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VELOCITY AND ENERGY OF THE TUNGUS METEO€UTE

by K. P. S t a q u k o v i c h and V. A . Bronshten

I
0 6 29348'
UCCESSION NUMBER) I

f (THRU)

L R /
-5> U
(PAGES)
/
(CODE)

z
(NASA CR OR TUX O R AD NUMBER)

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMJ3IS"RATION

WASHIHGTON November 1962-
 DRAFT TRFXSLATIOM

--VlirLuGlTP
-- AND EEERGY O F THE: TUNGUS PIETEORITE

(0 s k o r o s t i i e n e r g i i Tungusskogo m e t e o r i t a

Doklady A . N. SSSR by H. P, Stanyukovich

and V.A. Bronshten
Tom 140, 170. 3,
pp, 533 -585, 195x

( P r e s e n t e d on 8 May 1961 by Academician V, G. Fesenlrov)

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n of d e s t r u c t i o n s having r e s u l t e d
from t h e f a l l of t h e Tungus m e t e o r i t e on 30 June 1908 [l] , and
c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e shock wave p a r a m e t e r s , having formed d u r i n g i t s
f l i g h t i n t h e atmosphere [2],
of d e s t r u c t i o n s as b e i n g - p e r m i t t e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l energy
lg3e r g s . The n e t p i c t u r e of t h e r a d i a l
f a l l o f f o r e s t trees from t h e epicenterpccints t o t h e dominating e f f e c t
o f t h e exploding wave, while the c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f a l l i t s e l f , and
i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e e x i s t e n c e of a "zone of i n d i f f e r e n c e " a n d o f
s t a n d i n g t r e e trunks ( " t e l e g r a p h p o l e s r f), undoubtly i n d u c a t e s t h a t
t h e m e t e o r i t e ' s e x p l o s i o n took p l a c e i n t h e zir [l]. Thus, t h e assump-
t i o n , advanced e a r l i e r (1925) by A. V. Voznesenskiy, and a l i t t l e
l a t e r by L. A. K u l i k 1131, about t h e overground c h a r a c t e r o f t h e explo-
s i o n , found i t s c o r r o b o r a t i o n . The p o s s i b l e causes o f t h e e x p l o s i o n
w i l l be e x d n e d below.
The motion of t h e m e t e o r i t e i n t h e atmosphere w a s examined
by V. A. Bronshten [4] on t h e b a s i s o f known e q u a t i o n s of m e t e o r i c
p h y s i c s [ S , 61, S o l u t i o n s were o b t a i n e d for t h e i n i t i a l masses' range
105 - 107 t o n s , and i n i t i a l v e l o c i t i e s o f 1 1 - 46 km/sec, and a l s o f o r
t h e v a l u e s o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r cx/2 = 0.5 + 2.
The v a l u e s of m e t e o r i t e ' s k i n e t i c energy were c a l c u l a t e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h o s e of v e l o c i t i e s a n d final. masses o f all t h e s e r i e s
o f s o l u t i o n s . The comparison of t h e o b t a i n e d v a l u e s for Ek with t h e
energy e s t i m a t e s brought up above i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l ma66 of
 2.

I
t h e m e t e o r i t e exceeded 105 t o n s i n any c a s e , and w a s l i k e l y t o be
I
within lo6 - 1 07 t o n range, which would a g r e e w e l l , by t h e o r d e r of I
1
magnitude, w i t h t h e Fesenkov's e s t i m a t e , made on t h e b a s i s o f e n t i r e l y
d i f f e r e n t considerations, (see 18J 1. Ii
Independently from t h e admitted v a l u e o f t h e i n i t i a l mass,
t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t i e s and t h e mass of m e t e o r i t e must be i n c l u d e d
w i t h i n t h e r a n g e s : 16 <vk < 30 km/sec, 104L Mk 4 7.5
2 lo4 t o n s .
The E h g s i c a l meaning of t h e independence o f t h e s e e s t i m a t e s
from Mo c o n s i s t s i n t h e f a c t , t h a t for matching magnitude &With
t h e d a t a on d e s t r u c t i v e energy i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e f a l l [l, 2 1 t h e
a d m i t t e d v a l u e o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r cx m u s t be r a i s e d simulta-
neously with t h a t of t h e e s t i m a t e of I$, i . e . i t m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d ~

t h a t tb g r e a t e r mass undergoes t h e greater r e s i s t a n c e in t h e a t n o s p h e r e .

The i n v s e t i g a t i o n s by Ceplecha [7] o f t h e Przibram m e t e o r i t e have
shown t h a t for a l a r g e meteor body c,/2== 0.43, and t h e r e f o r e , t h e
s o l u t i o n v y i a n t , corresponding t o Ido I 106
t o n s , vo = 35 + 43 km/sec, I
Vk = 30 km/sec, &= 2 lo4 t o n s , i s most probable.
L e t us p a s s now t o t h e p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f phenomena
I
accompanying t h e f l i g h t o f a l a r g e meteor body i n t h e E a r t h ' s atmos-
phere . I
;;hen a body o f a 25 t o 30 m d i a m e t e r moves a t 1 2 0 km a l t i t u d e
w i t h a cosmic v e l o c i t y , a shock wave b e g i n s t o form, at whose f r o n t
0
t h e temparature T i n t h e i d e a l c a s e i s determined by t h e r e l a t i o n
Y
-
, . - e -
j .- .

where cv is t h e h e a t c a p a c i t y o f t h e a i r (molar h e a t c a p a c i t y ) ,
p, i s its molecular weight (p= 29).
A more a c c u r a t e formula f o r T o , a c c o u n t i n g for t h e a d i a b a t i c
7
,
i n d e x v a r i a t i o n y I c p / cv h a s t h e form
 3.

where 9 . 2 and P1.2 a r e t h e p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y r e s p e c t i v e l y

ahead and behind t h e f r o n t of t h e shock wave, TI is t h e temperature
ahead o f t h e f r o n t .
I n a r e a l c s e , t h e temperature a t t h e s h c k wave's front
Ty w i l l be l o w e r t h a n To because o f energy l o s s e s toward gas disso-
Y
c f a t i o n and i o n i z a t i o n [lo]. The v a l u e s for To and T a t various
7
m e t e o r i t e v e l o c i t i e s a r e compiles i n Table 1 h e r e a f t e r .

T A B L E 1

Thus, t h e temperature a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e Tungusk m e t e o r i t e ' s

shock wave c o n s t i t u t e d 70000 + 100 OOOO. The trRnsitinn from T;, deter-
minable by formula (11, t o t h e r e d temperzture T may be r e a l i z e d
Y'
by t h e empirical. formula

T,= ~ T0 , -0.7
v , (3? '
where '1 =2.27.
The shock wave's r a d i a n t energy i s

E~,.= aSrT6,, (4) 1

-

w h e r e 6 is t h e Stephan-Boltzmann constant ; S i is the r a d i a t i n g

s u r f a c e o f t h e shock wave. I t may be e s t i m a t e d t h a t Si = +,
where S I J ! i st h e s u r f a c e o f the m e t e o r i t e , which a t t h e f i r s t approxi-
mation we c o n s i d e r s p h e r i c a l , = 5 + 10. Inasmuch as

s u b s t i t u t i n g (11, ( 3 ) and ( 5 ) i n t o (4), vi'e s h a l l o b t a i n

E e r e , EM is t h e t o t a l energy o f t h e f l y i n g m e t e o r i t e , s is i t s
d e n s i t y . A t t h e given energy t h e r a d i a n t energy i n c r e a s e s in
d i r e c t p r o p o r f i o n t o t h e v e l o c i t y ' s fourth power.
I n connection w i t h t h i s , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o n o t e t h e f a l l i b i -
l i t y o f A. V. Zo10tov8s computations [ll], having t a k e n t h e bolide's
c o l o r temperature (upper l i m i t - 60000) f o r t h e shack ~ a te
~ n per a -
t u r e , and a t t e m p t i n g t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e f o r m t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e
f l y i n g body a c c o r d i n g t o formula (1).It must be borne i n mind, t h a t
a t T g = 70000°, t h e r a d i a t i o n n d n u m is s i t u a t e d i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
p a r t oi&khe spectrum. For s u c h a r a d i a t i o n air is p r a c t i c a l l y non-
"9

trms?arent. However, ahead of t h e shock wave f r o n t t h e r e a p p e a r s a

h e a t e d zone w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r r a d i a t i o n surface, t h a n that
o f t h e shock wave. A t t h e same time, r e - r a d i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , and
t h e temperature o f t h e e x t e r n a l zone w i l l be lower t h a n Ty, and i t s
r a d i a t i o n will s h i f t i n t o t h e v i s i b l e p a r t o f t h e spectrum. Part of
t h i s r a d i a t i o n is p r e c i s e l y r e c e i v e d by t h e eye i n t h e form o f yellow-
c o l o r e d b o l i d e . I t is t h e r e f o r e obvious, t h a t t h e t e n t a t i v e by A. V.
Zolotov t o determine t h e temperature o f t h e shock wave a c c o r d i n g t o
b o l i d e ' s c o l o r i s i n c o n s i s t e n t , while t h e computation o f meteor body's
v e l o c i t y a c c o r d i n g t h a t tern- e r a t u r e s i m p l y makes no s e n s e .
The u t i l i z a t i o n by Zolotov o f t h e formula l i n k i n g t h e l i g h t
energy (luminous energy) of t h e e x p l o s i o n E , w i t h the l i g h t pulse
i s a l s o unfounded:

where R is t h e d i s t a n c e from the e x p l o s i o n s i t e , -r i s the radius

of t h e i l l u m i n a t e d r e g i o n , kis t h e 1Lght a b s o q t i o n f a c t o r i n t h e
atmosphere. The l a t t e r h a s been t a k e n e q u a l t o 0.033 Ism-', t o which
corresponds an unusually h i g h t r a n s p a r e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t p = 0.93,
t o t a l l y u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r I1taigafl r e g i o n s * ) . I f we o n l y admit a
more r e a l i s t i c , though still a l s o h i g h v a l u e p = 0.80, we o b t a i n
p= 0.1 km'l, and a l l Zolotov's e s t i m a t e s change by few o r d e r 6 .
*) "Taigar1 i s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c S i b e r i a n f o r e s t .
 5.

L e t us now pause a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f a probable n a t u r e of

t h e T u n h k m e t e o r i t e explosion. The g e n e r a l h e a t balance e q u a t i o n
f o r t h e m e t e o r i t e h a s t h e f o r a [IO] :

vihersd i s t h e d e n s i t y o f the shock wave's r a d i a t i o n flux;

Eheat, i s t h e p a r t o f energy used f o r h e a t i n g t h e body ; T and T,
are r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e temperatures o f t h e m e t e o r i t e and of t h e atmos-
phere. i s t h e b i d s h i p " s u r f a c e ; S i s t h e s u r f a c e of t h e body ;
4 M
Q is t h e e v a p o r a t i o n h e a t ; N i s t h e nunber o f v a p o r i z i n g molecules
(cm-2. sec-') -
; m i s t h e a266 o f t h e m o l e c d e .
A n a l y s i s o f e q u a t i o n (8) shows t h a t t h e second term of t h e
left-hand p a r t c o n d i t i o n e d by r a d i a t i o n , is much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
k
first one, which i s c o n d i t i o n e d by h e a t t r a n s f e r a t flowing about.
The h e a t consumption i n t h e evapo-
r a t i o n p r o c e s s ( t h i r d term o f t h e
r i g h t - h a n d p a r t ) is q u i c k l y beco-
ming much g r e a t e r than t h e 3 e a t
consum9tion for t h e r a d i a t i o n
from t h e meteor body's s u r f a c e
(second t e r m ) , and t h a t is why i t
i s s u f f i c i e n t t o examine t h e h e a t
incoming a t t h e expense of t h e
r a d i a t i o n from t h e shock wave '6
Fig. 1. Energy balznce d u r i n g t h e
f r o n t , and t h e h e a t consumed i n motion o f an i r o n n e t e o r i t e :
t h e e v a p o r a t i o n . T h e i r dependence 1 - g e n e r a l energy r e c e i p t ( i r o n ,
vo = 60 h / s , i = 7 2 O , ro = 1 02 cm),
on t h e a l t i t u d e is shown i n f i g . 1 2 - energy r e c e i p t from t h e
f o r an i r o n m e t e o r i t e . shock wave a t t h e expense o f
As may be seen from f i g u r e 1
-
radiation, 3 energy r e c e i p t
a t t h e ecpense o f t h e f l o x i n g
t h e r e c e i p t and consumption o f h e a t around, 4 - consumption o f
energy on t h e e v a p o r a t i o n .
a r e equalized a t t h e a l t i t u d e
h equ. = 18 km, t h e h e a t i n g c e a s e s ,
and t h e n t h e body b e g i n s t o cool o f f , and b r a k i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i t
r e a c h e s t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . There will be t h e same p i c t u r e f o r s t o n e
 6.

But i f we f i g u r e t h a t w e d e a l w i t h t h e nucleus o f a s m d 1
comet, a s Astapovich and J h i p p l e thought i n t h e i r t i m e s , and i f we
admit t h a t t h i s body, just as all comet c o r e s a r e , ir, a cong3omerate
o f methane-ammoniacal i c e , also c o n t a i n i n g s t o n e b o u l d e r s and d u s t ,
t h e p i c t u r e of phenomena6 w i l l be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , For an i c e b l o c k
a t r 5 I d cm, v = 60 km/sec, i = . '
2
7 t h e e n e r n a t 50 Ero d t l t i i d e
i s e d f o r e v a p o r a t i o n , is by one o r d e r l e s s e r t h a n t h a t r e c e i v e d by
.
t h e body f r o m t h e shock wave As a r e s u l t , t h e body is h e a t e d i n depth
doreLconsiderably, and i t e v a y o r a t e s f a s t e r , i . e . t h e boundary o f t h e
e v a p o r a t e d layer is moving f a s t e r t o l a r d t h e c e n t e r . A s u b s t a n t i a l
m a s s o f t h e m a t t e r ( n e a r l y 30::) is e v a p o r a t e d i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t
t i m e ( 40.2 s e c . ) . I f t h e p r o c e s s goes s u f i i c i e n t l y f a s t , t h e evapoo
r a t e d p a r t i c l e s m a y c r e a t e , while outflotving, a s t r o n g s p h e r i c a l
shock wave, a n d t h e phenomenon will b e a r all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
an extended e x p l o s i o n .
A t a speed v = 30 km/sec, t h e PO- e r o f t h e p r o c e s s ( 2 lG3
ergs/g s e c ) i s comparable t o powder e x p l o s i o n (1013 ergs/$. sec).
Such phenomenon, s t u d i e d i n more d e t a i l by Stanyukovich and Shalimov
E121, may be d e s i g n s t e d as Ift h e r n a l explosion".
;de have reviewed above t h e mechanism wkich may l e a d t o t h e
e x p l o s i o n at time o f a s i n g l e body's f l i g h t i n t o t h e atmosphere.
There is however also a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e viewpoint on t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f comet c o r e s . V. G. Fesenkov, f o r example, conside. t h e c o r e o f a
comet as a dense c l u s t e r o f c o n p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l bodies.
Analysis of t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t r e e f a l l p o i n t s w i t h obvious-
ne66 on t h e presence o f n o t noe, b u t s e v e r a l c e n t e r s o f f a l l . T h i s
had a l r e a d y been r e v e a l e d by L. A . ICulik. Taking t h i s i n t o a c c o u n t ,
Fesenkov proposed s t i l l a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e mechanism of d e s t r u c t i o n
u n d e r t h e e f f e c t o f t h e oncoming comet c o r e , what t h e Tungusk meteor-
i t e unquestionably is.
A t time of f l i g h t i n t o the t e r r e s t r i a l ztmosphere o f a s u f f i -
c i e n t l y dense swarm o f bodies at coslsic v e l o c i t y , t h e s w a r m may be
surrounded by a g e n e r a l shock wave. However, a t i t s p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o
t h e lower atmosphere l a y e r s , i t s d e n s i t y must d e c r e a s e on account of
c'

mass d i f f e r e n c e , and consequently - of d e c e l e r a t i o n , and its t r a n s -

v e r s e dimensions and l'lengthll i n c r e a s e . As si r e s u l t , each of t h e
s e p n r a t e bodies or groups o f bodies o f a n e a r l y s i m i l a r m a s s mill
have i n d i v i d u a l shock waves- I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e swarm's b o d i e s will cezse p r i o r t o t h e i r r e a c h i n g t h e ground
(because o f s u r f a c e p e r u n i t o f mass i n c r e a s e ) , t h e shock waves
h a v i n g reached t h e E a r t h w i l l cause t h e observed d e s t r u c t i o n s , and
r a d i a t i o n of a powerful s h o c k viave m i l l e n s u r e t h e r a d i a n t burn of
a s e r i e s of o b j e c t s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r o f t r e e s .
In c o n c l u s i o n t h e a u t h o r s wish t o e x p r e s s t h e i r acknowledge-
ment t o Academician V. G . Fesenkov. f o r h i s v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s *
0

Committee on M e t e o r i t e 6 E n t e r e d on 5 Way 1961

of t h e
USSR Academy of S c i e n c e s .

Tr&lated by ANDRE L. ERICHANT

NASA TE*AL INFORMRTION & EDUCATION
1 2 November 1.961.