact results from the equal velocity of both waves
passing the holographic-plane, and therefore the phase position is kept constant.
Microinterference-lines are created on the film. The illumination by the refernce
wave generates a hologram.
This hologram is a tool to reconstruct the original wave form. Fig.2 shows the
recording and reconstruction of an off-axis hologram. By illuminating a hologram
with the reference wave again, the ring system on the photographic emulsion serves
as a refraction grid. The grid constant decreases with increasing the diameter. Due
to the refraction of the reference wave at this grid, one zero-order wave plus two
first-order waves appear on the backside of the hologram. One of these first-order
waves travels in the same direction as the original object wave and has the same
amplitude and phase distribution. This spherical wave corresponds to the recorded
object wave and creates the virtual image P’. The second first-order wave expands in
the opposite direction and creates a real image of the object behind the photographic
plate. This real image can be studied by means of various reconstruction devices,
such as a microscope. In order to create a hologram of a complex object, this object
has to be illuminated by a monochromatic light source. The reflected, scattered light
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 3

(object wave) has a very complicated wave form. According to the principles of
Huygens, however, it can be regarded as the superposition of numerous elementary
spherical waves. The microscopic pattern of the hologram (which consists of up
to 3000 lines/mm) contains all the information (amplitude and phase) about the
complete wave.
Holograms have some interesting characteristics:

 As the reference wave, which comes from one object point P covers the whole
hologram even the smallest part of the hologram contains the total information
of the object.
 By changing the view angle, also the perspective changes since different recon-
structed waves reach the eye.
 On a hologram, several exposures can be made without changing the position
of the plate.

By reconstructing the hologram a superposition of the images takes place. This

can be used either for a double-pulse technique such as for the determination of
velocity-fields or for holographic interferometry [37], [43]. When using the second
method, the first image of a measurement chamber is taken in a reference conditions.
The second image is a recording of the same measurement chamber with a variation
of the temperature or density field. The second application will be described below.
For conventional applications of holography lasers, emitting continuous monochro-
matic light can be used. The recording of very fast-moving or changing objects
requires ultra-short exposure times which can be achieved by means of a pulsed
laser.
Before evaluating a hologram it first has to be reconstructed, as it is demon-
strated in Fig.2. After the chemical processing the holographic plate is illuminated
by a continuous light-emitting laser (e.g. helium-neon laser). If the holographic plate
is replaced in the same orientation as during the recording process, a virtual image
of the test section can exactly be seen in the place where it has been produced
previously. For a quantitative evaluation, an enlarging lens or a microscope can be

H (1) planar H (1)

a) (2) (3) (4)
wave
b) (2) (3) (4)

k
P P pl pl
pl

3 3
H 4 2 4 H 4 2 4

Fig. 1. Principle of recording a holographic-plate: a) without a reference wave the whole plate
is illuminated with the same intensity, b) the superposition of the wave coming from point
P (object wave) with a reference wave, the phase of the interference-minima is constant by
time. pl = planar reference wave, k = interference-minima.
4 Robert Tauscher

real image virtual image

object
P P' P
Fig. 2. Recording and re-
construction of an off-axis
reference -1 reconstruction hologram. The microscopic
0 wave
wave pattern on the holographic
photographic plate +1 hologram plate acts like a diffraction
reconstruction
grating with a local variable
recording
grating constant.

connected to a camera. Therefore the holographic plate has to be turned 180  , so

that the real image, which has a three-dimensional extension, appears in front of the
camera.

3
Holographic Interferometry

Up to the 70st mostly the Mach - Zehnder - interfermometry was used for the optical
investigation of temperature fields, temperature gradients and heat transfer coeffi-
cients. A planar light wave coming from the laser is divided into two object waves
by a semi-permeable mirror. The first object wave passes through the test section,
while the second object wave travels around the test section. Caused by a tempera-
ture or density gradient in the test section, the phase distribution of the first object
wave changes. The two waves are superimposed after another semi-permeable mir-
ror. This leads to a macroscopic interference which shows the temperature or density
field in the test section. This macroscopic interference resulting from a temperature
gradient is not be mixed up with the microscopic interference we use for holography
(as it is mentioned in section 2). The alignment of the optical system has to be very
accurate, since a small difference of the refraction index on the path of the two light
waves entails an unintentional interference. When investigating a closed test section
with windows, a further identical test section is indispensible in order to ensure two
equal beam paths.
The holographic interferometer precludes these problems of Mach - Zehnder -
interferometry. Since a second object wave the holographic reconstruction of the test
section is used. Thus two waves are superimposed, which pass through the same test
section at different moments, and changes, which occur between the two recordings
are interferometrically measured. In order to determine the heat transfer, for ex-
ample, the recording of the first wave is performed, when all desired processes in
the test section are in operation (fluid flow, pressure and mean temperature) except
of the process (i.e. the heat transfer from a plate or from a bubble) which is to be
investigated. A typical optical set-up for holographic interferometry is depicted in
Fig.3 . This set-up has been used for the investigation of the temperature fields in a
heat exchanger channel, yet resembles to all other set-ups used for the investigations
described below.
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 5

Argon-Iones-Laser
λ=514.5 nm

flat object beam

56
4

789
123
1
011
12

mirror
pressure gauges/
thermocouples variable
test section beam beam
expander
Twall = const. pinhole
splitter
air flow

heating ce--beam
ren
baths refe mirror
piezo
mirror
holographic
plate

CCD-camera
and digital
image processing system

Fig. 3. Optical set-up for holographic interferometry

In the following, the two techniques are explained: (i) the double exposure tech-
nique and (ii) the real-time technique. As described above, several object waves can
be recorded, one after another, on one single holographic plate before the photo-
graphic emulsion is developed. By illuminating the plate with the reference wave,
all object waves are reconstructed simultaneously (Fig.4). If they slightly differ from
one another, the interference can be observed (Fig.4, lower part). In this example,
the first recording is performed, when the test section (tube) has a constant temper-
ature distribution. A temperature field is then established by heating up the wall of
the tube. Now the incoming light-waves receive a continuous, additional phase shift
due to the temperature field. This wave front (measuring beam) is recorded on the
same plate. After the hologram has been processed and illuminated the hologram,
both waves were reconstructed simultaneously.

By this method - in comparison to conventional interferometry techniques - the

same object beam is compared at different times. Since both waves pass through the
same test section, imperfections of the windows, mirrors, and lenses are eliminated.
Measurements even at very high pressures can be made, since the deformation of
the windows can be compensated.

This method of double-exposure technique is simple to handle, however, the in-

vestigated process cannot be recorded continuously. The result of the measurement
can only be seen after the photographic emulsion has been developed.
6 Robert Tauscher

1. exposure with 2. exp. w. measuring wave

comparison wave (heated test section)

Fig. 4. Principle of
interference of interferogram temperature the double exposure
both waves distribution technique

3.1
Real-time Method (“Infinite-Fringe”)

In order to overcome this problem a more sophisticated recording process for holo-
graphic interferometry, the real-time method, has been developed as it is illustrated
in Fig.5. After the first exposition of the hologram, during the reference condition of
the test chamber, the hologram is developed and fixed. The plate is repositioned ac-
curately to the former place in the optical set-up. This can be achieved by means of
piezo quarz positioning devices with an accuracy of half the wave-length. By illumi-
nating the hologram, the comparison wave can be reconstructed continuously. This
wave can now be superimposed to the momentary object wave. If the conditions in
the test section do not change, compared to the situation of the first exposure, no
interference fringes will be seen on the hologram (“infinite- fringe method”). This
knowledge can be used for the exact repositon of the hologram. When starting the

reference
object beam
beam

hologram
flame

recording of reconstructed interference of reconstructed

comparison wave wavefront and current waves

Fig. 5. Principle of the real time method

 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 7

heat transfer process, the object wave receives a phase shift due to the temperature
field in the test fluid. Both waves interfere with each other, and the changes of the
interference pattern can be observed or filmed continuously.
Examples of the temperature field in a heat exchanger channel are shown in
Fig.6 (left side). The black and white lines in these interferograms - called fringes -
represent, in a first approximation isotherms of the fluid flow in the channel. If the
fringes are close together, there is a steep temperature gradient, fringes which have a
large distance from one another indicate a plateaux of almost constant temperature.

3.1.1
Evaluation of the Interferograms
As described before, the physical principles of the interference effect of the holo-
graphic interferometry are similar to Mach-Zehnder interferometry. The difference
of both methods is derived from the reference beam, which has no influence to the
interference effect as a result from the temperature field in the test section. Therfore
the evaluation of both methods is quite similar and can be found in literature ([37],
[52]). However, in order to obtain absolute values for the temperature field, the tem-
perature at a single point of the cross section has to be determined, for example by
thermocouple measurements. This is usually done in an undisturbed region or at the
wall of the test chamber. All the examples of the measurements are of two dimen-
sional nature. Also three-dimensional temperature fields, for example, spherical and
cylindrical temperature fields, can by measured by holographic interferometry. In
this case, correction alogrithms have to be implemented, which are described in [3],
[4], [6], [7], [18], [19], and [47].
After the recording of the hologram and the photographic development of the
holographic plate several steps have to performed before the evaluation process can
start:
 analog - digital conversion
 digital image filters (contrast, smoothing, sharpness etc.)
 elimination of image faults (eg. optical faults) by special filter algorithms
 interferogram check by hand
 (binarization)
Supposed that the evaluation has to be performed for a heat transfer problem
(e.g. the temperature field in the heat exchanger duct, Figs. 3 and 6) the interference
lines (i.e., black and white fringes) of the images are approximatively equal to the
isotherms of the flow (“infinite-fringe” method). The distance of the isotherms along
the lines perpendicular to the heat transferring walls has to be measured, and gives
the temperature gradient at the walls and thus the local heat transfer coefficient hx
at a position x in the duct:
kfluid ( @T
hx = (T ,@yT wall)
)
(1)
wall bulk x
In order to fasten this time consuming procedure, several codes enabling the com-
puter aided digital image processing have been developed [22], [28], [36] and [42].
8 Robert Tauscher

3.1.2
Finite-Fringe Method

As the boundary layer at a heat-transferring surface becomes very thin with higher
heat transfer coefficients, it is quite difficult to evaluate the interference pattern.
In such a case, it can be helpful to create a pattern of parallel interference fringes
after the reference hologram has been produced. This can be achieved by tilting
the piezo mirror within the reference beam (Fig.3) or by moving the holographic
plate within a distance of a few wave-lengths. The direction and distance of the
“artificially” generated fringe pattern only depends on the direction of the movement
of the holographic plate or mirror. The result of the so called “finite-fringe method”
is compared to the earlier described “infinite-fringe method” in Fig.6. By imposing
a temperature field, the parallel fringes are deflected which is a measure for the
temperature gradient. This fact allows the deduction the heat flux and therefore the
heat transfer coefficient. The detailed evaluation process is described in [4] and [37].

3.2
Compact Heat Exchangers -
Plate Heat Exchanger with Turbulence Promotors -
“Finite- and Infinite-Fringe” Holgraphic Interferometry

The efficiency of compact (plate) heat exchangers can be improved by means of

boundary layer modifications and a active surface enlargement. The knowledge of
the thermo-hydrodynamic parameters of the flow (e.g., temperature fields, recircu-
lation areas etc.) in the boundary layer of heated walls is essential for the efficient
enhancement of the heat transfer. The high surface area densities of compact heat ex-
changers often lead to ducts with small aspect ratios. In order to avoid high pressure
drop and pumping power for the fluid, a low velocity flow is often applied. Ribs at
the heat transfering walls can be used to induce turbulence and therefore enhance the
heat transfer. The optimisation of heat exchangers always has to be directed towards
an increase of the heat transfer simultaneously with a minimum increase of pressure
drop. There is a need for further consistent studies on heat transfer enhancement
by means of various techniques. A bibliography on enhancement of convective heat
transfer is given for example in [2]. For the experimental set-up please see Fig.3
again.
As an example, Fig.6 (left side) shows the temperature field in a section of a heat
exchanger duct with rib-roughened heat transferring surfaces at different Reynolds
numbers. The areas with a high heat transfer (dense fringe pattern at the upstream
sides of the ribs) as well as the areas with a low heat transfer (downstream sides =
recirculation areas) and the flow reattachment points between the ribs can can easily
be detected.
The computer aided evaluation procedure determines the fringe spacing along
wall normals or the fringe inclination at finite-fringe interferograms respectively
and also provides the temperature gradient. Therefore quantitative information on
the local heat transfer coefficient in the heat exchanger duct is obtained. The local
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 9

Re = 500 Re = 500

air flow
Re = 1500 “infinite fringe” Re = 1500 “finite fringe”

Re = 2500 Re = 2500

Re = 5000 Re = 5000

Fig. 6. Interferograms of the temperature field in a plate heat exchanger channel with turbu-
lence promotors at different Reynolds numbers Re = 500, 1500, 2500 and 5000, left side:
infinite-fringe method, right side: finite-fringe method

Nusselt number along the duct length for various Reynolds numbers is depicted in
Fig. 7 . Maxima of the Nusselt numbers are always located just before the top of the
ribs, whereas the minima occur behind the ribs. Depending on the flow rate, a local
maximum in the spacing between the ribs may occur. This behaviour is caused by
the fact, that at a certain velocity, the flow separates at the rib top, and areas in the
downstream region of the rib develop where the flow recirculates. The curves in the
lower part of Fig. 7 represent the local Nusselt number in a smooth duct.
The amount of the flow which remains in these areas can be quantified by Laser
Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) measurements. The local maxima between the ribs re-
sult from the reattaching flow. LDV measurements are also used to get information

Nu [-]
160
inlet, rib 1 to 3 Re = 5000 outlet, rib 7 and 8
140 Re = 2500
Re = 1500
120
Re = 500
100

80

60
smooth duct
40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 70 75 80 85
x/e [-]

Fig. 7. Local Nusselt number in the heat exchanger duct

10 Robert Tauscher

1 1
Tu = (u ′2 + v ′2 )
u 2
inlet Tu 0....0,3 Re=1500 Tu 0....0,3 outlet
1
0.8

y/h [-]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 x/e [-] 15 70 75 80 x/e [-] 85

inlet Tu 0....0,3 Re=5000 Tu 0....0,3 outlet

1
0.8
y/h [-]

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 x/e [-] 15 70 75 80 x/e [-] 85

Fig. 8. Development of the local turbulence intensity

on local turbulent kinetic energy in the duct and to confirm the size and location of
the recirculation areas (causing low heat transfer) between the ribs.
Depending on the geometric parameters, the posititon in the duct and the Reynolds
number, up to 6 % of the fluid volume can be kept in such vortices. These vortices
impede the heat transfer owing to two facts: (i) a poor fluid exchange with the main
flow and (ii) the contact of the cold gas from the inner duct regions with the heat
transferring-wall is obstructed. Considering this behaviour it is essential to keep
these areas as small as possible and to allow the flow which separates at the rib tops
to reattach the walls. For example, grooves applied between the ribs can promote
this behaviour [66]. The turbulence-inducing effect of the ribs, which has already
been indicated by the interferograms can be confirmed by the LDV measurements of
the turbulence intensities (Fig.8). Generally, the turbulence intensity increases with
the number of ribs (i.e. flow obstacles). But while the turbulence intensity cannot
be increased significantly and constantly at low Reynolds numbers due to viscuous
damping effects, it increases rapidly at Re = 1500. Therefore the transiton from lam-
inar to turbulent flow is induced at about one third of the duct length (which can also
be confirmed by the interferograms). At higher flow rates only few ribs are sufficient
to cause the transiton to turbulent flow.
There are numerous possibilities to describe and asses the performance of a
heat transferring-system. One may choose different criteria depending on the given
requirements when designing a heat exchanger. One criterion to asses the perfor-
mance of a heat exchanger configuration is to evaluate the increase of Nusselt num-
ber of the rib-roughened channel compared to a smooth channel (Nu=Nu0) in re-
lation to the ratio of the friction factor between a ribbed and a smooth channel
((= 0 )1=3 ;  : friction factor). This kind of comparison enables the reference of
all the data to the same pumping power for the fluid at a given Reynolds number
((Nu=Nu0 )=(= 0 )1=3 vs. Re). Fig.9 shows the influence of the rib spacing on the
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 11

(Nu/Nu0)/(ξ/ξ0)
1/3

10
ξ: friction factor
index 0: smooth duct
e
p

1
p/e=6,67
p/e=10
p/e=13,33
p/e=15
p/e=16,67
p/e=20
p/e=26,67
0.1
100 1000 Re 10000
Fig. 9. Influence of rib spacing on heat exchanger performance

performance of the heat exchanger. In order to asses the performance of the different
configurations the laminar and the turbulent region have to be considered separately.
At laminar flow, the performance is worse for all ribbed channels as opposed to a
smooth channel. In the transiton region, where the ribs can induce turbulence, the
performance of the ribbed surfaces enhances. A spacing of p/e = 10 (rib pitch vs. rib
height) is more efficient than other spacings and gives the highest performance in-
crease at a Reynolds number of about Re = 3500. The diagramm also indicates, by a
change in the angle of the gradient of the curves, the outset of the laminar-turbulent
transition depending on the Reynolds number.
Further detailed information on the investigations of compact heat exchangers
(HEX) (e.g. plate HEX, tube bundle HEX, strip fin HEX etc.) are given in [28], [35],
[45], [46], [62], [63], [64], [65] and [66].

3.3
Forced Convection Heat Transfer in a Grooved Channel
In order to improve the thermal performance of heat transfer devices, different tech-
niques of heat transfer augmentation are implemented in the design of heat transfer
surfaces. In the presented example, the basic geometry, a parallel plate channel, has
been modified by introducing transversal grooves, in order to periodically interrupt
the plane heat transfer surface periodically. This fact causes flow separation and
a periodical redevelopment of the thermal boundary layer characterized by higher
heat transfer coefficients.
A set of interferograms for three different Reynolds numbers obtained by us-
ing the infinite-fringe field technique is presented in Fig.10. It is also representa-
12 Robert Tauscher

Fig. 10. Test section and temperature fields in a grooved channel

tive of the thermal behaviour of the system. The average temperature difference be-
tween the hot and the cold wall is
T=30K. Fringes correspond to isotherms with

T/fringe pair  3K. Two main heat transfer regions can be observed in Fig.10: (i)
the main channel region and (ii) the groove region.
Local Nusselt numbers Nu(y) along the heated wall (only vertical sections) for
the Reynolds numbers Re = 620, 1076, 1481 and 1937 are presented in Fig. 11.
For all flow velocities, the local Nusselt numbers show a similiar characteristic
behaviour. In the immediate vicinity in front of the first groove the Nusselt num-
bers decrease to a fraction of the value upstream of the groove. Along the groove,
the Nusselt numbers inncrease gradually, reaching a maximum between the mid-
point of the groove and the downstream wall. After the maximum, the value of
Nu(y) decreases abruptly at locations near the downstream wall. Nu(y) values in the
grooves are lower than those in the channel due to the low velocities in this region.
At y-locations in the channel region immediately downstream of the groove, Nu(y)
reaches a new peak (region of the redeveloping thermal sub-layer) with a multiple of
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 13

Nu
30
Re = 620 Re = 1481
Re = 1076 Re = 1937

20

10

0
10 20
test section length [cm]
Fig. 11. Local Nusselt number

the maximum value in the region in the groove. This peak is followed by a gradual
decrease on Nu(y) in the streamwise direction of the next groove. The behaviour
of Nu(y) described above repeats along the test section for the following groove-
channel sections. When comparing the curves for different Reynolds numbers, the
absolute values of the peaks both in the grooves and the inter-grooves regions are
higher for higher Reynolds numbers. At lower Reynolds numbers a nearly period-
ical trend is observed, whereas at higher Reynolds numbers the intensities of the
maxima gradually decrease with increasing the y-coordinate. This behaviour can
also be seen in the interferograms presented in Fig. 10.
The experimental results indicate that an enhancement of heat transfer in the
grooved geometry is achieved due to a periodical redevelopment of the thermal
boundary layer in the region behind the grooves. The heat transfer in the main chan-
nel region is not remarkably influenced by the recirculation in the groove. Further-
more it contributes the most significant part to the total heat transfer. In the region
of the grooves recirculating flow affects the heat transfer, and the temperature gra-
dients at the heated wall are small. However, it has to be mentioned that the increase
of the heat transfer is accompanied by a higher pressure drop than that of a geome-
try with flat plates. This fact is due to the increased skin friction in the redeveloping
boundary layer and the existence of recirculating flow regions in the grooves.
Further discussions of the results and more details on these investigations in a
grooved channel but also in communicating channels are given in [1], [22], [23],
[24], [25] , [26] and [27].
14 Robert Tauscher

3.4
Cooling of Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)-
Natural Convective Heat Transfer in a Vertical Plate Arrangement

In electronic equipment the themperature of the depletion layer of semiconductor

elements must not exceed a given value in order to protect them from malfunction
or thermal damage. Natural convective air cooling is an important thermal control
method, and it is often preferred to maintain the temperature of electronical devices
with low power and packing density below an acceptable level. Especially when
the casing box has to be closed for dust- and water-proof, natural convection cool-
ing scheme may be the only feasible option. Industrial electronic equipment with a
PCBs array often works with various incliniation angles of the boards. Under these
circumstances, the inclination affects the magnitude of the driving force (mostly
gravitation) causing natural convection, and therefore has an effect on the tempera-
ture distribution and the heat transfer in the casing box.

Fig. 12. Temperature field in 4-, 5-, 6- and 8-PCBs array

For the experimental set-up the PCBs array was heated electrically while the top
and the bottom wall of the casing box was cooled down to a constant temperature
of 20 C. The temperature fields in a 4-, 5-, 6- and 8-PCBs array in a casing box
without inclination are, for instance, as it is shown in Fig.12. It can be seen how the
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 15

thermal boundary layers develop at the heated surfaces of the PCBs as a result the
of natural convection. When the PCBs spacing is relatively large, thermal boundary
layers exist along each surface.
In the lower half part of the PCBs channels, the thermal boundary layer devel-
ops from bottom to top and grows thicker upwards. However, in the exit region of
the channels, the development of the boundary layer is impeded by the vortex flow
which is produced by the thermal instability in the reverse temperatue layer under
the top wall of the casing box. The thickness of the thermal boundary layer is re-
duced by cold air which falls randomly down from the top wall, and the boundary
layer therefore has a bulging form. If the PCBs spacing is small enough the develop-
ing boundary layers grows together behind a small developing region. It is evident
that the ability to dissipate heat in a single channel is lower for a small PCBs spac-
ing than that for a larger spacing. However, in the case of a small spacing the power
load which needs to be dissipated from each PCB is reduced because more PCBs
could be available in the casing box. Therefore, the optimum spacing may be found
for the optimum cooling effect.

Fig. 13. Heat Dissipation

and Optimum Spacing
of Printed Circuit Boards
(PCBs)

The results reveal, in both cases (with and without inclination), an unstable ther-
mal boundary layer which interacts with the air flow rising up from the channels
between the PCBs, and which produces vortex flow and temperature oscillation. In
the inclined casing box warm air gathers in the upper corner of the casing box and
cold air falls down to the bottom corner. Therefore, the cooling effect on the PCBs
in the region near the bottom corner of the casing increases and that in the region
of the upper corner decreases. It has to be considered that the temperature of the
PCBs near the upper corner might exceed the allowed maximum working temper-
ature. And this is the case when the casing box has been designed for a horizontal
adjustment only. An emperical correlation deduced form the experimental results
has been developed in the form of Nu = 0.1163Ra 0:287 with a modified channel
16 Robert Tauscher

Rayleigh number ranging from Ra = 102 to 105 at Pr = 0.73 and with an angle of
inclination from  = 0 to 30 .
As mentioned above, an optimum arrangement of PCBs exist under the same
maximum temperature difference between the PCBs array and the cold wall. This
fact is due to the ability to dissipate the heat which depends on the PCBs spacing
as well as the number of PCBs. The maximum heat dissipation versus the PCBs
spacing is given in Fig. 13.
The performed research work is described in detail in [54], [55] and [68]. Addi-
tional information on the enhanced cooling of electronical devices by flow deflection
are given in [8] and [10].

3.5
Heat Transfer at the Phase Interface of Condensing Bubbles -
- Holographic Interferometry and High Speed Cinematography

The knowledge of thermo- and hydrodynamic phenomena during the collapse of

vapour bubbles in liquids which have a temperature below saturation conditions -
the so called subcooled liquids - is of major importance. These phenomena have a
great impact on the thermal performance, efficiency and safe operation of industrial
devices. The temporal course of the collapse of a vapour bubble during condensation
in a subcooled liquid can be controlled by two different phenomena: (i) heat transfer
at the phase interface of vapour and liquid and (ii) the inertia of the liquid mass when
entering into the space which is set free by the condensing vapour.
In order to examine the fast process of vapour bubbles condensing in a subcooled
liquid a combination of holographic interferometry and high speed cinematography
has been used which allows an inertialess and precise calculation of the heat transfer
coefficient at the phase interface of the condensing bubbles.
The optical set-up is identical to the one shown in Fig.3. However, owing to
the small diameter of the bubbles, the strong curvature of the phase interface, to-
gether with the high temperature gradient in the boundary layer on the liquid side
the correction-methods known in literature - e.g. Abel-integral - are not sufficient
to analyse and evaluate the interferograms. The deflection of the beam passing the
temperature field close to the bubbles is not negligible as it is assumed with the Abel
correction. Therefore an additional correction procedure has been developed.
By implementing this technique boundary layers down to 0.05 mm could be
investigated with an accuracy high enough to predict the heat transfer coefficient
within  20 %.
The condition in the boundary layer varies considerably during the bubble for-
mation and detachment, and it is quite different at the bubble top and the bubble root
as it is depicted in Fig.14. Fig.15 shows the temporal course of the heat transfer in
terms of the Nusselt number at the top and the equator of the bubble - evaluated from
the interferograms in Fig.14. In the first few milliseconds the bubble slowly grows
by vapour injection through the nozzle, and the heat transfer is almost constant dur-
ing this period (up to 60 ms). The outset of the detachment induces an increase of
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 17

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8
Fig. 14. Interferograms (“finite-fringe” method) of a condensing propanol bubble (p = 2 bar,

T = 7.6 K, Jacob numer Ja = 7.1).

the heat transfer, which can be seen from the preceeding constriction of the bub-
ble root. With the bubble moving upward the boundary layer becomes considerably
thinner at the upper surface of the bubble. The lower end of the bubble shows small
oscillations which produce high turbulent vortices in the drift flow.
A profound description of the investigations considering temperature, pressure
and heat transfer at the phase interface of condensing bubbles, as well as information

Nu p = 4 bar
T = 14,0 K
Ja = 9,4 0 1 2 3 y
y=0

200 top
3 45 6
78

100 1 2
2
10
left side 0 1 2 y
right side
0 10 20 30 40 t [ms]
Fig. 15. Temporal course of the local Nusselt number at the top and the sides of a steam
bubble
18 Robert Tauscher

on the holographic interferometric investigations at subcooled boiling, is given in

[3], [5], [6], [7], [32], [44], [34], [31], [30], [39], [40], [43], [49], [56] and [57].

3.6
3D-Unsteady Temperature Fields in an Agitated Vessel-
A Tomographical Method of Holographic Interferometry

The knowledge of the temporal and local changes of the concentration field is of
primary importance with respect to mixing and mass transfer processes, since it
has a significant impact on the production rate of a chemical reaction. Unsteady
three-dimensional temperature profiles in laminar or turbulent flow are investigated
by means of optical tomography. This method uses holographic interferometry to
obtain exact readings of a three-dimensional temperature profile at any time.

OW1

OW4 OW3

OW2

RW

Argon-Iones
laser

Fig. 16. Optical set-up for tomographical holographic interferometry (Si : mirrors, Li : lenses,
STi : beam splitter, AOi : beam expander, Hi : holographic plates, MK: mixing chamber, OWi :
object beams, RW: reference beam)

Transient heat transfer phenomena can be observed in flow fields without any
delay. The method is applied to the mixing phenomena which occur during the
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 19

Fig. 17. Temperature fields in the agitated vessel at different times after injection of the cold
liquid, observed from the 0 viewing angle

injection of a small amount of heated liquid into an agitated vessel of isothermal

surrounding filled with the same liquid. Certain fluid elements with a different tem-
perature are detected during the interval of macro-mixing. The method is also ap-
plied to more viscous fluids for the investigation of dissipation phenomena occuring
during laminar mixing in agitated vessels.
An important feature of the holographic interferometry technique is the fact that
the phase shift of the light is related only to the integral change of the optical path
length along the light. Usually only a two-dimensional field can be determined from
on interferogram. In spite of this restriction, a three-dimensional field can be recon-
structed, if the test volume is illuminated from different viewing angles as it is shown
schematically in Fig.16. The test chamber comprises of an octogonal glass chamber
20 Robert Tauscher

and a glass cylinder. This cylinder is located in the center of the glass chamber, and
it is sealed from the exterior. The mixing process takes place in the glass cylinder.
The test chamber is illuminated by four light beams of parallel expansion which
are scattered at an angle of 45 (object beams OW1 - OW4 ). These object waves
are focussed when leaving the test chamber. The exposure of the holographic plate
requires a high light intensity. The two object beams which interfere with the one
reference beam (RW) interfere on the holographic plates (H1 and H2 ). The light
source for all partial waves is an Argon-Iones-Laser (P = 3 W,  = 514:5 nm).
The variation in the number of revolutions of the four-blade rushton turbine
resulted in Reynolds numbers 100 < Re < 1000. In order to create an unsteady
temperature profile in the agitated vessel, a heated liquid volume of about 3 ml is
injected from above. The added liquid and the liquid in the vessel consist of the
same solution of palatinol and benzene. The initial temperature difference between
the liquids is about
T = 0.85 K.
The mixing process in the agitated vessel is caused by diffusion and convective
transport processes among fluid elements of different sizes and different concen-
tration or temperature. The fluid elements which are to be mixed ared divided into
smaller fluid elements by the momentum transfer in the surroundings of the stirrer.
These macroscopic fluid elements are separated gradually into decreasing elements
such as eddies. During this process, which is called macro-mixing, the interfacial
area between the components is expanded. When the fluid elements reach a certain
size (microscopic elements), the inhomogenity existing between the fluid elements
is reduced by molecular transport processes.
The interferograms from the 0 viewing angle (Fig. 17) demonstrate such a mix-
ing process at a relatively low number of stirrer revolutions (Re ' 200). There is no
significant impact on the free-stream - even in the stirrer level. Two seconds after the
injection almost the complete feed has reached the bottom of the vessel. The heavy
swirl of the interference lines indicate an unchanged high temperature difference.
Due to the higher axial and radial velocities beneath the stirrer, cold fluid elements
from this region are lifted and spread both in radial and axial direction of the vessel
cross section. The interferograms already indicate that the axial transport beneath
the stirrer runs faster than the transport above the stitter which indicates a different
good mixture.
Fig. 18 shows the reconstructed temperature fields at a level directly under the
stirrer after a time of 6, 9 and 12 s. Six seconds after the start of the experiment the
“over-temperature” area (which contains most of the injected liquid) is still sharply
confined, while in the following period a distribution over a larger vessel cross sec-
tion can be reached. But the relatively high temperature differences between the
liquid in the vessel and the injected liquid have not remarkably changed yet. This
behaviour is a prerequisite for an accelerated temperature compensation which can
be observed already after the third period (t = 12 s). During the following time this
compensation process continues while the over-temperature regions are divided in
smaller and smaller regions.
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 21

Fig. 18. Reconstructed temperature field in the layer directly under the stirrer after 6 s (a),
9 s (b) and 12 s (c), Re = 200

A more profound introduction to these investigations is given in [29], [47] and

[58].

3.7
Mixing Process in Sub- and Supersonic Hydrogen/Air-Flames -
“Infinite-Fringe Holographic Interferometry
The objective of the presented investigations is to demonstrate the effect of turbu-
lence on the development of the mixing jet and the stabilization of high-speed hy-
drogen/air flames in a wide range of the inlet air Mach number up to the supersonic
speed, using a rearward facing step as a turbulence promotor.
22 Robert Tauscher

He He He He He He

air air air air air air

Ma =0.08 Ma =0.25 Ma =0.47 Ma =0.77 Ma =1.11 Ma =1.17

Fig. 19. Interferograms of the mixing jet at different air Mach numbers Ma1 (helium injec-
tion from a single hole injector on the right chamber wall)

The experiments are subdivided into two parts. The first part is the investiga-
tion of the mixing process in the near field of the injector using holographic in-
terferomtry, which is described in the following. These experiments are performed
without combustion (”cold mixing”) using helium as a substitute for hydrogen. The
second part deals with the investigation of the combustion process concerning the
stabilization and the behaviour of the hydrogen/air flames and is described in [11],
[14], [15], [16] and [17].
Fig.19 shows a series of interferograms demonstrating the dependency of the
mixing jet on the inlet air Mach number. The injection of helium (at a constant flow
rate) is realized with a single-hole injector perpendicular to the main air flow direc-
tion. It can bee seen that at low inlet Mach numbers the mixing jet penetrates deep
into the surrounding air flow-field and it is quickly deflected towards the main air
flow direction. The outer boarder of the mixing jet is very rugged which indicates
the impact of macroscopic vortices on the free mixing shear layer. An increase of the
air Mach number leads to a decrease of the penetration and to a stronger deflection
of the mixing jet, as the specific momentum ratio of helium and air decreases. How-
ever, the outer boarder of the jet stays very rugged. When reaching supersonic air
Mach numbers, the mixing jet becomes very slender and superimposes with the free
shear layer in the wake of the rearward facing step. Fig.20 shows a concentration
profile for the air Mach numbers Ma = 0.44 and Ma = 0.61 obtained by evaluating
the corresponding interferograms. In the vicinity of the injector, the gradient of the
concentration profile is very steep and decreases when moving downstream. Within
the first few centimeters downstream of the injector, the mixing process is strongly
enhanced by vortices generated in the wake of the mixing jet and in the recirculation
zone of the rearward facing step. This leads to a strong decrease of the concentra-
tion in the center of the jet. Furthermore, it can be seen that the trajectory, which
represents the line of maximum local concentrations in the mixing jet, is also de-
flected quickly into the main air flow direction. It then moves towards the bottom ot
the rearward facing step. During the development of the mixing jet, the recircula-
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 23

outer and inner outer and inner

trajectory jet border trajectory jet border

air air
Ma =0.44 Ma =0.61
Fig. 20. Concentration profiles for Ma = 0.44 and Ma = 0.61 of helium/air mixing jets

tion zone in the wake of the rearward facing step is filled with a near stoichiometric
helium/air mixture. This fact is very important for the flame stabilization described
in [14]. The investigations have led to an empirical equation which describes the
growth of the outer boarder and the penetration of the mixing jet.
Detailed description on this research project can be found in [11], [13], [14],
[15], [16] and [17].

3.8
Natural Convective Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer -
Two-wave-length Holographic Interferometry

The light passing a measurement volume cannot only be phase-shifted by a temper-

ature field but also by locally different densities, which result from concentration
gradients. Therefore, two unknown variables - temperature and concentration - have
to be found by solving the interferometric equations. This can be achieved by using
two laser simultaneously, emitting light of two different wave-lengths. As the refrac-
tive index depends on the wave-length of the light (as it is known from the rainbow
phenomena), two sets of equations are available - one for each wave-length. The
problem of this method, described in detail in [61], is that the two interferograms
originating from these two beams of different wave-lengths have to be superim-
posed very accurately. As described in section 2, it is possible to record different
24 Robert Tauscher

interference pattern on a single holographic plate which is performed by means of

the two-wave-length method.

Fig. 21. Interferograms and local Sherwood and Nusselt number

In order to conduct the experiments a horizontal, isothermically heated cylinder

is coated with a thin layer of naphtalene. The isothermal heating of the cylinder in-
duces the heat transfer and the sublimation of the naphtalene. Interferograms with
simultaneous heat and mass transfer from this cylinder by natural convection are
depicted in Fig.21. The left part of the interference image shows the interferogram
obtained by a wave-length of j = 632:8 nm, while the right part represents the
interferogram at a wave-length of k = 457:9 nm. The differences in the interfer-
ence patterns are difficult to discern, therefore a very precise set-up and evaluation
technique is required. By evaluating these two interferograms separately, the local
heat transfer (Nusselt number) as well as the local mass transfer (Sherwood number)
can be obtained (Fig.21, right side).
Further information on the research work in the field of two-wave-length inter-
ferometry are given in [50], [53] and [61].

3.9
Non-destructive Material Testing by Holographic Interferometry
In contrast to the application examples described above, in which the changes in the
refraction index field of a test fluid have been used to generate the interferograms,
this example shows the use of a different feature of the holographic interferome-
try technique. It makes use of the fact that also small dislocations of surfaces can
generate interferometric fringe patterns.
The dislocations can be generated for example by an impact of a pendulum or a
bullet hitting the structure. This impact generates surface waves emerging from the
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 25

impact point and spreading over the whole material surface. This effect can be used
to detect defects close to the surface.
While the shock waves propagate over an intact surface without any distur-
bances, any defects (such as cracks, holes, etc.) cause a significant deflection of
the surface wave, and therefore disturb the otherwise regular interference pattern.
Fig.22 (upper part) shows a homogeneous interference pattern of a plate with a flaw
close to the right edge at which the fringes are disturbed.Therefore the flaw can be
easily detected. In the lower part of Fig.22 the excursion of the plate along the sym-
metric axis (A-B) of the plate is ploted. At the flaw position the excursion shows an
unsteady course which enables a quite reliable detection.

defect

A B
defect

Fig. 22. Upper part: interfero-

gram of the surface of a plate
with a flaw, Lower part: Excur-
sion of the plate surface

The theoreratical basics of this technique and its application are described in
detail in [48].

References
1. Amon, C, Majumdar, D., Herman, C.V., Mayinger, F.: Numerical and Experimental
Studies of Self-sustained Oscillatory Flows in Communicating Channels, Int. J. of Heat
and Mass Transfer, Vol. 35, No. 11, pp. 3115-3129, Pergamon Press, Great Britain, 1992
26 Robert Tauscher

2. Bergles, A.E., Jensen, M.K., Shome, B.: Bibliography on Enhancement of Convec-

tive Heat and Mass Transfer, HTL-23, Heat Transfer Laboratory, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, Troy, USA, 1997
3. Chen, Y.M.: Wärmeübergang an der Phasengrenze kondensierender Blasen, Diss. Tech-
nische Universität München, Germany, 1985
4. Chen, Y.M., Mayinger, F.: Heat Transfer at the Phase Interface of Condensing Bubbles,
Phase-interface Phenomena in Multiphase Flow, pp.433-442, Eds. Hewitt, G.F. et al.,
Hempisphere, New York, USA, 1991
5. Mayinger, F.,Chen, Y.M.: Heat Transfer at the Phase Interface of Condensing Bubbles,
Proc. of the 8th Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Vol. 4, pp. 1913-1918, San Francisco, USA,
1986
6. Chen, Y.M., Mayinger, F.: Holographic Interferometry Studies of the Temperature Field
near a Condensing Bubble, in Optical Methods in Dynamics of Fluids and Solids, Proc.
of an Int. Symposium IUTAM, Ed. Pichal, M., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1985
7. Chen, Y.M., Mayinger, F.: Measurement of Heat Transfer at the Phase Interface of
Condensing Bubbles, Int. J. of Multiphase Flow, No. 6, Vol. 18, pp. 147-152, 1992
8. Fehle, R.: Kühlung elektronischer Bauelemente durch Strömungsumlenkung und Tur-
bulenzanfachung, Diss. Technische Universität München, 1998
9. Fehle, R., Klas, J., Mayinger, F.: Investigation of Local Heat Transfer in Compact Heat
Exchangers by Holographic Interferometry, In: Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science
10, Nr. 2, pp. 181-191, 1995
10. Fehle, R., Mayinger, F.: Enhancement of the Forced Convection Cooling of Highly
Loaded Heat Sources in a Rectangular Channel by Flow Deflection, Proc. of the 9th Int.
Symposium on Transport Phenomena in Thermal-Fluids Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 663-
668, Singapore, 1996
11. Gabler, W.: Gemischbildung, Flammenstabilisierung und Verbrennung in einer
gestuften Überschallbrennkammer, Diss. Technische Universität München, 1991
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UK, 1951
13. Grünig, C.: Gemischbildung und Flammenstabilisierung bei Pyloneinblasung in
Überschallbrennkammern, Diss. Technische Universität München, 1999
14. Haibel, M., Mayinger, F.: Experimental Investigation of the Mixing Process and the
Flame Stabilization in Sub- and Supersonic Hydrogen/Air Flames, Proc. of the 10th Int.
Heat Transfer Conf., Vol. 2, pp.63-68, Brighton, UK, 1994
15. Haibel, M.: Gemischbildung und Struktur schneller Wasserstoff-Luft-Flammen im Nah-
bereich turbulenter Rezirkulationsgebiete, Diss. Technische Universität München, 1991
16. Haibel, M., Mayinger, F.: The Effect of Turbulent Structures on the Development of
Mixing and Combustion Processes in Sub- and Supersonic H2 -Flames, Int. J. Heat and
Mass Transfer, Vol. 37, Suppl. 1, pp. 241-253, 1994
17. Haibel, M., Mayinger, F.: Turbulenzgestützte Gemischbildung und Stabilisierung von
sub- und supersonischen Wasserstoff-Luft-Flammen, Jahrbuch 1992 der Deutschen
Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DGLR), Bonn, Germany, 1992
18. Hauf, W., Grigull, U.: Optical Methods in Heat Transfer, in Advances in Heat Transfer,
6, 133, J.P. Hartnitt, T.F. Irvine, Academic Press, New York, USA, 1970
19. Hauf, W., Grigull, U., Mayinger, F..: Optische Meßverfahren in der Wärme- und
Stoffübertragung, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1991
20. Jordan, M., Tauscher, R., Mayinger, F.: New Challenges in Thermo-Fluiddynamic Re-
search by Advanced Optical Techniques, Proc. of the 15th UIT National Heat Transfer
Conf., Turin, Italy and Int. J. of Heat and Technology, Volume 15, n.1, 1997, pp. 43-54,
Ed. Enrico Lorenzini,Edizioni ETS, Pisa, Italy, 1997
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 27

21. Kiemle, H., Röss, D.: Einführung in die Technik der Holografie, Akademische Verlags-
gesellschaft, Frankfurt a.M., Germany, 1969
22. Herman, C.V.: Wärmeübergang in einzelnen und komunizierenden parallelen Kanälen
mit genuteten Oberflächen, Diss. Technische Universität München, Germany, 1992
23. Herman, C., Mayinger, F.: Experimental Analysis of Forced Convection Heat Transfer
in a Grooved Channel, Advances in Transport Processes, Vol. 8, pp. 900-913, Elsevier
Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1992
24. Herman, C.V., Mayinger, F.: Experimental Investigation of the Heat Transfer in Lami-
nar Forced Convection Flow in a Grooved Channel,In: Proc. of the 9th Int. Heat Transfer
Conf. Jerusalem, Vol. 3, pp. 387-392, .Ed: G. Hetsroni, Hemisphere, New York, USA
25. Herman, C.V., Mayinger, F., et al.: Imaging of Transient Fluid Flow and Thermal Phe-
nomena in Communicating Channels, Proc. of Imaging in Transport Processes, pp. 61-
74, Athens, Greece, 1992
26. Herman, C., Mayinger, F.: Interferometric Study of Heat Transfer in a Grooved Geom-
etry, Proc. of the 2nd World Conf. on Exp. Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermo-
dynamics, pp. 522-529, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, 1991, Eds. Keffer, J.F. et al., Elsevier,
New York, USA, 1991
27. Herman, C.V., Mayinger, F., Sekulic, D.P.: Experimental Verification of Oscillatory
Phenomena in Heat Transfer in a Communicating Channels Geometry, Proc. of the 2nd
World Conf. on Exp. Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Dubrovnik,
Yugoslavia,, pp. 904-911, 1991, Eds. Keffer, J.F. et al., Elsevier, New York, USA, 1991
28. Klas, J.: Wärmeübergang in Kanälen mit und ohne Turbulenzpromotoren, Diss. Tech-
nische Universität München, Germany, 1993
29. Lübbe, D., Mayinger, F.: Die optisch, holographische Tomographie - ein Meßver-
faren zur Erfassung instationärer, dreidimensionaler Mischvorgänge, VDI-Bericht 545,
pp.1271-1291, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf, Germany, 1984
30. Mayinger, F.: Advanced Experimental Methods, In: Proc. of the Convective Flow Boil-
ing Conf., Banff, Canada, pp. 15-28, Eds.: Chen, J.C. et al., Taylor and Francis, Wash-
ington, USA, 1996
31. Mayinger, F.: Advanced Optical Methods in Transient Heat Transfer at Two-Phase Flow,
Korea, In: Proc. 6th . Int. Symposium on Transport Phenomena (ISTP-6), Vol.II, pp. 25-
38, Eds.: Lee J.S. et al., Seoul, South Korea, 1993
32. Mayinger, F.: Blasenbildung und Wärmeübergang beim Sieden in freier und erzwun-
gener Konvektion, Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik 47, Nr.18, S. 737-748, Germany, 1975
33. Mayinger, F.: Fortschritte im Verständnis des Wärmetransports durch optische Meßver-
fahren, Braunschweigische Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Braunschweig, Germany
and Verlag Erich Goltze, G, Sonderheft 3, Sitzungsberichte und Mitteilungen der BWG,
Göttingen, Germany, 1978
34. Mayinger, F.: Heat and Mass Transfer at Liquid Gas Interphase, in: Two-Phase Momen-
tum Heat and Mass Transfer in Chemical, Process, and Energy Engineering Systems,
Vol.2, pp. 975-994, Eds. Durst, F., Tsiklauri G.V., Afgan N.H., Washington DC, Hemi-
sphere Publ.Corp., USA, 1979
35. Mayinger, F.: Modern Advances in Optical Measuring Techniques - Tools to Support
Energy Conservation, Proc. of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Energy Conser-
vation through Heat Transfer Enhancement of Heat Exchangers, Cesme, Turkey, 1998
36. Mayinger, F.: Modern Electronics in Image-Processing and in Physical Modelling - A
New Challenge for Optical Techniques, In: Proc. of the 10th Int. Heat Transfer Conf.,
Vol 1, pp. 61-79, Eds: Hewitt G.F. et al., Brighton, U.K., 1994
37. Mayinger, F.: Optical Measurements, Techniques and Applications, Ed. Mayinger, F.,
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1994
28 Robert Tauscher

38. Mayinger, F.: Strömung und Wärmetransport in Natur und Technik, sichtbar gemacht,
Naturwissenschaften 66, Heft 6, pp. 300 -306, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany,
1979
39. Mayinger, F.: Transient Phenomena and Non-Equilibrium in Two-Phase Flow with
Phase Change, In: Proc. of the 9th Int. Symposium on Transport Phenomena (ISTP-)
in Thermal-Fluids Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 20-31, Eds.: Winoto S.H. et al., Singapore,
1996
40. Mayinger, F.: Two-Phase Flow and Boiling, Insights and Understanding by Modern
Non-Invasive Measuring Techniques, In: Proc. of the 1st Int. Symposium on Two-Phase
Flow Modelling and Experimentation, pp. 31-40, Eds. Celata, G.P. et al., Edizioni ETS,
Rome, Italy, 1995 and Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol. 15,
41. Mayinger, F. et al.: Visualization of High-Frequency Thermo-Fluid Phenomena Using
Real-Time Holographic Interferometry and Numerical Animation, In: Topics in Heat
Transfer. Vol.1. (HTD-Vol. 206-1), pp. 25-31, Eds.: Keyhani M. et. al. ASME, New York,
USA, 1992
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by Computer-Aided Data Processing, In: J. of Heat Transfer, vol. 115, pp. 824-834, 1993
43. Mayinger, F.; Gebhard, P.: Holographic Measuring Methods Applied to Two-Phase
Flow, In: Proc. of the German-Japanes Symposium on Multi-Phase Flow, pp. 109-131,
Karlsruhe, Germany, 1994
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flow.- In: Hemisphere, New York, USA, 1991
45. Mayinger, F., Klas, J.: Compact Heat Exchangers, Heat Transfer, Vol.1, IChemE Sym-
posium Series No. 129, pp. 36-49, Ed. Institution of Chem. Engineers, Hemisphere, New
York, 1992
46. Mayinger, F., Klas, J.: Investigation of Local Heat Transfer in Compact Heat Exchang-
ers by Holographic Interferometry, in Aerospace Heat Exchanger Technology, Proc. of
the 1st Int. Conf. on Heat Exchanger Technology, pp. 449-467, Palo Alto, USA, 1993
47. Mayinger, F., Lübbe, D.: Ein tomographisches Meßverfahren und seine Anwendung auf
Mischvorgänge und Stoffaustausch, Wärme- und Stoffübertragung, Vol. 18, pp. 49.59,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1984
48. Mayinger F, May, W.: Zerstörungsfreie Materialprüfung mit Hilfe der optischen Holo-
graphie, VGB Kraftwerkstechnik 56, Heft 5, pp. 334-340, Germany, 1996
49. Mayinger, F., Nordmann, D., Panknin, W.: Holographische Untersuchungen zum
unterkühlten Sieden, Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 46. Jahrgang, Heft 5, p. 209, Verlag
Chemie GmbH, Weinheim/Bergstr., Germany, 1974
50. Mayinger, F., Panknin, W.: Anwendungen der holographischen Zweiwellenlängen-
interferometrie zur Messung überlagerter Temperatur- und Konzentrationsgren-
zschichten,Verfahrenstechnik, Bd. 12, 9, pp. 582-589, Germany, 1978
51. Mayinger, F., Panknin, W.: Holographische Interferometrie. Ein neues Meßverfahren
und seine Anwendung in Fluiddynamik und Wärmeübertragung, Fortschritts-Berichte,
VDI-Z., 50, pp. 145-163a, 1979
52. Mayinger, F., Panknin, W.: Holography in Heat and Mass Transfer, Proc. of the 5th Int.
Heat Transfer Conf., Bd. VI, pp. 28-43, Tokio, Japan, 1974
53. Mayinger, F., Panknin, W.: Holographic Two-wave-lengths Interferometry for the Mea-
surement of Combined Heat and Mass Transfer, Proc. of a Workshop, Project SQUID
Combustion Measurements in Jet Propulsion Systems, Purdue University, USA, 1975
54. Mayinger, F., Wang, Z.G.: Experiments on Natural Convective Air Cooling of a PCBs
Array in a Closed Casing with Inclination, Proc. of the 6th Int. Symposium on Transport
Phenomena (ISTP-6), Vol. 1, pp. 243-248, Seoul, South Korea, 1993
 Holographic Interferometry in Heat and Mass Transfer 29

55. Mayinger, F., Wang, Z.: Experiments on natural convective air cooling of a PCBs array
in a closed casing with inclination. - In: Cooling of electronic systems, pp. 165-178, Eds.:
Kakac, S. et al. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1994
56. Nordmann, D.: Temperatur, Druck und Wärmetransport in der Umgebung konden-
sierender Blasen, Diss. Technische Universität München, Germany, 1980
57. Nordmann, D. Mayinger, F.: Temperatur, Druck und Wärmetransport in der Umge-
bung kondensierender Blasen, VDI-Forschungsheft Nr. 605/1981, VDI-Verlag Düssel-
dorf, Germany, 1981
58. Ostendorf, W., Mayinger, F., Mewes, D.: A Tomographical Method Using Holographic
Interferometry for the Registration of Three-Dimensional Unsteady Temperature Profiles
in Laminar and Turbulent Flow, Proc. of the 8th Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Vol.2, pp. 519-
524, San Francisco, USA, 1986
59. Ostrovsky, Yu.I., Butusov, M.M., Ostrovskaya, G.V.: Interferometry by Holography,
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1980
60. Vest, C.M.: Holographic Interferometry, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 1979
61. Panknin, W.: Eine holographische Zweiwellenlängen-Interferometrie zur Messung
überlagerter Temperatur- und Konzentrationsgrenzschichten, Diss. Technische Univer-
sität München, Germany, 1977
62. Tauscher, R., Dinglreiter, U., Durst, B., M., Mayinger, F.: Transport Processes in Nar-
row Channels with Application to Rotary Exchangers, Proc. of the 11th Int. Heat Trans-
fer Conf., Vol. 6, pp. 143-148, Kyongju, South Korea, 1998 and to be published in Int. J.
of Heat and Mass Transfer, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1999
63. Tauscher, R., Jordan, M., Mayinger, F.: New Challenges in Thermo-Fluiddynamic Re-
search by Advanced Optical Techniques, Proc. of the 15th UIT National Heat Transfer
Conf., Turin, Italy and Int. J. of Heat and Technology, Volume 15, n.1, pp. 43-54, Ed.
Enrico Lorenzini,Edizioni ETS, Pisa, Italy, 1997
64. Tauscher, R., Mayinger, F.: Advances in Heat Transfer Enhancement by Optical Tech-
niques, Proc. of the 2nd Int. Symposium on Heat Transfer Enhancement and Energy
Conservation, pp. 14-29, Eds. Wang S.-P., Tan, Y.-K., Guangzhou, PR China, 1997
65. Tauscher, R., Mayinger, F.: Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Plate Heat Exchangers
by Turbulence Promotors, Proc. of the Int. Conf.on Compact Heat Exchangers for the
Process Industries, pp. 243-260, Snowbird, USA, Eds., Shah, R.K., Begell House, New
York, USA 1997
66. Tauscher, R., Mayinger, F.: Heat Transfer Enhancement in a Plate Heat Exchanger with
Rib-roughened Surfaces, Proc. of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Energy Con-
servation through Heat Transfer Enhancement of Heat Exchangers, Cesme, Turkey, 1998
67. Tauscher, R., Mayinger, F.: Visualization of Air Flow Temperature Fields by Holo-
graphic Interferometry - Optimization of Compact Heat Exchangers, Proc. of the 2nd
Int. Symposium on Flow Visualization and Image Processing, Honolulu, USA, 1999
68. Wang, Z., Mayinger, F.: Natural Convection and Heat Transfer in the PCBs of Elec-
tronical Equipments, Proc. of the 1st Baltic Heat Transfer Conf., pp. 841-854, Göteborg,
Sweden, 1991