,J'°

,. ; (
AIK _
t

GPO PRICE $

CFSTI PRICE(S) $

Hard copy (HC)

Microfiche (MF)

ff 653 July 65

MARINER-MA 4
NAL PROJECT REPORT

• , -"_ ,"_ 1 0
(THRU)

= j_- ( /
(PAGES)

(CODE) /
(NASA CR OR TMX OR AD NUMBER) (CATEGORY)

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

MARINER-MARS 1964
FINAL PROJECT REPORT
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft
 NASA SP-139

MARINER-MARS 1964
FINAL PROJECT REPORT

Prepared under contract for NASA by

Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology

ScientiSt and Technical In[ormation Division

OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION 1967
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Washington, D.C.
 ,tl

Editor's Note

This report presents the story of the Mariner-Mars 1964 project

from the time of its inception until October 1, 1965, when two-way
communications with the spacecraft were interrupted. By this date, the
objectives of the Mariner-Mars 1964 project had been completed. How-
ever, since that time, the spacecraft continued to function properly
and a follow-on project, called Mariner IV, was established to
continue operations with the spacecraft through 1966 and 1967. Plans
for tracking Mariner IV in its path around the Sun and for obtaining
additional telemetry data, as discussed in this report, were successfully
culminated during this follow-on project. Mariner IV continued to
function properly during 1966 and most of 1967, and the results of this
portion of its flight will be included in a subsequent report.

For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents,

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price $2.50 (paper cover)

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-60049

 Foreword

In November 1962, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

established the Mariner-Mars 1964 project as the first phase of U.S. unmanned
exploration of Mars. Mariner IV, developed under that project, joined the grow-
ing list of U.S. space accomplishments when, on July 15, 1965, it flew within
approximately 9800 km (6100 statute miles) of the planet. A television instrument
photographed Mars, obtaining significant data about its surface; particles and
electromagnetic fields experiments yielded a vast storehouse of scientific infor-
mation about the near-Earth and near-Mars environments and interplanetary
space; and, by measuring changes in the characteristics of radio signals as Mariner
IV passed behind Mar_ (as viewed from the Earth), information about the atmos-
phere of the planet was obtained.
Mariner IV was launched on November 28, 1964, on a trajectory which
would have taken it within approximately 242 960 km (151 000 statute miles) of
Mars. By a single, successful midcourse maneuver on December 5, 1964, its flight
path was altered to enable the close flyby. The total flight time was approximately
7 a_ months, but the story of Mariner IV actually began 2 years prior to its launch
and it extends beyond the July 15 close approach to Mars with chapters yet un-
told. This document presents that story from the time the idea for the mission was
conceived until October 1, 1965, when two-way communications with the space-
craft were terminated. Plans for tracking Mariner IV as it continues in its path
around the Sun and for attempting to obtain telemetry data during a future close
approach of Mariner IV to the Earth are also discussed.
Actually, the Mariner-Mars 1964 story involves more than the recorded facts
and figures included herein. The portion of the story which cannot be told on
paper is the human aspect: a story of a team whose members combined their skills
and talents toward one common goal. The Mariner-Mars 1964 project was an ex-
tremely complex undertaking, and, as such, required an enormous effort by many
people. The success of Mariner IV is a tribute to their efforts.
It is also a tribute to this country's economic strength and resources that a
mission such as Mariner IV could evolve from an idea to a reality in a little over
2 years. Such rapid progress is made possible by a fast-moving intricate mechanism
of many functioning parts. For Mariner-Mars 1964, the functioning parts included
MARINER-MARS 1964

the engineers, scientists, administrators, and many other individuals who played a
direct role in the project and also, of equal importance, the support of the entire
country sharing our commitment to meet the challenges of space exploration.
A combination of the new concepts, methods, and techniques developed
under the Mariner-Mars 1964 project and those already proved by Mariner IV's
predecessors in space (such as the Ranger flights to the Moon and the Mariner II
flight past Venus) was indeed a winning combination for our first attempt at Mars
exploration. And, as was true with Mariner IV, the invaluable information
gathered both in the development stages of the project and during the Mariner IV
mission will be used in future space projects involving unmanned spacecraft which
will orbit the planets, soft-land on them, and explore their surfaces.

W. H. PICKERING,

Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,

California Institute of Technology.

vi
 Contents

INTRODUCTION .................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1 Summary of Scientific and Engineering Results .......... 5

CHAPTER 2 Trajectory ........................................ 9

Earth-to-Mars Trajectory Characteristics ................ 9
Near-Earth Ascent ........................... 9
Heliocentric Transfer ......................... 12
Mars Encounter .............................. 12
Heliocentric Orbit ............................ 13
Mariner-Mars 1964 Trajectory Design ................ 13
Determination of Launch Interval and Arrival Dates.. 13
Aiming Point Determination .................... 1"/
Impact Probability Analysis .................... 20
Launch Constraints Analysis .................. 21
Final Prelaunch Trajectory Determination .......... 22
Orbit-Determination Operations ................ 23
Mariner IV Trajectory Results ....................... 27
Orbit-Determination Procedures ................. 27
Resulting Trajectory Values .................... 28
Orbital Elements of Mariner IV Trajectory ........ 35
CHAPTER 3 Space Vehicle System Design and Testing Operations •. • 41
Launch Vehicle Design ........................... 41
Atlas D First Stage ............................ 41
Agena D Second Stage ........................ 43
Shroud System and Spacecraft Adapter ........... 45
Spacecraft System Design ........................... 46
Design Considerations ......................... 46
Preliminary Design ............................ 4"/
Spacecraft Mechanical Configuration ............ 50
Subsystem Functional Description ................ 58
Testing Operations ................................ 117
Environmental Testing Program .................. 11 7
Miscellaneous Qualification and Developmental
Testing .................................. 120

vii
MARINER-MARS 1964

System Testing Program ........................ 122

Test Facilities ................................ 122
OperationaJ Support Equipment ................. 124

CHAPTER 4 Flight History and Space Vehicle Performance .......... 131

Chronology of Mariner-Mars 1964 Flights ............. 1 31
Mariner III Flight .............................. 131
Mariner IV Flight ............................ 132
Mission Planning and Decision Philosophies ........... 155
Launch ..................................... 155
Midcourse Maneuver .......................... 1 56
Postmidcourse-Maneuver (Interplanetary) Cruise .... 1 56
Early Science Cover Deployment Exercise .......... 161
Encounter .................................... 162
Postencounter ................................ 164
Future Operations for Mariner IV ................ 166
Mariner IV Subsystem Performance ................... 16-/
Structure and Mechanisms ....................... 167
Radio ........................................ 168
Data Encoder ................................. 1 72
Video Storage ................................ 172
Command .................................... 173
Attitude Control .............................. 173
Central Computer and Sequencer ................. 175
Power ....................................... 1 75
Pyrotechnics ................................. 177
Propulsion ................................... 17"/
Temperature Control ........................... 178
Science ...................................... 1 79

CHAPTER 5 Tracking and Data Acquisition ...................... 185

Scheduled Support J:or Mariner-Mars 1964 Missions ..... 185
Air Force Eastern Test Range .................... : 185
Goddard Space Flight Center .................... 18"/
Deep Space Network .......................... 188
Mariner IV Tracking and Data Acquisition Summary ..... 207

CHAPTER 6 Space Flight Operations ............................ 213

System Functions and Responsibilities ................. 213

viii
 * .b

CONTENTS

Data Processing Subsystem ......................... 216

Data Flow ........................................ 219
Real-Time Data ............................... 219
Non-Real-Time Data ........................... 219
General Paths ................................. 220
Operational Modes and Computer Programs ....... 220
Telemetry Data Forms After Processing ................ 229
Mariner-Mars 1964 Master Data Library ............... 230
Mariner IV Data Processing and Recovery Summary ..... 231
Data Recovery Summary ........................ 231
Data Processing Summary ....................... 232

CHAPTER 7 Scientific Results and Conclusions ..................... 235

Fields and Particles Experiments ...................... 235
Introduction .................................. 235
Helium Magnetometer ....................... 238
Cosmic Dust Detector ........................... 244
Ionization Chamber ............................ 24"/
Cosmic Ray Telescope .......................... 250
Trapped Radiation Detector ..................... 251
Solar Plasma Probe ............................ 254
Television and Occultation Experiments .............. 257
Introduction .................................. 257
Television ................................... 261
Occultation .................................. 316

APPENDIX A Project History and Organization .................... 323

Mariner-Mars 1964 Project Formalization ............ 323
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Organization and Management. 326
Lewis Research Center Responsibility ................. 327
Advisory Panel Participation ........................ 334

APPENDIX B Abbreviations .................................... 335

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................ 339

ix
 Introduction

The planet Mars was named by the Romans for their ancient sanguinary god
of war because of its vermilion color. With the traditional belief that it may sup-
port life, Mars has overshadowed its far more brilliant Olympian sister, Venus, in
public interest. Since it is the planet in our solar system thought to be most like
Earth, scientists, philosophers, and writers have for many years speculated on what
this life, if it exists, might be like. As our knowledge of Mars has improved as more
sophisticated observational techniques have become available over the years, the
fabled surface environment of Mars has appeared less and less promising in regard
to its ability to support terrestrial life forms. However, because of the amazing
........._,4_pt_h;1;tyof life on this anet, .... v ......... y ..... c on _,,m_ ,_nuu_ be ueu-
-J n
nitely excluded.
In order to answer the question of life on Mars, it will be necessary to land
instruments on its surface. Before this can be accomplished, the most desirable
location to attempt such a soft landing will have to be selected. However, before
either of these feats can become a reality, information concerning the atmospheric
and surface conditions of Mars and the environmental characteristics of the space
separating Mars from the Earth must be available to designers of the spacecraft.
Therefore, the first step in Mars exploration was a closeup (flyby) mission from
which the necessary planetary and interplanetary information could be derived.
Such a mission was that of Mariner IV.
The Mariner IV spacecraft was launched on November 28, 1964, and en-
countered Mars on July 15, 1965. The mission proved to be of immense scientific
and engineering importance. Scientific information is now available on regions of
the solar system never before penetrated with instruments. Observations from the
vicinity of Mars suggest entirely new concepts about the nature of the planet.
Spacecraft performance has proved our ability to design and construct a remotely
operated device of extreme complexity, and its continued operation established an
extremely high standard of reliability. Maintaining two-way communications over
distances up to 304 million km (190 million miles) demonstrates remarkable
advances in communications technology not thought possible a decade ago.
Design concepts used in the design of Mariner IV date back to 1959 when the
Vega project was begun at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). From that project
MARINER-MARS1964

evolved the Ranger project, the first phase of U.S. lunar exploration. The Mariner
concept itself was formulated when a mission to Venus was planned for the 1962
flight opportunity. This mission was to be accomplished by using a 567-kg-class
(1250-1b) spacecraft launched by a vehicle consisting of a modified Atlas D first
stage and a Centaur liquid-hydrogen/liquid-oxygen, high-energy second stage.
However, when it became evident that the development of the Centaur stage had
not progressed sufficiently to make it available for the 1962 Venus launch period,
this mission series was canceled and another was formulated. The latter Venus
mission series, based on the use of an Atlas D/Agena B launch vehicle and a hybrid
spacecraft combining features of the Ranger and Mariner designs, formally
became the Mariner-Venus 1962 project. The Mariner I I spacecraft, developed
under that project, made history on December 14, 1962 (after 109 days of flight),
when on a predetermined trajectory it encountered Venus at a distance of 34 826
km (21 645 statute miles) from the planet. Valuable scientific data on Venus and
on interplanetary space were obtained.
The Mariner IV spacecraft was developed under the Mariner-Mars 1964
project, which was established as part of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) Planetary-Interplanetary Space Exploration program in
November 1962. Primary objectives were to make flyby scientific observations of
the planet Mars during the 1964-1965 flight opportunity and to transmit the
results back to Earth. Secondary objectives were to develop and study equipment
and techniques required for such a mission and to perform certain scientific meas-
urements during the trip.
NASA, through its Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA),
assigned the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, at
Pasadena, California, the management responsibility for the project under con-
tract NAST-100; the spacecraft system; and tracking, data acquisition, and space
flight operations activities. Responsibility for the overall direction and perform-
ance evaluation of the project was assigned to the OSSA Lunar and Planetary
Programs Office. Management responsibility for the launch vehicle, an Atlas D/
Agena D combination, was assigned to the NASA Lewis Research Center (LeRC)
of Cleveland, Ohio. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center at Greenbelt, Maryland,
was assigned launch operations responsibility for the project.
Discussed in this document are the Mariner-Mars 1964 trajectory; space-
vehicle system design and testing operations; flight history and space-vehicle
performance; tracking, data acquisition, and space flight operations activities;
Mariner IV scientific (planetary and interplanetary) results and conclusions; and

2
 INTRODUCTION

project management and organization. Thus, a comprehensive report is given

herein of activities from the inception of the project in November 1962 until the
end of the Mariner IV mission on October 1, 1965. Future plans involving the
Mariner IV spacecraft are also discussed.
A brief history of the Mariner-Mars 1964 project is given in appendix A, and
abbreviations used in this book are defined in appendix B.

3
 b

pp, ECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FILF_ED.

CHAPTER 1

Summary of Scientific and Engineering Results

The Mariner IV spacecraft, the first man-made probe to travel to Mars, was
far more than a technological experiment: it was an extremely complex instrument
designed to perform multiple scientific experiments to extend man's knowledge of
his own planet, interplanetary space, and the planet Mars. In addition, the devel-
opment of this spacecraft contributed a vast amount of engineering knowledge to
space technology which is essential to the design of future planetary and inter-
planetary space probes. Regarding the engineering evolution and technical
development of the spacecraft, the following list highlights only a small fraction of
the many technological demands placed on, and operational "firsts" required of,
Mariner IV:
1. The Mariner IV mission was the first to require 9 months of successful
spacecraft operation to achieve mission success.
2. The spacecraft was required to be fully automatic; i.e., it had to be
capable of completing its entire mission without ground-based intervention,
except for trajectory-correction maneuvers and, of course, tracking and data
acquisition.
3. The design of the spacecraft required at least two independent means of
initiating every specific function or event critical to the success of the mission.
4. The complexity of its assigned tasks required that the spacecraft contain
138 000 parts, as compared with 54 000 parts in its predecessor, Mariner II, with
only a 61-kg (135-1b) increase in spacecraft weight.
5. The spacecraft was required to communicate with Earth over extreme
distances: at least 2_ times greater than those of previous missions. The Mariner
IV mission involved the first use of the S-band communications system.
6. Since it was traveling away from the Sun during its journey to Mars,
Mariner IV had to withstand a widely varying range of thermal conditions and
required twice the solar panel area of Mariner II.
7. The solar pressure vanes at the ends of Mariner IV's solar panels were
unique in utilizing solar pressure effects (about a millionth of a pound per vane)
to assist in maintaining stable orientation of the spacecraft toward the Sun.

$
 B

MARINER-MARS 1964

8. Whereas previous spacecraft used the Earth for roll-axis stabilization,

Mariner IV was the first successful spacecraft to use a star (Canopus) for this
purpose. (The Earth could not be used since, during much of the flight, the Earth
appeared as a relatively dim crescent as it moved across the face of the Sun.)
9. In case more than one trajectory correction was necessary, the Mariner IV
trajectory-correction propulsion system was designed to be restartable. This was
the first time such a dual capability was available.
10. The spacecraft was required to store the data it acquired at Mars on
magnetic tape for transmission to Earth at a later time.
11. The Mariner IV mission was the first in which coherent radio transmission
was used to probe conditions on another planet (i.e., the first in which an occulta-
tion experiment was conducted).
In order to meet the unique and more stringent requirements of the mission to
Mars, every effort to insure proper operation of the spacecraft had to be made.
Rigorous testing programs were carried out, as were very demanding parts-screen-
ing and quality-assurance activities. Backup designs were accomplished in several
critical areas. Every effort was thoroughly documented so that all areas connected
with the mission would be as well informed and coordinated as possible. As it
turned out, these activities were well worth the effort involved, for the Mariner IV
spacecraft was truly a milestone in engineering technological accomplishment.
In addition, the scientific results of the mission greatly enhanced the level of
our knowledge concerning planetary and interplanetary conditions. During the
Mariner IV journey to Mars, approximately 23 million scientific measurements
were made. During the early part of the trip as it passed through the region of
space influenced by, the Earth, Mariner IV measured with great precision the Van
Allen radiation belts, the terrestrial magnetic field which holds them, and the
interface between the solar plasma (ionized gas) in space and the Earth's magnetic
field. The spacecraft measured the rise and fall of solar activity throughout its
journey, and, although the mission took place during a period of decreased solar
activity, over 20 solar flare events were detected. Solar wind velocities varied
widely during the flight, and magnetic fields fluctuated concurrently. About 235
micrometeorite (cosmic dust) impacts on the cosmic dust detector were recorded.
As it flew by Mars, Mariner IV proved conclusively that Mars has a very
small magnetic dipole moment compared with that of the Earth (less than 0.1
percent the value for the Earth), if it has one at all. This measurement was sup-
ported by the fact that no radiation belts were detected in the vicinity of the
planet. Without a magnetic field to deflect energetic particles, Mars then is
 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFICAND ENGINEERINGRESULTS

directly cxposed to bombardment by cosmic rays and solar plasma. The absence of
a magnetic field also implies that some feature of the Earth's internal structure is
missing in Mars: presumably a liquid core. It can thus be concluded that, without
such a core, Mars probably lacks much of the internal activity that results in
changes in the topography of the Earth (such as mountain building).
Measurements by the instrument which detected the presence of cosmic dust
throughout the flight indicated no concentration of solid matter in the vicinity of
Mars. In fact, the measurements seem to indicate that Mars has swept a dust-free
path in its orbit around the Sun and has thus reduced the quantity of matter in
that region.
The atmosphere on Mars was found to be extremely thin compared with that
on the Earth. Mars' daytime ionosphere appears to be approximately equivalent
to that of the Earth at night. Since Mars has a surface pressure measuring between
0.5 and 1 percent that of the Earth, thus providing little aerodynamic braking
assistance to facilitate a soft landing, it will be much more difficult than was ex-
p,.c_eu to design capsules capable of landing on the Martian surthce. However,
the discovery that density decreases quite rapidly in Mars' upper atmosphere
indicates that it may be possible to orbit at lower altitudes than were previously
thought feasible.
The most surprising discovery of Mariner IV was that the surface of Mars
closely resembles that of the Moon. The existence of craters seems to indicate
that the surface may be 2 to 5 billion years old and very well preserved, since none
of the erosive effects encountered on Earth would be encountered on Mars.
The close flyby of the Mariner IV spacecraft past Mars and the accurate
tracking of the spacecraft on its trajectory allowed improvements in the calculation
of the planet's mass. A new value, with significantly improved accuracy, for the
ratio of Mars' mass to that of the Sun was obtained.
If Mariner IV is still operating during its close approach to the Earth in
September 1967, even more data from the spacecraft will be received. These data
will be valuable since: (1) the measurements will come from a region of space,
some 16 million km (10 million statute miles) above the orbital plane of the Earth,
at a time of increased solar activity; and (2) the measurements will be made
simultaneously with those of the Pioneer and other spacecraft from different
regions of space about the Sun. All evidence obtained to date indicates that the
spacecraft is continuing to operate quite well and that it will be possible to obtain
these data in 1967.
 _ECED_NG pAGE _LAN_- i_v, --
.,, PP,ECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FILt_ED.

CHAPTER 2

Trajectory

EARTH-TO-MARS TRAJECTORY CHARACTERISTICS

For the best utilization of the available rocket energy, the relative motion and
positions of the planets about the Sun must be considered, since the spacecraft
itself, once freed from the Earth's gravitational pull, becomes a member (planet-
oid) of the solar system and, therefore, subject to the same inertial forces. As a
result of the changing planetary relationships, the available time of departure
(launch date), the speed of travel, the time of flight, and the flight path change
continually.
Of prime significance in scheduling an interplanetary trip is the knowledge
that a free-falling (orbiting) body travels in an imaginary plane which passes
through the center of a controlling body. For an Earth-to-Mars interplanetary
spacecraft, this controlling body is first the Earth, then the Sun, then Mars, and
again the Sun. Within each of these planes, the spacecraft follows certain geo-
metric paths that are mathematically definable and predictable. The trajectory
path describes various conic figures: Earth orbit: ellipse; Earth escape: hyperbola;
Sun-centered transfer orbit: ellipse; Mars encounter and escape: hyperbola; and
Sun-centered permanent orbit: ellipse.

Near-Earth Ascent

The ascent phase for the mission (fig. 2-1) could be divided into three
portions: The powered-flight ascent, the parking-orbit coast, and the postinjection
ascent. The powered-flight ascent consists of the Atlas D and Agena D thrust
periods. At the end of the first Agena D thrust period, the Agena D/spacecraft
combination is placed in a nearly circular parking orbit at an altitude of approxi-
mately 188 km (117.5 statute miles). The Agena D/spacecraft combination
"coasts" in this orbit until the optimum point is reached for a final thrust phase
(near perigee or closest point of the required escape hyperbola), at which time the
Agena D engine is restarted. Injection takes place upon termination of this final
Agena D thrust period and, consequently, when the spacecraft is "injected" into
its hyperbolic orbit away from the Earth.
MARINER-MARS 1964

/--ATLAS D
ATLAS D I BOOSTER

AGENA D
SUSTAINER
/
FIRST BURN q

ORBIT

COAST II POSITION / NI I

OUTGOING RADIAL,
GENERAL DIRECTION
OF EARTH'S MOTION

AGENA O

SECOND BURN %

POST,NJECTIO /--ESCAPEHYPERBOLA
ASCENT __i "'-._

"RI"_'_"-A SY M PT OT E OF

ESCAPE HYPERBOLA

FIGURE 2-1.--Typical near-Earth ascent trajectory profile (in near-Earth ascent

trajectory plane) for Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft.

The postinjection ascent describes an escape hyperbola with the Earth's

center as its principal focus. A characteristic of the escape trajectory is that after
a few hours the spacecraft travels essentially radially away from the Earth along
the outgoing asymptote of the escape hyperbola. This asymptote is a straight line
parallel to the outgoing radial (a straight line connecting Earth's center and the
geocentric point in space at which the spacecraft finally escapes the pull of the
Earth's gravitational field). The spacing between these two lines is determined by
the eccentricity of the hyperbola, which is, in turn, determined by the velocity of
the spacecraft at the time of injection. The direction of the outgoing radial is
defined by its celestially referenced right ascension and declination. The value of
the right ascension and declination is determined from the relative positions of
Earth at launch and Mars at encounter, and remains essentially fixed for a given
launch date.
Since the launch site remains at a fixed geographic latitude, the requirement
of the near-Earth ascent phase is to match the powered-flight portion (which

10
 TRAJECTOR Y

begins at the launch site) to the required escape velocity vector. The direction of
this vector is determined by the asymptote of the escape hyperbola. The hyper-
bolic excess velocity is the geocentric velocity (i.e., the velocity in relation to the
Earth's center) which the spacecraft attains a few days after launch as it becomes
free of the gravitational pull of the Earth. (The magnitude of this velocity is pro-
portional to the square root of the injection energy.) The outgoing radial and the
geocentric position of the launch site define the plane of the near-Earth ascent
trajectory.
The injection energy (i.e., that energy required to effect the ballistic transfer
from Earth to Mars) is at a minimum every 25 months. This time period is deter-
mined by the harmonic relationship between the duration of time required by
Mars and the Earth to complete their orbital revolutions about the Sun (approxi-
mately 687 and 365 days, respectively). Any launch other than one at the optimum
time requires an increase in injection energy and a resultant decrease in allowable
spacecraft weight. (For a given spacecraft weight, there is a corresponding value
of injection energy which is achievable by the launch vehicle.) For any available
energy above the absolute minimum, there is a corresponding launch interval
(number of days) in which the spacecraft can be launched.
Each day in this launch interval has its own launch period or "window" of
only several hours or minutes. This launch window results from several inter-
related restrictions and conditions:
1. The geographically fixed launch site on the surface of the Earth.
2. The Earth's center point.
3. The geocentrically referenced location and direction of injection into an
Earth-escape hyperbolic orbit. (The range of locations and directions varies with
celestial latitude of Mars at encounter and with the Earth's own orbit position
and, therefore, does not change significantly for any given day.)
4. The rotation of the Earth about its axis.
5. The 93 ° to 111 ° east of true north (i.e., north referenced to the Earth's axis
rather than to the magnetic poles) geographic launch range or corridor. (This is
an Air Force Eastern Test Range (AFETR) safety restriction to minimize the
hazard to populated areas below the launch vehicle ascent path.)
The parking-orbit coast time decreases as the time of launch is delayed during
a daily launch window, since the angle between the launch-site position vector and
the outgoing radial (projected backward) gets smaller as the Earth rotates. The
change in both launch azimuth and parking-orbit coast time results in a wide
geographic range of injection locations. The effect of the Earth's rotation is to

11
MARINER-MARS1964

move the launch site eastward 15 deg/hr and to change continuously the required
launch azimuth to coincide with the continuously inclining spacecraft orbit plane.
(The launch site, Earth center point, and asymptote of the escape hyperbola will
all be in the orbit plane of the spacecraft when the location and direction condi-
tions of injection are satisfied.) Since the launch azimuth increases as the time of
launch increases, the period of time during a day is limited during which the
required range of azimuth headings is available. This period of time defines the
launch window.

Heliocentric Transfer
The heliocentric (Sun-centered) transfer orbit is an ellipse that essentially
intersects the Earth at launch and the planet Mars at encounter, with the Sun at
one focus. The hyperbolic excess velocity vector and the Earth's velocity vector
about the Sun add vectorially to determine the velocity at which the spacecraft
enters the heliocentric orbit. Since the spacecraft is launched "forward" from the
Earth's orbital velocity, the magnitude of the spacecraft's resultant velocity vector
is larger (relative to the Sun) than that of the Earth's velocity vector. As the space-
craft then travels outward from the Sun, it decreases in speed and the Earth finally
passes it (as viewed from the Sun).
The minimum velocity required to escape the pull of the Earth's gravitational
field is approximately 11.18 km/sec (6.95 statute miles/sec); the actual velocity
required to reach Mars is approximately 11.44 km/sec (7.11 statute miles/sec).
The additional velocity is necessary to move the spacecraft out farther away from
the Sun and to displace it from the ecliptical plane (the orbital plane of the Earth
as projected on the celestial sphere 1) on a trajectory suitable for intersection of the
orbital plane of Mars (as projected on the celestial sphere) at the optimum time
for planetary encounter.

Mars Encounter
During the encounter with Mars, the primary source of gravitational attrac-
tion is the planet itself. The trajectory of the spacecraft is similar to that during the
near-Earth ascent phase (both described by hyperbolas), except that during Mars
encounter the spacecraft travels along an incoming hyperbolic path. Also, the
altitude of closest approach to Mars is several times greater for the Mars encounter
phase than for the near-Earth ascent phase.

1An imaginary sphere of infinite radius, with the observer at its center, on which all celestial bodies except
the Earth appear to be projected.

12
 TRAJECTOR
Y

Heliocentric Orbit

After Mars encounter and a hyperbolic escape from the gravitational pull of
that planet, the spacecraft begins a new heliocentric orbit. The parameters of the
new elliptic orbit differ greatly from those of the preencounter orbit because of
large inertial perturbations introduced during the encounter.

MARINER-MARS 1964 TRAJECTORY DESIGN

Determination of Launch Interval and Arrival Dates

In order to determine the acceptable launch intervals and trajectory charac-

teristics for the Mariner-Mars 1964 mission, studies of the relationship between
flight time, launch date, and injection energy were required. Six major factors had
to be considered in the preliminary trajectory design:
1. Desire for scientific data gathering during a close flyby and transmission of
the data back to Earth.
2. Use of the Atlas D/Agena D launch vehicle and an approximately 189-km
(I17.5-statute-mile) nearly circular parking orbit.
3. Launchings of two spacecraft with at least a 2-day separation in arrival
dates.

4. Launchings from two separate launch pads with a maximum launch

azimuth spread of from 90 ° to 1 |4 ° east of true north. (In order to maximize the
probability of launching two spacecraft, it was necessary to maximize the size of
the launch window and thus the launch corridor. Therefore, permission was
granted for a launch corridor of 90 ° to 114 °, instead of the usual 93°to Ill°.)
5. Use of an attitude-stabilized spacecraft with the Sun and the star Canopus
as reference bodies.
6. A maximum allowable Earth-spacecraft communications distance of ap-
proximately 250 million km (156 million statute miles).
Two possible types of trajectories may be used: The type I trajectories are
characterized by a heliocentric transfer angle of less than 180 ° from launch to
encounter; the total transfer angle for type II trajectories lies between 180 ° and
360 °. Longer flight times and communications distances at encounter are allowed
by the type II trajectories.
In order to increase the probability of launching two spacecraft, a launch
period composed of both type I and type II trajectories was selected to provide a
maximum number of launch days. The two types of possible trajectories are
represented in figures 2-2 and 2-3 as two sets of closed contours. As may be seen,

13
MARINER-MARS 1964

the energy contours for both types provided overlapping flight times and com-
munications distances at encounter.
After careful study of all possible trajectories, a decision was made to use
those with small variations in arrival date. Since the relative positions of Earth,
Mars, and the Sun are fixed for a given arrival date, the selection of constant-
arrival-date trajectories allowed the use of a fixed high-gain antenna on the space-
craft. Also, because of the relatively constant spacecraft approach direction and
velocity, the use of a fixed aiming point was permitted. A single arrival date was
not allowable, however, because of the requirement for a separation of at least 2
days between the Mars encounter of each Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft. The 1965

480 I i v i

NOTE : INJECTION ENERGY C 3 IS TWICE THE TOTAL

ENERGY/UNIT MASS WITH UNITS km2/sec 2

-- CLASS I (LOWER ENERGY CONTOURS)

440 --

-- -- -- CLASS 13" (HIGHER ENERGY CONTOURS) _ _ ....

360 -- / i / /
/ / / / /

// // // / / /

32o ; z // / I/ / L/"-_:_----- _ 18
/ / / TYPE_ /L_;_'__ 15

28O 9.843 --

!/ ! ,,,,

160 -- 24 / _ _,_.///

120
15 25 4 14 24 4 14 24 3
OCT NOV DEC JAN
LAUNCH DATE

FIGURE 2-2.--Time of flight as a function of launch date.

14
 TRAJECTOR Y

T 1 1 T 1

NOTE: INJECT/ON ENERGY C 3 IS TWICE THE TOTAL /

ENERGY/UNIT MASS WITH UNITS km2/sec 2

-- CLASS I (LOWER ENERGY CONTOURS)

350

-- -- -- CLASS 11" (HIGHER ENERGY CONTOURS)

33O

310

:'3= 21
18

% 290
15

12
X
t0
E
9
8.843
27O

u)_

0
l.- 250

0
c.p 230

TYPE I

210

190

I 7O
I0
12

15

18

150 21

24

130
15 25 4 14 24 4 14 24 13
OCT NOV DEC JAN

LAUNCH DATE

FIGURE 2-3.--Earth-Mars communications distance as a function of launch date.

15
MARINER-MARS 1964

arrival dates selected --July 15 and 17 for type I trajectories, July 17 and 19 for type
II trajectories resulted in trajectories with near-minimum energy for each launch
date (fig. 2-4) and insured that a maximum possible launch interval would be
available once the spacecraft were built and the maximum injection energies
attainable were calculated. The communications distances at encounter for the
selected dates varied from 217.5 to 221.7 million km (135.2 to 137.8 million statute
miles). It was felt at that time that the maximum communications distance would
be 251 million km (156 million statute miles), reached approximately 25 days after
encounter; thus, sufficient time would remain after encounter for two complete
transmissions of the television picture data. (During the actual Mariner IV flight,
however, telemetry contact was maintained to a distance of approximately 309.2
million km (192.2 million statute miles) on the 78th day after encounter.)
Because of the direct relationship between the injection energy achievable
from the launch vehicle and the weight of the spacecraft, a trade-off between the

140

130

/
/
E

IIO /
F-

,,,, JULY OATE

17, 1965 f"
_0 o

I-
JULY 19,196,.5 --JULY 15,1965

JULY 17, 1965

[ , ,
4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 2 4 6 8 I0
NOV DEC

LAUNCH DATE

FIGURE 2-4.--Geocentric injection energy as a function of launch date.

16
 TRAJECTOR
Y

length of the firing period and the spacecraft weight existed. Once the spacecraft
weight of approximately 261 kg (575 lb) was established, a launch interval of
approximately 27 days was calculated.

Aiming Point Determination

Studies were also conducted to determine the region near Mars most desirable
for flyby. This aiming point could be specified by a vector B directed from the
center of Mars to the point at which the incoming asymptote pierced the T-R
plane. This plane, shown in figure 2-5, is defined to be normal to the incoming
asymptote of the spacecraft approach hyperbola, T is a unit vector parallel to the
ecliptic plane, and R is normal to T. The aiming point is usually defined by its
two components B oT and B'R or by its magnitude B (from the center of Mars)
and the polar angle 0 measured from T to R. Spacecraft design and planetary-
science-experiment considerations imposed numerous constraints on the selection
of the aiming point; among the more important constraints were:
1. The Sun-probe (spacecraft)-near limb of Mars angle (SPM) had to be
greater than 0 ° during the entire encounter phase, since the Sun served as both a
power source and a reference body for the attitude-control subsystem. Thus, the
aiming point must be outside the SPM --0 ° contour in figure 2-6 (calculated for a
November 15, 1964, launch).
2. No part of Mars or its moons could fall within a region 4-26 ° in clock angle
and 920+36 ° in cone angle during the encounter phase so that Canopus would be
the only detectable body within the Canopus-sensor field of view; i.e., the Cano-
pus-probe-near limb of Mars angle (CPM) had to be greater than 36 ° during the
entire encounter phase. Therefore, the aiming point must be outside the region
defined by CPM = 36 ° in figure 2-6.
3. It was desirable for the spacecraft to pass within 40 200 km (25 000 statute
miles) of the surface of the planet to insure a maximum scientific return from the
fields and particles experiments on the spacecraft and the desired picture resolu-
tion from the television experiment.
4. The aiming point had to lie between 0 ° and 90 ° from the T-axis in the
T-R plane (fig. 2-5). This constraint was necessary to insure that the planet would
fall within the field of view of the planetary-scan system and to provide a picture
trace across a desirable region of the planet.
5. The Earth-probe-near limb of Mars angle (EPM) had to be less than 0°
sometime during the encounter phase to enable the spacecraft to pass behind Mars
(as seen from the Earth). Then the occultation experiment could be performed to

17
MARINER-MARS 1964

determine the characteristics of the Martian atmosphere. Thus, the aiming point
had to lie within the region defined by EPM--0 ° in figure 2-6.
6. The probability that the spacecraft would impact Mars had to be less than
10 -4. Therefore, the region defined by impact probability (IMP) --10 -4 in figure
2-6 had to be avoided.
After careful consideration of the constraints, aiming points were selected to lie on
the centerline of the Earth's occultation contour with B -- 12 068 km (7500 statute
miles). Since the centerline varied slightly with trajectory type and arrival date,
the aiming point would change slightly also.
The precise arrival time had to be selected also and was chosen so that the
spacecraft could be viewed by the Goldstone Deep Space Communication Com-
plex during the encounter sequence. Since the television sequence was designed to
occur before closest approach, the arrival time (defined as the time of closest ap-
proach to Mars) was chosen to be 1 hour past the middle of the Goldstone-view
period.

TARGET 5'0 (OUTGOING ASYMPTOTE)

PLANE OF THE
APPROACH
5"I

CLOSEST APPROACH

REFERENCE PLANE
il
_'I (INCOMING ASYMPTOTE)

R
TARGET-CENTERED
HYPERBOLA

FIGURE 2-5.--Definition of B • T, B • R system.

18
 TRA JECTOR Y

ii

19
MARINER-MARS1964

Impact Probability Analysis

To protect Mars from possible contamination by viable organisms from
Earth, a NASA policy stated that any unsterilized spacecraft launched to Mars
must have less than a 10 -_ probability of accidental impact with the planet. This
requirement played a key role in the determination of the aiming point for the
Mars flyby. A retrorocket was provided on the Agena D for the first Mariner-Mars
1964 spacecraft (Mariner III) for firing after injection to insure that the require-
ment was met for the Agena D. However, since the second launch (that of
Mariner IV) was delayed (for design of a new shroud), it became desirable to
remove this retrorocket since the resulting weight reduction would allow an
increase in available injection energy and thus provide a few extra days for the
launch period. Therefore, it became necessary to bias the nominal aiming point at
Mars in order to meet the quarantine requirement.
Since the overall probability that the spacecraft or the Agena D or both
would impact the planet was dependent on 11 probabilities that various other
events would occur, each of these probabilities was computed and the values were
added. It was found that the new aiming point resulting from the combined effect
of both the injection velocity and yaw biases would allow the spacecraft to pass
sufficiently away from the planet that the impact probability at injection would be
approximately 0.9 × 10-q
In addition to the possibility of planetary contamination by accidental
impact, a possibility existed for contamination by viable particles expelled from
the spacecraft as it passed the planet. These particles could come from the gases
expelled by the attitude-control subsystem jets, the gases expelled by the mid-
course motor, and/or the outgassing from the spacecraft.
The first possibility was analyzed as follows: The attitude-control gases
would follow a considerably different flight path than that of the spacecraft
because of their different relative velocities; it is reasonable to assume that the
interplanetary environment would destroy any viable organisms except those
emitted very near the planet. With the solar-pressure vanes functioning, the
number of attitude-control subsystem jet actuations would be expected to be
almost zero except during maneuvers. Since the effect of solar pressure on the
emitted particles would be 10 _ to 10 _ times greater than that on the spacecraft,
particles emitted anywhere but very near the planet would be blown far away
from it. A further study was made to estimate the probability that particles ejected
near the planet would impact it. During this period, the control jets would most
probably not be operating because of the solar-pressure vanes, and some viable

2o
 ¢,,

TRA JECTOR Y

particles would already have been expelled during the flight. Since tile spacecraft
nitrogen-gas tanks were assembled and filled in uhraclean rooms and since all
attitude-control nitrogen from the tanks had to pass through two extremely effi-
cient and reliable filters in series, the probability of impact on Mars by a viable
organism from this source was computed to be less than 10 -12.
It was estimated that the probability that viable organisms would be expelled
from the midcourse motor was essentially negligible because of the extremely high
temperature environment the particles would have to survive. Even if they sur-
vived, they would then have to travel at least 200 days through space to encounter
Mars, since the midcourse maneuver would occur within the first few days of the
mission. During that time, the particles would be exposed to continuous ultra-
violet radiation with a high probability of destruction. In addition, the particle
trajectory would be radically different from the spacecraft trajectory.
Particles outgassed from the spacecraft would also have a negligible proba-
bility of contaminating the planet for two reasons: (1) Since the temperature of
the spacecraft would be highest during the early phase of the flight, it was expected
that what little outgassing did occur would take place at that time, subjecting the
particles to months of ultraviolet radiation; and (2) even if the particles survived
the environment, they would undoubtedly be perturbed considerably off an
impact course by solar pressure.
Thus, it could be concluded with considerable certainty that a negligible
probability existed for contamination of Mars by particle ejection from the space-
craft.

Launch Constraints Analysis

An analysis was conducted to define all constraints affecting the launch of the
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft caused by the spacecraft itself, the launch vehicle,
the space flight operations, and the tracking and data acquisition activities re-
quired for a successful mission. The only constraints imposed by the spacecraft
were those due to the Canopus sensor and low-gain-antenna operational charac-
teristics. The Atlas D first stage and Agena D second stage imposed several impor-
tant constraints on the launch which had to be considered in the establishment of
the available launch interval. Since space flight operations (discussed in ch. 6) for
both launches could be continuous, no constraints were imposed by this pos-
sible source. Also, adequate deep space-station coverage (discussed in ch. 5) was
planned for both launches. A constraint which resulted from the inability to deliver

21
MARINER-MARS 1964

and analyze realistically certain tracking and telemetry data much before 36
hours dictated that at least one launch window should elapse between the
launches.
Various computer programs were used in this analysis. The final launch
window designs were shown on a launch constraints board maintained in the JPL
Space Flight Operations Center at the Air Force Eastern Test Range. This board
was kept current by a continuing analysis of all possible constraints until both
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft had been launched.

Final Prelaunch Trajectory Determination

With a launch interval of 27 days, the first spacecraft launch was scheduled
for November 4, 1964. It was found that, by making the arrival date for this
spacecraft July 17, 1965, and by accepting some penalty in injection energy, it was
possible to utilize an aiming point which would provide good occultation and good
television coverage. As shown in figure 2-7, launch days November 4 to 10 re-
quired the use of type II trajectories; since it had been decided that only one
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft would be launched during the type II trajectory

I I
TYPE Tr- TYPE
i
I [ [

JULY 19 I I

O)

l-
JULY L7

>

JULY 15

2 4 6 8
4 6 I0 IZ 14 16 IB 20 22 24 26 28 30
DEC
NOV

LAUNCH DATE_1964

FmURE 2-7.--Arrival date as a function of launch date.

22
 TRAJECTOR
Y

period, the second spacecraft would be launched sometime after November 10 and
would thus have a type I trajectory.
After considering all possible constraints, final precision trajectories were
computed, and a detailed simulation of the Atlas D/Agena D ascent trajectory
was computed to determine proper guidance and control settings. Also, the launch
and parking-orbit coast times were computed to yield arrival conditions at Mars as
specified. These were determined for a 90 ° to 114 ° launch azimuth interval. The
daily firing period was about 3 hours, with injection locations confined to a region
of about 10.5 ° in latitude and 69.6 ° in longitude over an area slightly west of
South Africa and extending into the Indian Ocean. Parking-orbit coast times
ranged from 19.1 to 34.6 min, depending on both launch date and launch
azimuth.

Orbit-Determination Operations

Control of the aiming point parameters B.T and B-R and of the time of
flight was essential for control of the flyby distance, look angles, and illumination-
for-science instruments; correct timing of the automatic encounter sequence; and
adequate deep space-station view periods at encounter. The launch vehicle theo-
retically is supposed to inject the spacecraft onto a trajectory having the required
arrival parameters; however, because of various uncertainties in guidance param-
eters which are unavoidable before the mission, the initial parameter values are
not necessarily acceptable once the spacecraft has been launched. Therefore, radio
tracking data received after injection were used to determine the initial trajectory
for the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft; to ascertain whether or not a midcourse
maneuver was necessary; and, if so, to compute a velocity increment that, when
added to the spacecraft velocity vector, would correct the trajectory parameters.
Orbit-determination operations centered around the orbit-determination com-
puter program using an IBM 7090 digital computer. A functional block diagram
of the midcourse-maneuver operations program is given in figure 2-8.
Because of tolerances in the guidance system components, some errors in the
maneuver were unavoidable, and, therefore, the miss at the target would not be
totally nullified by execution of the maneuver. The total allowable miss param-
eter dispersions at the target caused by uncertainty in orbit determination and
maneuver-execution (based on 15 m/see (50 ft/sec)) errors were specified to be
less than 2262 and 4093 km (1406 and 2544 statute miles), respectively, or a 30-
rain error in flight time.

23
MARINER-MARS 1964

AUTOMATIC FLOW

MANUAL FLOW 1
D,,,. I
I
(i)
INTRODUCTORY
I
PRINTOUT I
I
J 0
0
I
I
I
)l
(2)
CAPABILITY
(6) I
MIDCOURSE
DECISION
RESIDUAL
MISS
ELLIPSE I
GENERATOR
I
1 I
I
I
MIDCOURSE
COMMAND
PROPULSION
I
PLOTTING
GENERATION
PROGRAM
CONTOUR (7)_ I
I
4
uJ_ I
FLYBY (5) I I
( TRAdECTORY ELLIPSE
DISPERSION (4)]_
I
FINE PR NT I
I
FIOURE 2 8.--Functional block diagram of naidcourse-maneuver operations program.

After the midcourse maneuver, an estimate of the new trajectory would be

made to determine whether a second maneuver was required and to allow control
of the remainder of the mission in a manner that would enable the maximum

24
 TRAJECTOR
Y

probable data return from the science instruments on the spacecraft. Throughout
the cruise and encounter portions of the mission, the orbital estimate would be
updated repeatedly as new tracking data became available.
One of the first requirements in precise orbit determination is a source of
accurate tracking data. These data can include almost any type of measurement
that in some way describes the position or velocity of the spacecraft at some point
along its trajectory. The most important measurements made by deep space sta-
tions are of angles and two-way Doppler effect. The angle data are valuable
primarily during the very early portion of a mission when the trajectory geometry
is changing rapidly. The two-way Doppler effect, however, is most valuable and
accurate after the spacecraft has left the vicinity of the Earth. (The two-way
Doppler effect is described in ch. 3 and is discussed in more detail in ch. 5.) The
two-way Doppler system developed by the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility
(DSIF) is probably the most accurate source of spacecraft tracking data in exist-
ence. Using extremely precise rubidium frequency standards (stable to about 1
part in 10 n over both long and short periods of time), it can provide low-noise,
unbiased tracking data from a spacecraft transmitting at 10-watt power from a
range of over 100 million km (62.5 million statute miles).
An estimate of the orbit of the spacecraft is computed from the tracking data
by a weighted least-squares fitting technique. By this technique, a theoretical
spacecraft trajectory is computed that best fits the observations concerning the true
trajectory. Since a free-space trajectory must obey a known deterministic set of
equations of motion, a set of trajectory initial conditions is all that is required. The
independent variables that specify a spacecraft trajectory and whose effects can be
seen in the tracking data consist not only of the initial spacecraft position and
velocity, but also of the masses of the various gravitating bodies, the lunar and
planetary ephemeris scaling factors, and the reflectivity of the spacecraft (since its
trajectory is perturbed by the force of the impinging sunlight). It is because the
effects of these parameters can be accurately measured by Doppler tracking that
the determination of the orbit of a spacecraft can frequently produce values of
physical constants that are far more accurate than those available by other
methods.
Although the direct result of the least-squares fit to the tracking data is the
set of trajectory initial conditions, the parameters of greatest interest are the target
conditions resulting from integrating (i.e., mathematically projecting) the tra-
jectory forward to its point of closest approach to Mars. These parameters are
expressed in the B-plane system previously defined in figure 2-5.

25
 w

MARINER-MARS1964

The least-squares orbit computation also produces an estimate of the orbit

accuracy. This accuracy is a function of the way in which the data are weighted
and of the a priori uncertainties attached to the physical constants and the station
locations (with respect to the exact center of the Earth). In the Mariner-Mars 1964
computer program, 66 of these uncertainties were treated as error sources. The
accuracy estimate appears in the form of standard deviations on the estimated
parameters. (Standard deviations are also called 1or values.) These also can be
mathematically projected forward to the target to show uncertainties in the B-
plane, and are expressed in terms of the semimajor axis, semiminor axis, and
orientation angle of the l_r dispersion ellipse in the plane.
In classical least-squares fitting, each data point is given a rating indicating
the assumed variance on the point. Thus, measurements thought to be more
accurate exert a stronger influence on the estimate. All possible sources of error
are considered.
A study to provide a detailed analysis of the relative effects of various error
sources which degrade orbit accuracy showed that: (1) orbit uncertainties would
be only moderately affected by changes in data weighting; (2) uncertainties in the
Earth's gravitational constant and in the astronomical unit would contribute a
negligible amount to orbit uncertainty; and (3) for an early launch date, the major
source of error would be uncertainties in station locations (with respect to the
exact center of the Earth), and, for a later launch date, the major source of error
would be uncertainties in the solar pressure forces.
Another study demonstrated a steady increase in orbit-determination ac-
curacy as later launch dates were used, with an apparent discontinuity near
November 11, 1964, when the transition from type II to type I trajectories would
occur (which caused this date to be eliminated from consideration as a possible
launch date). It was found that, following a midcourse maneuver performed from
3 to 10 days after launch, 3 to 5 days of tracking would reduce the semimajor axis
of the dispersion ellipse to less than 2010 km (1250 statute miles). After 60 to 90
days of tracking, solar pressure forces would be known well enough to be a negli-
gible source of error. After that time, the semimajor axis would remain relatively
constant at from 302 to 503 km (188 to 312.5 statute miles) until shortly before
encounter.
It was also felt that tracking the spacecraft for a few hours once or twice each
week from a single station would result in the same orbit accuracy as continuous
tracking during the heliocentric portion of the flight. Tracking during this phase
could provide an estimate of the astronomical unit with a standard deviation of

26
 TRA JECTOR Y

less than 503 km (312.5 statute miles). Tracking data for the encounter phase
could reduce current estimates of the uncertainty of the mass of Mars from 0.1 to
2.0 percent to a value no greater than 0.001 percent.

MARINER IV TRAJECTORY RESULTS

Orbit-Determination Procedures

For the Mariner IV flight, the reduction of AFETR data and the generation
of tracking predictions proceeded as scheduled from launch through signal acqui-
sition by the Woomera Deep Space Station (DSS) 41. All results were near
nominal. During the first few hours of the mission, the primary orbit-determina-
tion function was the computation of the tracking predictions. These were
necessary so that the deep space station could establish and maintain contact with
Mariner IV. The first data obtained after launch resulted from tracking the Agena
D while the Agena D/spacecraft combination coasted in a parking orbit. Collected
at the AFETR and processed, these data provided an estimate of the initial con-
ditions of the parking orbit.
Transfer-orbit predictions were generated by assuming a nominal second
Agena D burn and were transmitted to the Space Flight Operations Facility
(SFOF) at JPL for comparison with prelaunch nominal predictions. In addition,
the initial conditions from AFETR orbit computation and the raw data were also
transmitted to SFOF. From SFOF, the transfer-orbit predictions were passed on
to various deep space stations. Once the second Agena D burn occurred, the
Agena D was again tracked by AFETR, and the data were processed to provide
an estimate of the transfer orbit. (Although the Agena D orbit differed from that
of the spacecraft after separation, the difference was small for a sufficiently long
period that predictions based on the Agena D orbit could be used to acquire the
spacecraft signal.) The procedure used during the parking orbit was then re-
peated, with predictions, initial conditions, and raw data being sent to SFOF.
Once Woomera DSS 41 acquired the spacecraft signal, the tracking data
were transmitted to SFOF and processed to provide a more accurate orbit and a
better set of predictions. The first fit to DSIF data indicated a near-standard tra-
jectory with a correctable miss. All subsequent orbit computations were consistent
with the original fit, and, 16 hours after launch, the computed miss parameters
had converged to nearly constant values. The primary task then became the
determination of the most accurate orbit possible for use in the computation of the
midcourse maneuver.

27
MARINER-MARS 1964

Continuous orbit updating was performed from launch until 20 hours after
launch. From that time until the midcourse maneuver, the orbit was updated
approximately every 6 hours. Tracking data monitoring was nearly continuous
during that time. The orbit used for the computation of the December 5 midcourse
maneuver included data through the first 6 days after launch. Throughout the
premaneuver portion of the flight, the quality of the tracking data was excellent.
Two-way coverage was nearly continuous, and, with the exception of certain
isolated points, no "bad" data were detected.
During the cruise period following the midcourse maneuver, tracking data
monitor runs were made to validate quality every 2 or 3 days. The new data were
used to update the tracking data file. Orbits were computed (in real time) at an
average of one every 2 weeks during this cruise period until 2 weeks before en-
counter. As the Mars encounter approached, the orbit-determination effort
increased. Orbits were then computed daily.

Resulting Trajectory Values

The values of the aiming point parameters (at the time of closest approach)
which were desired by the execution of the midcourse maneuver were as follows:
B = 12 079 km (7507 statute miles)
B-T = 6042 km (3755 statute miles)
B-R = 10 460 km (6501 statute miles)
Time = 01:47:00 GMT, July 15, 1965

(All distances expressed here are distances from the center of Mars, and the time
refers to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).) The values of the aiming point param-
eters actually obtained by the execution of the maneuver (as computed from the
best available values from 5 days before until 5 days after encounter) were as
follows:
B = 15 3364-10 km (9532±6 statute miles)
B.T = 8188=k20 km (50894-12 statute miles)
B.R = 12 9704-20 km (80614-12 statute miles)
Time = 01:00:58 (4-10 sec) GMT, July 15, 1965

By subtracting these actual values from the desired values, the orbit errors were
determined to be the following:
Error in B = 3257 km (2025 statute miles)
Error in BoT = 2146 km (1334 statute miles)
Error in BoR = 2510 km (1560 statute miles)
Error in time = -46 min 2 sec
28
 TRAJECTOR
Y

330 ° 300 °
270" 240" 210"

400

0 o __
180 °

_MINAL/
,COUNTER, _OMIN/A/L _ <

/ X \ /
30° 60" 90 ° i 20 ° 150 o

F[OURE 2-9.--Near-Mars trajectory, as computed by using premidcourse, preencounter, and

postencounter (actual) values of aiming point parameters.

A comparison of the encounter trajectories resulting from using premidcourse,

preencounter, and postencounter (actual) aiming point parameter values is given
in figure 2-9. The errors in predicting the aiming point parameters (predicted
minus actual values) for 10 hours before encounter to 6 hours after encounter are
plotted in figure 2-10. The error in the aiming point was approximately three-
fourths of the specified 1 _ (standard-deviation) requirement established for the
mission. The allowable miss at the target caused by both uncertainties in orbit
determination and maneuver-execution errors was specified to be less than 4675
km (2906 statute miles), with the requirement that errors caused by uncertainties
in premidcourse orbit determination be less than 2262 km (1406 statute miles).
The premidcourse orbit errors are difficult to determine since the estimates are
very dependent upon the values of the astronomical unit (AU) and solar pressure
which are used. Preliminary results showed an error of 1006 to 1508 km (625 to
937 statute miles) in BoT and an error of 302 km (188 statute miles) in B.R to be
the most likely premidcourse orbit errors.
During the mission there was no evidence of errors of this magnitude. (The
results of four postmidcourse orbit computations are shown in fig. 2-11.) Since
the maneuver command had been transmitted 10 min 35 sec earlier than the time
for which the maneuver was originally computed, it was expected that the aiming

29
MARINER-MARS 1964

400

2OO

/
/
rr
0

/
-200
bJ
Z
0

-600
/ J
.1o--

_7 ERROR IN TIME OF CLOSEST

APPROACH, sec

rl ERROR IN B" R, krn

J Z_

0
ERROR

ERROR
IN

IN
B,

B"
krn

1", km

-I000
-iO -8 -6 -4 -2 E 2 4 6

TIME FROM ENCOUNTER, hr

FIGURE 2-10.--Errors in predicting aiming point parameters as a function of time

from encounter.

point would be approximately 116 km (72 statute miles) away from the nominal
location in the +T direction. Also, normal performance variations in the space-
craft guidance equipment and rocket motor would be expected to result in errors
in the velocity increment, causing a residual error in the arrival parameters.
Although the orbit parameter values were stable during the first few months
of the mission, certain fluctuations of 503 to 1006 km (312.5 to 625 statute miles)
were observed late in the mission due to fluctuations in the solutions of such items
as the astronomical unit, upon which the spacecraft trajectory is dependent. (The
fact that the data were not strong enough during the first few months of the mission
to obtain solutions of these various items accounts for the stability of the orbit
parameter values during that time.) In fact, the fluctuations in the aiming point
parameters were intensified when, approximately 1 month before encounter, the

3O
 TRAJECTOR Y

240 270 500

210 330

CONTOUR

IMPACT CIRCLE,

/
MARS SURFACE

180
.f -- AIMING
I
IO 000
POINT

20000 mi
T 0

\DISPERSION

LIPSE

SUN OCCULTATION
(95%)

CONTOUR
f"
OCCULTATION
(_ Isf POSTMIDCOURSE ORBITORBIT CONTOUR
t" 2d POSTMiDCOURSE
150' 3O

4th POSTMIDCOURSE
_@_) 3d P OSTMIDCOURSE O0/_BRB,
_ ;AIMING REGION

120 90 60

FIGURE 2-11.--Point of closest approach as determined by postmidcourse orbit computations.

mass of Mars was added to the solution set. Each new value for a solution became
the a priori value the next time the orbit was computed; thus, no set of orbit com-
putations obtained during that period used the same a priori assumptions.
During the last 5 hours before encounter, two computers were operating: one
using a 1_ value of 503 km (312.5 statute miles) for spacecraft position and the
other using a value of 201 km (125 statute miles). Both used a 1_ value of 0.1 m/sec
(approximately 0.3 ft/sec) for spacecraft velocity. At approximately 1 hour before
encounter, both computers used the 503-km (312.5-statute-mile) value for space-
craft position.
The values given for the aiming point parameters actually achieved, plus
solutions for the geocentric position and velocity, the solar pressure, the station
locations, the astronomical unit, and the mass of Mars for 5 days before until 5
days after encounter, were obtained from computations performed 3_ months

31
 ,w

MARINER-MARS 1964
k

after the Mars encounter (i.e., on October 30, 1965). Table 2-I lists the a priori
1_ statistics which served as input for the orbit-determination computer program.
Doppler tracking data were used in the fit. The date to which the initial
position and velocity were referenced was July 10, 1965. When the solutions were
obtained, the geocentric position had changed by slightly less than 1006 km (625
statute miles), the geocentric velocity by approximately 1 m/sec (3 ft/sec), the
solar pressure by 0.005 percent, and the station locations by less than 10 m (0.006
statute mile). The solution for the astronomical unit and its associated 1 o- value as
determined by the orbit-determination program was 1504389564-241 km
(93 498 419+ 150 statute miles), as compared with its a priori value of 150 439 992
+2011 kin (93 499 063+1250 statute miles). The solution for the mass ratio of
Mars to the Sun was (0.322728+0.000015)×10 .6 , as compared with its a
priori value of (0.322804224-0.006456) × 10 -_.
In other computed encounter orbits, the solutions for the mass ratio of Mars
to the Sun varied less than 0.01 percent. However, for reasons probably connected
with the stability of the single-precision (8-digit) computer program, a solution
which included the astronomical unit always resulted in larger residuals between
computed and observed data. Still, the numerical value of the solution fell within
a range of 201 km (125 statute miles) of the value quoted previously. Even for
orbits fitting data from the midcourse maneuver through 5 days after encounter,
the range of values of the mass ratio of Mars to the Sun was less than 0.1 percent,
Table 2-[.--Input for orbit-determination computer program

Parameter A priori value A priori 1¢ value

Geocentric position (spherical):

Kilometers ....................................... 10 056
Statute miles ..................................... 6250
Geocentric velocity (spherical):
Meters/second .................................... 10
Feet/second ...................................... 30
Mass ratio of Mars to Sun ............................. 0.32280422 X 10 6 2% or 0.006456X10 6
Solar pressure coefficient ............................... 1.2067 5 % or 0.06
Astronomical unit (as determined by JPL Venus radar-
bounce experiment) :
Kilometers ....................................... 149 598 500 2011
Statute miles ..................................... 93 499 063 1250
Station locations (spherical): a
Meters .......................................... 50
Statute miles ..................................... 0.03

aValues obtained from surveys, Ranger project results, and preencounter Mariner IV solutions.

32
 Ii

TRAJECTOR Y

and the range of values of the astronomical unit was less than 1006 km (625 statute
miles). These latter results are surprising because no attempt was made to solve
for Earth-Mars ephemeris errors and also because the single-precision computer
program is not entirely suitable for computing such orbits.
The uncertainty in the radius of Mars as obtained from astronomical meas-
urements was approximately 50 km (3! statute miles). The time that Mariner IV
entered the occultation region (as indicated by the loss of the spacecraft radio-
frequency (RF) signal) compared very favorably with the time predicted by the
encounter orbit, which used an average value for the Mars radius of 3397 km
(2111 statute miles). This favorable comparison indicated that the encounter orbit
was valid to within at least 50 km (31 statute miles).
A remarkable reduction in orbit parameter error is realized when the value
for the astronomical unit obtained from the orbit-determination computer pro-
gram is used in determining the orbit. This decrease is evident in plots of the
various errors for various times after the midcourse maneuver. These plots, given

2OO

I
-200

CLOSEST APPROACH TO MARS

r
-40C

-6oo
CL f--._____

C: -8001
o

/.
r_
LLJ

-1000

-1200

A
AU
:,49
AU
597
470
,m= 149

REAL-TIME
598 500

RUNS
km --

-I_00 I I
I JAN I FEB I MAR I APR I MAY I JUNE I JULY I

MONTH, /965

FIOURE 2--12.--Error in predicting B. T as a function of date for various values of the

astronomical unit (AU).

33
MARINER-MARS 1964

200

I
0

E -2001
J
I
L

= J_.--=
J
-4oJ
z

_.)

a. -600

z_

-8OO
w

I
I
(_ AU = 149597470 km
- iO00
• AU = J49.598500 km

-1200 I
A REAL-TIME

I
RUNS

I
JUNE I
,I
JULY
JAN FEB I MAR I APR I MAY

MONTH, 1965

FIGURE 2--1 3.--Error in predicting B. R as a function of date for various values of the
astronomical unit (AU).

in figures 2-12 to 2-14, were made after the end of the mission with all a priori
conditions held constant and data added in 1-month blocks. The errors represent
predicted minus actual values. It should be stressed that this reduction in error is
not offered as proof of the validity of the smaller value of the astronomical unit,
but is intended to suggest that the currently accepted larger value used in deter-
mining the encounter orbit might account for a large part of the error of that orbit.
The new value is not yet an accepted value, and the appropriate 1 _ value remains
2011 km (1250 statute miles).
The errors in the predicted encounter orbit were definitely the result of more
than one cause, however. The fact that the computations were done primarily in
single-precision arithmetic constitutes a deficiency of the computer program.
When the new double-precision orbit-determination program becomes available,
much more accurate orbit determinations will be possible, and it is anticipated
that a definitive analysis of the Mariner IV orbit errors will be enabled. Another
deficiency was that the capability for properly solving for the Earth-Sun and Sun-
Mars ephemeris elements was not available in a checked-out orbit-determination
program. Since the motion of the solar pressure vanes was somewhat larger than
expected, their position was not properly represented in the computer program as

34
 TRAJECTOR
Y
T

600

I AU = 149
I
597470 km
I ' [
• AU : 149 598 500 km I

-r
48O
REAL-TIME RUNS I
0

o_

l-

ID
360
I i
I
L9
CLOSEST
Z
I--
120
TO MARS --

APPROACH
n,-
(3.

0
Z
4
(r
re"
_J

I JAN ] FEB I MAR ] APR I MAY I JUNE I JULY I AUG

MONTH, 1965

FIGURE 2-14.--Error in predicting time of closest approach as a fimction of date

for various values of the astronomical unit (AU).

an average value. The telemetry data indicated random forces as large or larger
than 0.5 percent of the solar pressure force due to valve leakage in the attitude-
control subsystem. The forces of the magnitude encountered could result in B-
plane errors of 201 to 402 km (125 to 250 statute miles). There is considerable
doubt that these random forces can ever be completely "fit out" of the solution
because of their nondeterministic character.

Orbital Elements of Mariner IV Trajectory

The geocentric (Earth-centered) characteristics of the Mariner IV trajectory

are listed in table 2-II, and certain orbital data for Earth and Mars are given for
reference in table 2-III. Tables 2-IV and 2-V list the heliocentric (Sun-centered)
and areocentric (Mars-centered) orbital elements, respectively, of the trajectory of
Mariner IV. Various trajectory elements are also included as part of the chro-
nology in chapter 4.

35
 J

MARINER-MARS 1964

From launch to closest approach to Mars, Mariner IV traveled approxi-

mately 523 million km (325 million statute miles) on a heliocentric trajectory
which was slightly above the ecliptic plane (fig. 2-15). The inclination of the orbit
before encounter was slightly more than 0.1 °. As the spacecraft passed close to and
below the planet, the gravitational pull of Mars raised tile trajectory so that the

Table 2-11.--Geocentric characteristicsof Mariner IV trajectory

Preencounter
Characteristic Postencounter

Injection Postmidcourse

Parameter:

Radius, R:
Km ........................................ 6872.9574 2 022 402 228 218 340

Statute miles ................................ 4295.5984 1 264 001 142 636 463

Inertial speed, V:
11.206 585 3.151 569 1 30.785 551
Km/sec ....................................
7.004 116 1.969 730 7 19.240 969
Statute miles/sec ............................

Earth-fixed speed, v:
10.775 777 142.005 96 16 550.953
Km/sec ....................................
6.734 861 88.753 73 10 344.346
Statute miles/sec ............................
--28.130 141 15.678 090 --5.108 255 7
Geocentric latitude, q5, deg .......................
86.212 637 186.016 06 289.338 86
Longitude, 0, deg ................................
20.742 333 142.854 06 192.497 94
Right ascension,O, deg ..........................
12.650 441 89.557 318 30.007 818
Path angle of inertial velocity, r, deg ..............
90.421 969 47.958 569 110.912 33
Azimuth of inertial velocity, 2, deg ................
13.165 104 1.271 643 8 0.053 300 23
Path angle of Earth-fixed velocity, % deg ...........
90.439 744 270.006 58 269.967 05
Azimuth of Earth-fixed velocity, a, deg .............
15:07:57 16:09:25 21:27:02
Time of event, T, GMT .......................... I
Date of event ................................... Nov. 28,1964 Dec. 5, 1964 July 23,1965

Hyperbolic orbital element:

Semimajor axis, a:
gm ........................................ --41 535.874
Statute miles ................................ --25 959.921

Eccentricity, e ................................... 1.158 074 0

28.133 045
Inclination to Earth's equator, i, deg ...............
111.637 27
Longitude of ascending node, % deg ...............
245.659 52
Argument of perigee, w, deg ......................

Perigee distance, p:
Km ........................................ 6565.7425

Statute miles ................................ 4103.5891

Time of perigee passage, T, GMT ................. 15:03:53.852

Date of perigee passage ........................... Nov. 28,1964

36
 TRAJECTOR Y

inclination of the spacecraft orbit was over 20 times greater than that before en-
counter. The new orbit carries the spacecraft alternately 2.7 ° above the ecliptic
and 2.8 ° below the ecliptic.

Table 2-111.mOrbital data for Earth and Mars

Characteristic Earth Mars

Length of ellipse:
Km ......................................................... 313 270 400 452 944 000
Statute miles ................................................. 195 794 000 283 090 000
Perihelion distance:

Km ......................................................... 146 147 200 205 328 000

Statute miles ................................................. 91 342 000 128 330 000
Aphelion distance :
Km ......................................................... 151 123 200 247 616 000
Statute miles ................................................. 94 452 000 154 760 000
Eccentricity of orbit ................................................ 0.0i7 0.093
Inclination of orbit to ecliptic, deg, min of arc ......................... 0t 1 t, 51 t
Period, Earth days ................................................. 365 687
Inclination of equatorial plane to orbital plane, deg .................... 23.5 25.2
Period of rotation, hr, min ......................................... 23, 56 24, 37

Table 2-1V.mHeliocentric orbital elementsof Mariner IV trajectory

Elliptical orbital element Preencounter orbit Postencounterorbit

Semimajor axis, a:

Km ................................................. 190 929 830 200 588 100

Statute miles ......................................... 119 331 144 125 367 563

Eccentricity, e ............................................ 0.227 502 96 0.173 220 07

Inclination to the ecliptic, i, deg ............................. 0.125 699 63 2.543 740 1

Longitude of ascending node, _, deg ......................... 68.665 534 226.755 45

Argument of perihelion, w, deg ............................. 352.565 27 200.649 08

Perihelion distance, p:
Km .................................................. 147 492 730 165 842 220
Statute miles ......................................... 92 182 956 103 651 388

Time of perihelion passage, T, GMT ......................... 23:11:28 07:25:19

Date of perihelion passage a .................................. Nov. 23,1964 Nov. 16, 1964

Period, P, days ........................................... 526.645 30 567.113 21

aThe Mariner IV launch occurred past the perihelion point of its heliocentric orbit.

37
MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 2-V.mAreocentric (Mars-centered) orbital elements of Mariner IV trajectory

Actual Mars-
Hyperbolic orbital element Preencounter prediction encounter orbit

Semimajor axis, a:
Kin ................................................. -22 046 --22 092

Statute miles ......................................... --13 779 --13 808

0.658 94 0.697 53
Eccentricity, e ............................................
60.458 58.186
Inclination to the ecliptic, i, deg .............................
188.009 187.499
Longitude of ascending node, _, deg .........................
289.546 289.321
Argument of periapsis, 6o, deg ...............................

Periapsis distance, p:
Km ................................................. 12 322 13 201

Statute miles ......................................... 7 701 8 251

01:04:49.5 01:00:58.1
Time of periapsis passage, 7", GMT ..........................

Date of periapsis passage ................................... July 15, 1965 ]uly 15, 1965

/-EARTH AT LAUNCH

/ NOVEMBER 28, 1964

I .f" ..si---_ 6o

_o_,-
,-'t \ i'_00,. /
\.. _ ____,_o 2,o/,- I
90 G)" / - "-'_. ,50 18o _l/ /
\ ,,'\. __'--i_li/..u. , /
,_o
®_#,,__,.....-- ._....--,
,,

,o ,oLo,;::;.. JULY 15, 1965

FIGURE 2-15.--Mariner IV trajectory.

38
 TRAJECTORY

The pull of the gravitational field of Mars also added energy to the spacecraft.
Because this energy was added nearer aphelion (point in orbit farthest from the
Sun) than perihelion (point in orbit nearest to the Sun), the effect was to make the
orbit more nearly circular. Thus, the postencounter orbit of Mariner IV will
never pass as close to the Sun as the orbit beginning at launch. The preencounter
and postencounter orbits of Mariner IV are shown in figure 2-16.
The postencounter orbit has been computed for the 7 years following launch.

2[0 ° 180 ° 150 °

POSTENCOUNTER PREENCOUNTER
TRAJEC]

120 °

270 ° 90 °

300 ° 60 °

330 o 0 ° 30 o

FIouRE 2-16.--Heliocentric plan view of Mariner IV preencounter and postencounter

orbits.

39
 s

MARINER-MARS 1964

360 --

320

280

x
E

.24C

NCOUNTER

m 20C

o
160

l/
±

Ld 120

8O
_COND CL/OSE APPROACH

,o:/.... ....................
]_FIRST
| TO
CLOSE
EARTH

I,,,,,I ..... I,,,,,L ....

APPROACH
TO EARTH

o .¢
1964 i965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

DATE

FmURE 2-17.--Mariner IV distance from Earth, 1965-1971.

In these 7 years, the spacecraft will twice pass relatively close to Earth, once in
September 1967 and again in July 1970 (fig. 2-17.) At its first close approach to
Earth, Mariner IV will be about 50 million km (31 million statute miles) away.
This range is within the communications capability of the spacecraft low-gain
omnidirectional antenna. Provided the radio subsystem is still operable at that
time, an attempt will be made to reaequire Mariner IV in September 1967.

40
CHAPTER 3

Space Vehicle System Design and Testing Operations

LAUNCH VEHICLE DESIGN

The Mariner-Mars 1964 launch vehicle consisted of an Atlas D first stage to

provide the thrust (propelling force) required to place the Agena D/spacecraft
combination on the required ascent trajectory, and an Agena D second stage to
provide the dual-burn capability and attitude control required to place the space-
craft in a predetermined geocentric (Earth-centered) transfer orbit. A shroud and
adapter structure protected the spacecraft from the external environment during
_t_ ascent mruugn that portion of the Earth's atmosphere offering resistance to its
passage. A cutaway view of the launch vehicle is shown in figure 3-1.

Atlas D First Stage

The outer structure of the Atlas D, called the airframe, was a stainless-steel
cylinder. Into this airframe were integrated the main propellant tank section, the
aft (bottom of Atlas D when mounted on launch pad) booster section which could
be jettisoned, and the forward interstage adapter section. Equipment pods on the

ATLAS D/AGENA D
ADAPTER -7 SHROUD x,

BOOSTER SUSTAINER /

MARS 1964
ATLAS D SPACECRAFT

MARINER

AGENA D SPACECRAFT
ADAPTER RING

FIOURE 3-1.--Exploded view of Atlas D/Agena D launch vehicle.

41
MARINER-MARS 1964

outside of the main section housed the necessary electrical and electronic units and
other components.
The main section housed in a single 253 547-N (57 000-1b) thrust Rocket-
dyne sustainer engine (one thrust chamber, designed for high-altitude perform-
ance) and two 2224-N (500-1b) vernier (fine steering) engines (one thrust chamber
each, for attitude control and velocity trim). The vernier engines were derated
from a thrust of 4448 N (1000 lb) to 2980 N (670 lb) to reduce the amount of
propellant consumed by those engines, thus making more propellant available
for the main engines to deliver higher effective specific impulse. 1 When assembled,
this section was approximately 20.1 meters (67 ft) long and approximately 3
meters (10 ft) in diameter at its base. Its weight when fully fueled was approxi-
mately 117 930 kg (260 000 lb).
The booster consisted of two 667 230-N (150 000-1b) thrust engines (one
thrust chamber each, designed for low-altitude performance). The booster
propellants were delivered, under pressure, from the main propellant tank section
to the combustion chamber. The width of the booster section was approximately
4.8 meters (16 ft), and its weight was approximately 3175 kg (7000 lb).
All three types of engines in the Atlas D stage started and developed their
full rated thrust while the vehicle was held on the launch pad. After liftoff and
after the booster engines burned out (approximately 2 min after launch; called
booster-engine cutoff or BECO), the booster-engine section jettisoned or sepa-
rated from the main section. The sustainer engine continued to burn until no more
thrust was produced (approximately 5 min after launch; called sustainer-engine
cutoff or SECO). The swiveled vernier engines then provided the final correction
in velocity and attitude before they shut down (called vernier-engine cutoff
or VECO).
The fuel used by the Atlas D rocket-engine system was RP-1 (kerosene), and
the oxidizer was liquid oxygen. Primary power was supplied by a remotely
activated silver-zinc battery, and secondary power was supplied by a three-phase
inverter (a dc-to-ac conversion device). A telemetry system monitored and trans-
mitted functional conditions from prior to launch until Atlas D/Agena D separa-
tion, after which it ceased operation. No aerodynamic control surfaces such as
fins and rudders were necessary since the Atlas D was stabilized and controlled
by "gimbaling" or swiveling the engine thrust chambers by means of two inde-
pendent hydraulic pressure systems. A standard pneumatic system provided: (1)

l Specific impulse is a ratio of the thrust developed to the amount of propellant required to produce that thrust.

42
 SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGN AND _TESTINGOPERATIONS

continuous adequate pressurization of the main propellant tanks, hydraulic res-

ervoirs, and engine lubrication oil tanks; (2) pressure for engine control functions;
(3) inflight repressurization of various propellant tanks; and (4) activation pres-
sure for the booster separation systems. The helium gas used to support the Atlas D
structure was expanded to the proper pressure by the heat of the exhaust from the
engine gas generator. This use of pressurized helium gas for support instead of
internal bracing resulted in a considerable weight savings.
The Atlas D used a flight programer, an autopilot, and 10 gimbaled thrust-
chamber actuator assemblies for stabilizing and steering the vehicle along the
desired trajectory by controlling the orientation of the engine thrust vectors. The
autopilot was set before launch to control the attitude of the vehicle automatically.
Guidance commands were furnished by a ground radio guidance system and
computer. The radio inertial guidance system used two radio beacons which
responded to the ground radar. A guidance system decoder processed the guidance
commands, and the necessary steering corrections were then monitored to the
flight-control system. Pitch steering commands in such a vehicle are normally
generated by the flight programer from launch until the booster is jettisoned, and
by a combination of the flight programer and the guidance system from booster
jettison until the end of the Atlas D sustainer-powered flight. However, in order
to permit early correction of deviations from the nominal ascent trajectory, the
capability to steer the vehicle by use of the guidance system prior to booster
jettison was implemented in the Atlas D stage used for the Mariner-Mars 1964
missions. (Actually, this capability was not required for the Mariner IV flight
since the small deviation from the nominal trajectory made its usage unnecessary.)
A significant gain in payload was made possible by new guidance equations
which determined more efficient Atlas D sustainer steering commands. Formerly,
steering commands were generated which attempted to return the vehicle as
rapidly as possible to the nominal flight path. These new commands attempted to
correct the vehicle trajectory only enough to arrive at the proper aiming point.

Agena D Second Stage

The overall nominal thrust rating of the single Agena D rocket engine was
71 171 N (16 000 lb) in vacuum, with a nominal thrust duration of 240 see. The
outer structure of the Agena D (the airframe) was a cylinder approximately 1.5
meters (5 ft) in diameter and 6.29 meters (20.6 ft) long (as measured from the
rearward end of the engine nozzle to the forward section of the forward equip-
ment rack). When fueled, its weight was approximately 6940 kg (15 300 lb).

43
MARINER-MARS 1964
t--

Four major sections made up the Agena D second stage: the forward section,
the tank section, the rearward section, and the booster adapter section. The for-
ward section carried guidance, flight-control electronics, telemetry, command,
tracking, electrical power, and propellant-pressurization equipment. The tank
section stored the fuel (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine) and oxidizer (inhibited
red fuming nitric acid) necessary for operation of the main rocket engine and also
provided the support structure between the forward and rearward sections. The
rearward section provided for structural support and attachment of the rocket-
engine assembly, pneumatic attitude-control thrust valves, and nitrogen storage
spheres. Ready access to all parts of the engine, plumbing, and wiring was made
possible by the rearward section open-frame design. The booster adapter section
was the interconnecting structure between the Agena D second stage and the
Atlas D first stage; housed within this section were two retrorockets used for sepa-
ration of the Atlas D from the Agena D. This section remained with the Atlas D
upon separation of the two stages.
The propulsion system was composed of an engine with a dual-restart capa-
bility and a propellant and pressurization subsystem. The capability to restart the
engine after it had already been fired once in order to reach an Earth orbital
speed made possible a significant increase in payload and a change of orbital
altitude. Propellant tanks were pressurized with helium to insure proper propel-
lant pump operation. The propellant tank and sump designs were improvements
over previous designs in that the following were provided: (1) improved scaveng-
ing (removal of burned gases from the cylinder), and (2) containment of sufficient
propellant within the tank sumps (reservoirs) to eliminate the need for ullage
rockets. (However, since flight qualification of this feature for the Mariner-Mars
1964 missions was not possible prior to launch, a positive continuous ullage
control system was included to insure the second Agena D start.)
Power was supplied by two primary batteries, a single- and three-phase
inverter, and a dc-to-dc converter. The communications system monitored and
measured, by electrical signals, functional and environmental conditions of the
Agena D and the spacecraft during the ascent phase to spacecraft injection and
during the Agena D retromaneuver.
The Agena D guidance and control system served to: (1) maintain the Agena
D at the proper attitude at all times, (2) provide switch closures at the proper
times to accomplish the desired sequence of events during ascent, and (3) provide
the propulsion shutdown signal after the desired velocity had been achieved.
Major components of the system were an inertial reference package, a horizon

44
 ,q

SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGN AND TESTINGOPERATIONS

sensor, a flight-control electronics unit, a hydraulic attitude-control system, a

pneumatic attitude-control system, a velocity meter, and two electromechanical
timers. Error signals from the inertial reference package were applied to the flight-
control electronics unit for processing and were then applied to the hydraulic and
pneumatic attitude-control systems. Two hydraulic actuators "gimbaled" the
engine, providing thrust-vector control; six nitrogen-gas attitude-control jets were
provided to torque the vehicle.

Shroud System and Spacecraft Adapter

A shroud is the covering which protects a spacecraft during the prelaunch

checkout and the ascent phase of flight. Since previous shrouds were too small, a
new design for the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft was formulated which used a
one-piece fiber-glass-and-magnesium section connected to a beryllium nose dome.
This new shroud was to be separated after launch by springs which would eject
it forward "over the nose" from the spacecraft. However, after the first Mariner-
Mars 1964 spacecraft (Mariner III) launch on November 5, 1964, this shroud
failed to eject clear of the spacecraft. The failure mode was a structural failure
caused by skin separation from the fiberglass honeycomb core.
Efforts were then directed toward the immediate development of an all-metal
shroud for use on the second Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft (Mariner IV). In
this design, the fiber-glass structure was replaced by a magnesium section with an
inner thermal liner. The first replacement shroud was completed within 17 days
after the Mariner III launch. To compensate for the additional weight of the new
shroud, the Agena D retrorocket (for use after injection to insure that the Agena D
would not impact the planet) was removed, and an Agena D command-destruct
unit was replaced by a self-destruct system (which separated with the Atlas D in-
stead of at injection). The removal of the retrorocket was possible because of a
change in the mission profile (discussed in oh. 2). During the Mariner IV
mission, this all-metal shroud successfully ejected over the spacecraft without
striking it and did not subsequently collide with the spacecraft.
The shroud-to-Agena D attachment structure was part of the spacecraft-to-
Agena D attachment structure called the spacecraft adapter. As illustrated in
figure 3-2, the basic structure was comprised of two conical sections, one con-
verging from the common base ring, through which the adapter was attached to
the Agena D forward equipment rack, to the mounting plane of the spacecraft,
and the other diverging from the common base ring to the shroud mounting ring.

45
MARINER-MARS 1964

SHROUD

SPACECRAFT MOUNTING PLANE

A

// ,/
u

-L

4GENA D S i

COMMON BASE RING

FORWARD
EQUIPMENT
RACK

FIGURE 3-2.--Spacecraft adapter.

The attachment of the adapter to the shroud and to the spacecraft was released by
firing explosive squibs. Shroud ejection was accomplished by four ejection spring
assemblies mounted in lower end of the shroud. The spacecraft/Agena D separa-
tion system used four equally spaced spring mechanisms mounted on the adapter
that acted against four mating pads on the spacecraft. Most measuring and
monitoring instrumentation was mounted on the adapter.

SPACECRAFT SYSTEM DESIGN

Design Considerations

Although vital knowledge and experience were gained during the Mariner-
Venus 1962 project, the problems involved in sending a spacecraft on a mission to
Mars in 1964 were more numerous and more complex. The energy required to
ship a pound of payload to Mars in 1964 was actually slightly less than that needed
for the trip to Venus in 1962. However, this slightly lower energy requirement was
practically the only aspect of the Mars mission that was not considerably more
difficult than the comparable aspect in the Venus mission.
One example of the difficulties was service life. Mariner II had to operate for
about 2500 hours on its flight to Venus, while the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft
had to be designed for 6000 to 7000 hours of flight life for the trip to Mars and
beyond.
Electrical power was another consideration. While only a small amount (less
than 200 W) was required, the electrical power had to come from sunlight. The
amount of available power was, of course, dependent upon the distance from the
spacecraft to the Sun. Mariner II had one of its two solar panels partially disabled

46
 SPACE VEHICLESYSTEMDESIGN AND TESTINGOPERATIONS
h_

enroute to Venus, but, since it was going closer to the Sun in its flight, the space-
craft drew nearly as much power from the undamaged panel at Venus as it had
received from both panels near Earth. However, in going from Earth to Mars
rather than to Venus, a spacecraft would be receding from the Sun and thus the
solar power would decrease. Therefore, the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft had to
have more than twice the solar panel area of Mariner II, or approximately 6.5!
sq m (70 sq ft) instead of just 2.51 sq m (27 sq ft).
The decrease in solar radiation would cause the spacecraft to become colder
during the trip, rather than hotter as in the Mariner II mission. This fact had to
be considered in the design of the temperature-control devices for the spacecraft.
Beyond Mars is the asteroid belt, consisting of thousands of planetoids in
independent solar orbits. Therefore, astronomers believed that the meteoric
intensity might increase in the direction of this belt. In addition, the Mars path
lay across several "cometary" meteor streams. The spacecraft might encounter
more space dust than had been experienced during the Mariner II mission, where
only two impacts had been recorded by the spacecraft's detector. Even this
number is somewhat misleading if it is not realized that the total area of the
Mariner II spacecraft was about 200 times that of its small dust detector; there-
fore, the detector recorded only a fraction of the particles actually hitting the
spacecraft.
Simple distance to be traveled was another consideration in spacecraft design.
When Mariner II was at a maximum distance of 86.9 million km (54 million
statute miles), radio waves from it took nearly 5 min to reach the Earth. Since
communications during the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions would involve distances
of at least 241 million km (150 million statute miles), the delay would be about
three times as long. (During the actual Mariner IV mission, the communications
time delay reached a maximum of 17 min 6 sec at the end of the mission on
October 1, 1965, when Mariner IV was approximately 306 million km (190
million statute miles) from the Earth.) Therefore, the communications system
had to be more powerful--actually nine times more powerful since radio strength
decreases as the square of increasing distance. Both the ground and flight units
had to be improved.

Preliminary Design

The flight plan for the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions was the same as that for
the Mariner II mission; i.e. : the launch by an Atlas/Agena, attainment of a cruise

47
 0

MARINER-MARS1964

mode, the performance of a trajectory correction 2 as necessary early in the flight,

the gathering of interplanetary data, and the turn-on of planetary experiments for
data gathering about the planet. The basic design of the Mariner-Mars 1964
spacecraft for which this flight plan was applicable is illustrated in figure 3-3.
The spacecraft, fully stabilized in attitude, used the Sun and the star Canopus
as references. Cold-gas jets pointed the spacecraft in all three axes (pitch, yaw, and
roll), and external torques were counteracted in two of the axes by changing the
positions of movable solar pressure vanes. Gyroscopes were available for initial
acquisition and for inertial control during the midcourse maneuver.
For power, photovoltaic cells were arranged on panels with a body-fixed
orientation for cruise operations, and a rechargeable battery was provided for
launch, midcourse maneuvers, and backup support. Power-conversion equipment
delivered regulated 2400-hertz square-wave, 400-hertz, and unregulated dc elec-
tricity for distribution to the spacecraft subsystems. A central computer and
sequencer, an extremely accurate electronic clock, provided synchronization
signals for frequency regulation and performed the sequencing of switching
operations on the spacecraft. A guidance system permitting midcourse maneuvers
and a propulsion system capable of executing two such maneuvers were included.
A two-way S-band (2110 to 2120 MHz for Earth-to-spacecraft transmission
and 2290 to 2300 MHz for spacecraft-to-Earth transmission) communications
system carried a steady stream of telemetry information to Earth; commands to
the spacecraft; and angle-tracking, Doppler, and ranging information for orbit
determination. A low-gain antenna and a fixed high-gain antenna were included
in the radio system of the spacecraft. Either of these antennas could be used to
transmit or receive. Switching between the antennas was accomplished by logic
on the spacecraft or by ground command. The command system detected and
decoded incoming command messages and passed them to the various equipment
on the spacecraft. Two types of commands were possible: a direct command (DC),
which resulted in direct action by the receiving system; and a quantitative com-
mand (QCI-1, -2, and -3), which was transferred to the central computer and
sequencer to be stored for tgiter use. A data encoder formatted, sequenced, and,
as necessary, provided analog-to-digital conversion of the telemetry data.

2Commonly called the "midcourse-correction maneuver" or simply "midcourse maneuver." Actually these
lerms are misnomers since the maneuver occurs earlier than the midpoint of the flight, and, rather than correcting
a mistake, the maneuver increases possible accuracy. However, since these are the accepted terms describing the
maneuver, they are used throughout this document.

48
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

(o) TOP VIEW

LOW-GAIN ANTENNA--

/-HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA
CSS_rC DETECTOR-- _'_.4
// * PITCH

-Y__SOLAR PANEL

_RD
TRR _;PETDION DET_J

PLASMA
PRO._____
sE,,,SORJ
__-_..__ 1____
Z._N SENSO_
( \
_-BAY I POWER \ /
-- "?'--_/----d._'OATA
/ J., PLL_---BAY-- 11" POSTINJECTION

PROPULSION SYSTEM

AN0
YAW _O%%,N0LBAy., SCIENTIFIC
DATA
EQUIPMENT
AUTOMATION
AND
SYSTEM
GAS JETS

(b) BOTTOM VIEW

LOW _ GAIN
ANTENNA WAVEGUID E _-_ _,
_.| F _-MAGNETOMETER
"1 )/ SENSOR SO'AR
I_/ P_ESSURE

/1 _ I_ rSOLAR PANEL DAMPER VANE--_

_._,,,r'_. _\. _ II I AND PINPULLER __

II _ _._ _
PRESSJREURE ',_./_ ,
_SOLAR _,.._._11 _ "_/--BAy'O'm POWER REGULATOR
_VANE ACTUATOR ,,,,,,,,,,,_".
___._ ll_J_J--__ l _ / AND BATTERY

_/_ _ _'-__NOPUS SENSOR

-sIENsOR (SECONDARY) ANU L;.L._:_ NTR

SENSOR (SECONDARY BAY ]Z__ ATTITUDE CONTROL

WIDE-ANGLE ACQUISITION LENS

BAY _ RF COMMUNICATIONS

FIGURE 3-3.--Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft design.

49
MARINER-MARS 1964
P

The spacecraft carried a number of scientific instruments to measure the

particles and electromagnetic fields between the Earth and Mars and in the vi-
cinity of both planets. At planetary encounter, a television instrument took
pictures of the surface of the planet. A data automation system furnished control
and synchronization, performed necessary data conversions and encoding func-
tions, and buffered the science data, transmitting them to the data encoder at the
appropriate times and rates. Data to be prepared for direct transmission to Earth
were handled in the real-time portion of the data automation system. Data to be
stored on magnetic tape in the spacecraft's tape recorder for later transmission
to Earth at a much slower rate than that during recording were handled in the
non-real-time portion. Stored data consisted of the pictures taken by the television
camera, the science data obtained during the encounter phase, and information
on spacecraft and television system performance.

Spacecraft Mechanical Configuration

The designers of the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft knew that more space-
craft weight would be needed than the 204 kg (450 lb) that the Atlas D/Agena B
launch vehicle allowed for the trip to Venus. A new version of the Agena second
stage, the Agena D, being basically a collection of improvements from better
propellant utilization to lightweight materials, added 36 kg (80 lb) to the possible
spacecraft weight, and the increase in available energy between the Mariner-
Venus 1962 and Mariner-Mars 1964 missions added still more (approximately
18 kg (40 lb)) to the possible spacecraft weight. Thus, the new version of the space-
craft could weigh approximately 258 kg (570 lb).
In order to minimize nonelectronic weight within a total spacecraft weight
of about 258 kg (570 lb), it was necessary to: (1) integrate structurally the elec-
tronic packaging design into the basic spacecraft structure (i.e., make the elec-
tronics the structural foundation, thereby almost eliminating the need for a
skeletal structure), (2) minimize the number of articulated or deployed elements,
and (3) attach the spacecraft to the Agena D second stage in a direct manner. A
weight breakdown for the final spacecraft weight of 260.68 kg (574.74 lb) is given
in table 3-I. With an overall height of 2.90 meters (9.4 ft), the spacecraft was
composed of approximately 138 000 parts. The contractors and subcontractors
for the various spacecraft subsystems and components are listed in table 3-II. The
chosen mechanical configuration, illustrated in figure 3-4, is described in the
following paragraph.

5O
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS
i

The primary spacecraft structure was an octagonal electronics compartment

approximately 45.7 cm (18 in.) high and 138.4 cm (54.5 in.) across the points.
This shape represented a minimum departure from existing design technology and
yet assured a minimum structural weight. The two octagonal rings of the structure
were separated by longerons mounted at the octagon corners. The eight rectan-
gular shallow openings formed by the rings and the longerons served to form
"bays." Seven of these bays contained spacecraft electronics assemblies, and the
eighth contained the midcourse (postinjection) propulsion system so located be-
tween two solar panels that exhaust heating of the panels would be minimized
during motor firing. The cabling in each bay was mounted on the center member
of each electronics assembly. Electrical cables for the bays were contained in two
concentric rings.

Table 3-1.--Weight summaryfor Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft

Weight
Item

kg lb

Engineering subsystems:
Structure .................................................................. 35.58 78.44
Radio (including 3.37 kg (7.43 lb) for antennas) ................................ 18.97 41.83
Data encoder ............................................................... 10.17 22.43
Video storage .............................................................. 7.66 16.89
Command ................................................................ 4.59 10.12
Attitude control ........................................................... 28.71 63.29
Central computer and sequencer .............................................. 5.16 11.38
Power (including 35.84 kg (79.02 lb) for solar panels) ........................... 68.02 149.97
Pyrotechnics ............................................................... 5.54 12.21
Propulsion ................................................................ 21.57 47.55
Temperature control ....................................................... 7.04 15.53
Science subsystem and ancillary equipment:
Television .................................................................. 5.12 11.28
Helium magnetometer ...................................................... 3.07 6.77
Cosmic dust detector ....................................................... .95 2.10
Ionization chamber ........................................................ 1.32 2.90

Cosmic ray telescope ....................................................... 1.17 2.58

Trapped radiation detector .................................................. .98 2.17
Solar plasma probe ......................................................... 2.91 6.41
Instrument simulator (replacing ultraviolet photometer, to maintain inertial mass
and temperature balance within spacecraft) .................................. 2.98 6.57

Data automation system .................................................... 5.34 11.78

Planetary scan system ....................................................... 3.11 6.85
Spacecraft wiring .............................................................. 20.72 45.69

Total .................................................................. 260.68 574.74

51
 Q

MARINER-MARS 1964
,I,--

Table 3-11.--Contractors and major subcontractors for Mariner-Mars 1964 project

Name ] Responsibility

Contractors

General Dynamics/Convair (now General Dynamics/Astronautics), San Atlas D (purchased through the U.S.
Diego, Calif. Air Force Systems Command,
Space Systems Division)
Rocketdyne, division of North American Aviation, Inc., Canoga Park, Atlas D propulsion systems
Calif.

General Electric Co., Defense Electronics Division, Syracuse_ N.Y ......... Atlas D radio command guidance
Burroughs Corp., Defense, Space, and Special Systems Group, Paoli, Pa... Ground guidance computer
Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., Sunnyvale, Calif ..................... Agena D
Bell Aerosystems Co., Buffalo, N.Y ................................... Agena D propulsion system
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Spacecraft
Calif.

Major subcontractors '_

Advanced Structures Division, Whittaker Corp., La Mesa, Calif. .......... Spacecraft high-gain antennas
Airite Products, division of the Electrada Corp., Los Angeles, Calif .... Midcourse-propulsion fuel tanks,
nitrogen tanks
Alpha-Tronics Corp., Monrovia, Calif ............................... Data automation system analog-to-
pulsewidth converters
Anadite Co., Los Angeles, Calif ..................................... Surface treatment of structural ele-
ments and chassis
Anchor Plating Co., El Monte, Calif ................................ Gold plating
Applied Development Corp., Monterey Park, Calif .................... Ground telemetry decommutators,
printer programers
Astrodata, Inc., Anaheim, Calif .................................... Time code generator/translators;
ground command read, write,
verify equipment; encoder simu-
lator; and spacecraft system test
data system
Barnes Engineering Co., Stamford, Conn ............................ Canopus star sensor electronics
Bendix Corp., Scintilla Division, Sidney, N.Y ....................... Connectors
Bergman Manufacturing Co., San Rafael, Calif ...................... Chassis forgings
Cannon Electric Co., Los Angeles, Calif ............................ Connectors
CBS Laboratories, division of Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc., Image dissector tubes for Canopus
Stamford, Conn. star sensors
Computer Control Co., Inc., Framingham, Mass ..................... Real-time data automation system
logic cards for scientific instru-
ments; operational support equip-
ment; and data automation system
voltage-to-pulsewidth converters
Correlated Data Systems Corp., Glendale, Calif ...................... Spacecraft external power source and
solar panel simulators and voltage-
controlled oscillators

Data-Tronix Corp., King of Prussia, Pa ............................. Voltage-controlled oscillators

aIn addition to these subcontractors, over 1000 other individual firms contributed to the Mariner-Mars 1964
project.

52
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

Table 3-11.--Contractors and major subcontractors for Mariner-Mars 1964 project_Continued

Name ] Responsibility

Major subcontractors

Digital Equipment Corp., Los Angeles, Calif ........................ Data automation system operational
Delco Radio Division, General Motors Corp., Kokomo, Ind ........... i Telemetry format simulators
support data system
Dunlap & Whitehead Manufacturing Co., Van Nuys, Calif. ............ Midcourse propulsion and structural
elements
Dynamics Instrumentation Co., Monterey Park, Calif. ................. Ground telemetry consoles and as-
sembly of planetary scan system
electronics
The Electric Storage Battery Co., Raleigh, N.C ....................... Spacecraft batteries
Electro-Optical Systems, Inc., Pasadena, Calif. ....................... Ionization chamber assemblies; as-
sembly and test of spacecraft solar
panels; modification and test of
spacecraft power subsystem; and
spacecraft assembly cables
Electronic Memories, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif ......................... Magnetic counter assemblies for
spacecraft central computer and
sequellccr
Engineered Electronics Co., Santa Ana, Calif. ........................ Non-real-time data automation system
Fargo Rubber Corp., Los Angeles, Calif. ............................ Midcourse-propulsion fuel-tank
bladders
Franklin Electronics, Inc., Bridgeport, Pa ........................... Ground telemetry high-speed digital
computers
General Dynamics Corp., General Dynamics/Electronics, San Diego, Calif. Assembly of television subsystems
General Electrodynamics Corp., Garland, Tex ....................... Vidicons and television tube test set
Grindley Manufacturing Co., Los Angeles, Calif ..................... Midcourse-propulsion jet vanes; fuel
manifolds; oxidizer cartridge shell;
and supports
Hi-Shear Corp., Torrance, Calif. ................................... Squibs
Hughes Aircraft Co., Microwave Tube Division, Los Angeles, Calif.... Traveling wave tubes
IMC Magnetics Corp., Westbury, N.Y ............................. Solar vane actuators
International Data Systems, Inc., Dallas, Tex ........................ Ground command modulation
checker and telemetry power sup-
plies
Kearfott Division, General Precision, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif. ......... Gyroscopes and jet vane actuators
Lawrence Industries, Inc., Burbank, Calif. .......................... Printed circuits
Lockheed Aircraft Service, Inc., division of Lockheed Aircraft Corp., Spacecraft low-level positioners
Ontario, Calif.
Lockheed Electronics Co., division of Lockheed Aircraft Corp., Los Angeles, Solar cell modules and magnetic shift
Calif.
register for central computer and
sequencer
Magnamill, Los Angeles, Calif ...................................... Structural elements and chassis
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, division of Sponsored Research, Solar plasma probes
Cambridge, Mass.
Metal Bellows Corp., Chatsworth, Calif. ............................. Midcourse-propulsion oxidizer bellows
assembly
Milbore Co., Glendale, Calif ....................................... Midcourse-propulsion engine compo-
nents
Mincom Division, Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co. ,Los Angeles, Ground telemetry tape recorders
Calif.
53
MARINER-MARS 1964
m.

Table 3-11.--Contractors and major subcontractors For /Vlariner-Mars 1964 project--Concluded

Name Responsibility

Major subcontractors

Motorola, Inc., Military Electronics Division, Scottsdale, Ariz ........ Spacecraft transponders; command sys-
tems and associated operational sup-
port equipment; and DSIF equivalent
operational support equipment
Nortronics, division of Northrop Corp., Palos Verdes Estates, Calif ..... Development and support of attitude-
control electronics

Philco Corp., Palo Alto, Calif ................................... Integrated circuit sequence generator
system; spacecraft antenna feeds; and
spacecraft antenna subsystem tests
Chassis and subchassis
Proto Spec, Pasadena, Calif .....................................
Midcourse propulsion system explosive
Pyronetics, Inc., Santa Fe Springs, Calif ..........................
actuated valves

Rantec Corp., Calabasas, Calif .................................. S-band circulator switches and pre-
selection and band rejection filters

Raymond Engineering Laboratory, Inc., Middletown, Corm ......... Spacecraft video-storage-subsystem tape
recorder

Ryan Aeronautical Co., Aerospace Division, San Diego, Calif. ....... Spacecraft solar panel structure

Siemens & Halske, A.G., Munich, West Germany .................. RF amplifier tubes

Space Technology Laboratories, division of Thompson Ramo Wool- Spacecraft central computer and se-
quencer and associated operational
dridge, Inc., Redondo Beach, Calif.
support equipment

Sperry Utah Co., division of Sperry Rand Corp., Salt Lake City, Utah. Magnetometer mapping fixture

State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa ......................... Trapped radiation detectors

Sterer Engineering & Manufacturing Company, North Hollywood, Calif.. Valves and regulators for attitude-con-
trol gas system
Texas Instruments, Inc., Apparatus Division, Dallas, Tex ............ Spacecraft video-storage-subsystem elec-
tronics; spacecraft data encoders and
associated operational support equip-
ment; helium magnetometers; atti-
tude-control gyro electronics assem-
blies; and data demodulators

Textron Electronics, Inc., Heliotek Division, Sylmar, Calif ........... Silicon photovoltaic solar cells
Thermal control louvers and power
Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, Inc., Redondo Beach, Calif ...........
converters

Univac, division of Sperry Rand Corp., St. Paul, Minn ............. Spacecraft data automation system
buffer memory

University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill ............................... Spacecraft cosmic ray telescopes

WEMS, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif .................................. Spacecraft television electronics modules

and spacecraft attitude-control elec-
tronics modules

Wyman-Gordon Corp., Los Angeles, Calif ......................... Spacecraft structural forgings

54
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

EARTH DETECTOR
-Y SOLAR PANEL
i_,'- -_FT ..'.-_PITCR GAB JET

SQUARE-ROOT SUM

:'NTL'
\ __1__ _ _ SUI'I i_ii_iR_L_ ROLL AND YAW GAS JEt 7

:' - ¼ 1

SOLAR PANEL RIN/G_ (_(

CABLE TROUGH

TRAPPED j
RADIATION DETECTOR PLASMA PROBE _--CASE HARNESS SUPPORT STRUCTURE (TYPICAL}

(O) TOP VIEW OF BASIC OCTAGON, ONE SOLAR PANEL SHOWN IN DEPLOYED POSITION

FIGURE 3--4.--Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft mechanical configuration.

SOLAR PRESSURE LOW-GAIN ANTENNA DAMPER_ ABSORPTIVITY STANDARD CANOPUS SENSOR

LO_/AVEGAIN ANTENNA
VANE LATCH HELIUM MAGNETOMETER IONIZATION
\ uPPER THERMAL _IELD
SHUTTER ACTUATOR

_, , /-_ HELIUM MAGNETOME" /'_ CHAMiBER 'Q___'_SENS{_,\,_ _r_ PLANESHUTTER

C_S

SOIE_E
' IS NOT SHOWN IN

TELEVISLON

CAMERA

SCIENCE COVER
LOW-GAIN ANTENNA

I
GROUND PLANE _

+ ROLL

/ W IOE -ANGLE ACQUISITION

SENSOR

NARROW-ANGLE

®@@@@®®@@®@@@@ NO @

SOLAR PANEL O_UISE _SOLAR PANEL OPEN SWITCH

SOLAR PRESSURE
SOLAR PANEL D_PA_R LA_cHCH_UI_ _ _ SOLAR PANEL OPEN SWITCH
VANE (STOWED) DAMPER _PLASMA PROBE

(b) SIDE VIEW OF SPACECRAFT, SOLAR PANELS FOLDED

FIGURE 3-4.--Continued.

55
 #

MARINER-MARS 1964
,t m

EARTH DETECTOR
SQUARE ROOT SUN
SENSOR (PRIMARY) ATTITUDE CONTROL AND CCB, S

BAY _]

BAY _]]]
RF COMMUNICATIONS
POWER REGULATOR
BAY
AND BATTERY

LOW-GAIN

IONIZATION
CHAMBER -

bJ

__o
<lF-

20
+ PITCH

oa
t_ Z

8
PROPULSION
SUBSYSTEM
THERMAL
SHIELO

.t.
BAY
SOLAR PANEL OPEN 1"_,_ c)
-ROOT SUN
SENSOR (PRIMARY)
DATA E NCODER D 1 _J_vJ
AND COMMAND BAY IT[
SUN GATE DETECTOR
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT AND
OAT" AUTOMATION SYSTEM

SEPARATION- BAY ]_I SQUARE - ROOT

INITIATED TIMER _ H G / SUN SENSOR

CANOPUS SENSOR ._ iSECONDARY)

BAY _rrff BAY _Zl SEPARAT,ONL'NEAR

PYROTECHNICS /'_/-/_( _" _ , _ POTENTIOMETER
ARMING _ _'///'/'\ \ / ' _ _ PLUNGER

SW,TCH \ \ \

•x _ g

B E

>'- -X
INELIGHT
DISCONNECT

BAY TT _ _ _ //_
/ . /_.' Ioi , /J _ LOWER THERMAL

_19 deq (S;OW_ED _ SHIELD

POSITION) BAY
I Ill

SQUARE-ROOT W_ _ COSMIC RAY

SUN SENSOR + YA J TELESCOPE
(SECONDARY)

(C) TOP AND BOTTOM VIEWS OF SPACECRAFT

FIGurE 3-4.--Concluded.
 SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGN AND TESTINGOPERATIONS

Four rectangular solar panels were attached onto the primary structure at the
top of the octagon. These panels, providing an area of approximately 6.51 sq m
(70 sq It), were stowed in a nearly vertical position above the spacecraft during
the boost phase and were deployed after spacecraft separation from the Agena D
second stage.
To maintain attitude control, a dual nitrogen-gas system was devised which
consisted of 2 gas supplies and regulators supported in the internal cavity of the
octagon, 12 cold-gas jets mounted on the tips of the solar panels, and necessary
plumbing. A solar-pressure-vane auxiliary attitude-control system was mounted
on the tips of the solar panels. The installation on each panel consisted of an elec-
tromechanical actuator, a thermomechanical actuator, and a solar pressure vane
of 0.65 sq m (7 sq ft) of reflective surface area. The vanes were stowed along the
backs of the solar panels and unfolded to a nominal position upon deployment of
the solar panels after spacecraft separation. The total span of the spacecraft with
solar panels deployed and solar pressure vanes extended was 6.79 m (22.24 ft).
Sun sensors were mounted on both the top and bottom surfaces of the octagon
so that the Sun would be in the field of view of at least one set of Sun sensors
regardless of the spacecraft's angular orientation. The Canopus star sensor,
mounted on the bottom of the octagon, was provided with a clear field of view
between two solar panels. An Earth detector was mounted on the side of a Sun
sensor pedestal. The attitude-control system was linked by logic circuitry to the
Canopus and Sun sensors and to the three gyroscopes on the spacecraft.
The high-gain antenna, a 116.8- by 53.3-cm (46- by 21-in.) ellipse in plan-
form (as seen from above) and a parabola in cross section, was attached to the
spacecraft by a conical support structure (superstructure) mounted on top of the
octagon. The antenna was supported in a fixed position such that it would be
pointed in the direction of Earth at planetary encounter. The low-gain omnidi-
rectional antenna was mounted on the end of a cylindrical tube approximately
10.2 cm (4 in.) in diameter and 223.5 cm (88 in.) long. This tube, which acted as
a waveguide and support structure for the antenna and three cruise-science experi-
ments, was attached at its base to the top of the octagon.
Flexible thermal shield blankets were attached to the superstructure on top
and the central cavity on the bottom. Louvers were provided on six of the bays, and
rigid aluminum shields covered the sides of the octagon structure not housing louvers.
The cruise-science experiments were mounted about the spacecraft, and the
television instrument--a planetary-science experiment--was mounted on a scan
platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft. These experiments were located to

$7
 m

MARINER-MARS 1964
¢

satisfy their field-of-view requirements without significantly compromising other

spacecraft system operations. The magnetometer was positioned near the top of
the low-gain omnidirectional antenna waveguide to separate it from the main
mass of the spacecraft while keeping it far enough from the antenna top to prevent
interference with the antenna pattern. The ionization chamber experiment was
located on the waveguide to provide a maximum field of view (since it was spheri-
cally sensitive) without significantly affecting the high-gain antenna pattern or the
magnetometer measurements. The cosmic dust detector was mounted on the
superstructure. The remaining cruise-science experiments were positioned to
satisfy their individual requirements. The television instrument was mounted on
the scan platform at such an angle as to optimize visual lighting conditions at the
planet. The platform was driven by a scan actuator mounted on the top of the
octagon through the tube running along the centerof the spacecraft to the platform.

Subsystem Functional Description

Structureand mechanisms

A spacecraft structure integrates the spacecraft subsystems into a rigidly sup-

ported functional spacecraft. The Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft structure was
composed of the basic octagon, the superstructure, and the scan platform. The
basic octagon housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion
system, and attitude-control gas supplies and regulators. Several of the science
experiments, the Sun and Canopus star sensors, the superstructure, the side and
lower thermal shields, and all other exterior protrusions were mounted to the
octagon. The superstructure supported the high-gain antenna, the cosmic dust
detector experiment, the solar panels through their boost dampers, one low-gain
antenna damper, and the upper thermal shield. The superstructure is shown
attached to the basic octagon in figure 3-5. The scan platform provided the
mounting surface for the television instrument and sensors.
Spacecraft mechanisms, or those items required to produce or retard move-
ment of components during the missions, included the following:
1. Boost dampers, to reduce the vibration inputs to the solar panels and the
low-gain omnidirectional antenna during the boost phase and statically position
these items.
2. Pyrotechnics arming switch, to initiate commands on the spacecraft and
apply power to (arm) the pyrotechnics subsystem at spacecraft separation from the
Agena D second stage; and separation-initiated timer, to serve as a backup at
about 40 sec after separation.

58
 8

.'
SPACE VEHIClE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS
*.

FIGURE3-5.--Superstructure attached to basic octagon.

3. Solar panel deployment springs (one for each panel), to deploy the solar
panels to the cruise position.
4. Cruise dampers, to place the solar panels in the deployed position and
dampen solar panel excursions during propulsion maneuvers.
5. Scan actuator, to rotate the scan platform and television instrument to
search for and point to the surface of Mars.
6. Scan inhibit switch, to inhibit power to the scan actuator until the pin-
puller, which torsionally restrained the scan platform, was fired and to give a
telemetry indication that the pinpuller had released the platform.
7. Science cover, to protect the television instrument and sensors from sun-
light and cosmic dust.
Radio

The radio, data encoder, video storage, and command subsystems made up
the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft telecommunications system. In conjunction

59
MARINER-MARS 1964

with the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF), these subsystems served to:
(1) track the angular position, radial velocity, and range of the spacecraft; (2)
provide engineering and scientific telemetry data from the spacecraft; and (3) use
ground commands to control spacecraft operation. The radio subsystem consisted
of a phase-coherent S-band transponder using a transmitter configuration de-
signed for maximum reliability of spacecraft-transmitted signals by the inde-
pendent use of redundant radiofrequency (RF) exciters and power amplifiers.
Selection of the exciters and amplifiers was by spacecraft logic, with ground com-
mand backup.
The transponder receiver and its power supply were mounted in bay V of the
basic octagon. The transponder transmitting portion, including a Mariner II-type
triode cavity amplifier and a longer life traveling-wave-tube power amplifier,
their associated power supplies, two band rejection filters, one four-port circulator
switch, one five-port circulator switch, two directional couplers, and control unit
switching logic, was mounted in bay VI. The modules were interconnected by
shielded two-conductor cable and RF coaxial cable. All circuitry, except the triode
cavity amplifier and the traveling-wave-tube power amplifier, was solid state. At
about 2300 MHz, the radio put out about 10 watts of power.
A functional block diagram of the radio subsystem is given in figure 3-6.
Operation was as follows:
1. A modulated or unmodulated RF signal transmitted to the spacecraft from
DSIF was received.
2. The frequency and phase of the received signal was coherently translated
by a fixed ratio.
3. The received signal was demodulated by the automatic phase control
receiver, which tracked the carrier modulated signal in a phase-locked loop, and a
composite command signal was sent to the spacecraft command subsystem.
4. The range code, if transmitted to the spacecraft from DSIF, was de-
modulated.
5. The transmitter signal was modulated continuously with a composite
telemetry signal and the demodulated ranging signal if ranging were turned on.
6. The modulated RF signal was transmitted to the deep space stations of
DSIF.
Three transmitting and receiving antenna modes were available to provide
the required coverage during all phases of the missions; they are: (1) transmit low
gain, receive low gain; (2) transmit high gain, receive high gain; and (3) transmit
high gain, receive low gain. The low-gain omnidirectional broadcast antenna was

6{1
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

AMPLIFIER

DETECTOR LIMITER
CS CIRCULATOR SWITCH

P/S POWER SUPPLY

AGC AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL ON/OFF

IF INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY

VCO VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR

CCaS CENTRAL COMPUTER AND SEQUENCER

AGC INHIBIT

AGC OUTPUT

SE

MI ER I I DET ;TOR

BALd LIFIER M©
PREAN
_ICED

AGC MODULATION

IN
2 OUTPUT

FREQ !NCY

TRANSFER

COMMAND

TELEMETRY

TELEMETRY

HI_H
GAIN

ISO-

INHIBIT INHIBIT

OSCI_
CS3 CS3 AUXfl

RANGING

MODULATION
TELEMETRY

MODULATION
INPUT

C_ __ CS4 CS4 CS5

__ CSS I L _

CC_S C
+
AGC

INHIBIT
ANTENNA

CONTROL

IH POWER AMPLIFIER

CONTROL EXCITER CONTROL

INPUT

2.4 k¢
l
RECEIVER
R/S

ATT,TU.
+ +
INHIBIT DIRECT DIRECT
+ +
DIRECT CCGS DI
_C',!
E
+
CCGS
+
DIRECT INPUT
+
COMMAND COMMANID COMMAND COMMAND INPUT COMMANO
Z.4 kC 50vrms

FIGURE 3-6.--Radio subsystem functional block diagram.

61
 ,m

MARINER-MARS1964

the primary antenna for the Earth-to-spacecraft link. This antenna did not have to
be pointed directly at the Earth in order to receive a signal. Communications
during the first half of the mission were maintained through this antenna by using
the 10-kW DSIF transmitters. A 100-kW DSIF transmitter would have been
required to support the second half of the mission if the spacecraft receiver had not
been switched to the fixed high-gain antenna (a narrow-beam elliptical reflector
antenna). This antenna could be used only when pointing directly at the Earth or
during the latter half of the mission. The high- and low-gain antennas are shown
on the spacecraft in figure 3-7. The switchover between the antennas could be
effected by a central computer and sequencer command or by ground command.
Failure-mode switching was also available to switch the receiver to the low-gain
antenna to take advantage of its broader coverage should roll reference be lost.
The direction or angular position of the spacecraft in its flight could be cal-
culated from the pointing angles of the narrow-beam ground antennas. The two-
way Doppler shift could be measured to provide a value for the spacecraft radial
velocity (range rate) with respect to the station. Since the spacecraft was receding
from the ground antenna, the frequency of the narrow bandwidth radio signal
received by the spacecraft was less than the ground-transmitted frequency (called
the Doppler effect). Similarly, the ground-received signal was lower in frequency
than the spacecraft-transmitted signal. The operating frequency could be con-
trolled by either an oscillator on the spacecraft or, for more precise determination,
a stable oscillator on the ground, which generated a signal to be transmitted to the
spacecraft, where it was multiplied by a known factor (240/221), amplified, and
then sent back to Earth.
A "turnaround" ranging system capable of measuring the Earth-to-space-
craft range to a distance of 1 million km (625 000 statute miles) was included. The
ground-transmitted signals could be modulated by a long binary wave train
known as the range code. This code could then be retransmitted as modulation on
the spacecraft signal. When received by the ground station, the range code could
be shifted in time relative to the original signal by the round-trip radio propaga-
tion time, and thus provide a measurement of spacecraft range. (This capability
was not, however, used during the missions.)
Spacecraft performance and scientific data, both digital and analog, were
transmitted in a continuous stream of telemetry information in the form of binary
digits (bits). Data transmission was in digital form at rates of either 8½ or 33½
bits/sec. Bit-rate selection was by command from the central computer and se-
quencer, with ground-command backup capability.

62
 Y
8

h
SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE
3-7.-High- and low-gain antennas mounted on spacecraft.

Data encoder

The data encoder, located in bay IV, accepted engineering data from 90
analog channels, time-multiplexed (commutated) them into a predetermined
sequence, and converted these data into 7-bit binary words. It also accepted
digital data from the science, video storage, and command subsystems and time-
multiplexed these with the engineering data. The data encoder subsystem gener-
ated a cumulative count of specific spacecraft events, as well as a cyclic, binary,
pseudorandom code from which bit and word synchronization (sync) could be

63
MARINER-MARS1964

obtained. A composite telemetry signal, consisting of telemetry data biphase-

modulated on a square-wave subcarrier and linearly added to a synchronization
subcarrier, was generated and sent to the RF phase modulator. Two data rates--
8½ and 33½ bits/sec--were provided to take advantage of the higher signal
strengths available during the early part of the mission to support a higher bit rate.
The lower rate was used after the Earth-to-spacecraft range became so large that
the ground-received signal level decreased to the point where excessive bit errors
were introduced at the higher bit rate.
A functional diagram of the data encoder subsystem is shown in figure 3-8,
and the telemetry commutation is illustrated in figure 3-9. Table 3-III gives the
telemetry channel assignments. The input system, which included a commutator,
programer, and signal-conditioning circuits, was that portion that received,
routed, and conditioned the input data. The commutator consisted of solid-state
switches driven by complementary flip-flop registers called sequencers. These,
together with the logic circuits, were designated the commutator programer. The
signal-conditioning circuits converted nonstandard inputs to standard levels or
formats required by the basic system.
The conditioned time-multiplexed analog data from the input system were
received by the basic system of the data encoder. This system also generated the
serial data train, the synchronization code, the two subcarriers, and all clock
frequencies for tile encoder. The primary elements of the basic system were the
rate selector, pseudonoise generator, analog-to-digital converter, biphase modu-
lator-mixer, and power supply.
Four data modes were available for use during the missions:
1. Data mode 1, used during maneuvers. Only engineering data (420 bits/
data frame) were sampled. This mode could also be used to increase the engineer-
ing data sampling during cruise to aid in failure analysis if required.
2. Data mode 2, used during launch, initial acquisition, and cruise. Blocks of
engineering data 140 bits long were alternated with blocks of science data 280
bits long.
3. Data mode 3, used during Mars encounter while the television and the
planetary scan system were viewing the planet. Only science data (420 bits/data
frame) were sampled.
4. Data mode 4, used to play back the stored science data from the magnetic
tape of the tape recorder in the video storage subsystem. (After the transmission of
each complete picture, approximately 2 hours of real-time data mode 1 engineer-
ing data were transmitted.)

64
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

SWITCH ANALOG-TO-DiGITAL
CONVERTER/PSEUDONOISE

SIGNAL TO
TRANSMITTER

ANALOG-TO-
SYNC TO
DIGITAL

SPACECRAFT CONVERTER

INPUTS TO

COMMUTATOR

-- _,4- kc

RATE
REFERENCE __ COMMAND

iNPUTS

TO
1
VIDEO
RECORDER

VIDEO

OAS STORAGE

2f$ SYNCHRONIZATION SUBCARRIER FREQUENCY TIMER INPUT

DAS DATA AUTOMATION SYSTEM COMMAND COMMAND

LLA LOW-LEVEL AMPLIFIER BIT SYNC LOCK tNPUT

FIGURE 3-8.--Functional block diagram of data encoder.

These modes were differentiated by the specific data format within the mode with-
out consideration of the bit rate. Selection of data modes was by ground command
or logic on the spacecraft, depending on the sequence of inflight events. The sub-
system accommodated 100 commutated measurements.

Video storage

The video storage subsystem was required to accept and record digital tele-
vision picture data from the data automation system at a fixed rate of 10 700
bits/sec and to store a minimum of 20 pictures of video data on magnetic tape.
These data were then reproduced, for coding by the data encoder, at a rate of 8 ½
bits/sec during the picture playback period. Because of the low data rate, it took
more than 8 hours to transmit one picture (containing approximately 250 000

65
MARINER-MARS 1964
,t

DECK I0 RATE I HIGH IOENGWORDSAT ? BITS/WORD [DECK II RATE I (HIGH) SCIENCE FORMATTED DATA I
. 02 03_104_ 05 06 07 08 091 liD [ I 2 113 114 IIS 116 t7 118 119 N DATA MODE 2 THERE ARE 280 BITS OF
lOOt DE 3KIDECKI | | _ I SCIENCE DATA (40 ENGINEERING
2,_XI 2!X[ [ | I I 122xl I ] I l [ I 1 I WORDSEQUIVALENT) I
I
I [DECK21 RATE2 (MEDIUM) ] I IDECK22 RATE2 (MEDIUM) I
210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229

40xDECK41x DECKI3x t_

I I DECK 4C RATE 3 (LOW-LOW) I DECK 41 RATE 3 (LOW-LOW)

i i

I I DECK 20. RATE 2 MEDIUM_ I IDECK 30. RATE 3 (LOW)

I 2OOlll 201 I 202 ] 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 .._ 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 07 308 309 DN DATA NUMBER

_iODE PHASE TELEMETRY DECK DATA MODE I DATA MODE 2 J

RATE TiME BETWEEN SAMPLES
I MIDCOURSE ENGINEERING ONLY 53 I/3bps 8 I/3bp$ _3 I/3bps 8 I/3 bps
* DECK SYNC WORD ( 7 LOGIC ONES) LAUNCH ENGINEERING AND I HIGt 4.20 sec IEB =ec 12 6 sec 504 $ec
** COMMAND DETECTOR MONITOR 2 ANO CRUISE REAL-TIME SCIENCE I21ME[ 420sec }_c (28rnin)l126;ec (21m,n)lSO4sec (84rain) /
DN <- 31 : IN LOCK REAL-TIME

DN>32=OUTOFLOC K 3 ENCOUNTER SCIENCE ONLY I ILO'l_ 420sec (7rain) }Osec(2Bf/_lri)/126)sec(21min)SO4Osec (14hr) I

NOTE FOR CHANNEL POST- ENGINEERING AND NON- [131LOW 840_c,4minl PoOsec(56rnin)125_3sec42min)llO_:)80sec(2.Bhr) I
3-111 ASSIGNMENTS, 4 ENCOUNTER REAL-TIME SCIENCE I LL_
SEE TABLE

FIGURE 3-9.--Data encoder telemetry commutation.

Table 3-111.--Telemetry channel assignments

Time between samples, see

Data mode 1 Data mode 2

Channel Measurement
33a/_ 81_ 33_ 8¼
bits/sec bits/sec bits/sec bits/sec

4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4

100 Synchronization ..............................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
101 Deck 200 ....................................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
102 Deck 210 ....................................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
103 Receiver automatic gain control (coarse) .........
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
104 Command detector monitor ....................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
105 Pitch gyro, fine Sun sensor .....................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
106 Yaw gyro, fine Sun sensor ......................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
107 Roll gyro, Earth position detector ...............
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
108 Canopus intensity .............................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
109 Power switching and logic output voltage ........
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
110 Deck 220 .....................................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
111 Receiver static phase error .....................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
112 Pitch position ................................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
113 Yaw position .................................
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
114 Roll position, roll search .......................
115 Event counter 1: pyro amplifiers, gyros on, solar
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
panel 4A1 open .............................
115 Event counter 2: CC&S events, solar panel 4A3
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
open ......................................
116 Event counter 3: pyro arm, pyro amplifiers, solar
4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
panel 4A5 open, end-of-tape loop .............
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

Table 3-111.--Telemetry channel assignments--Continued

Time between samples, sec

Data mode 1 Data mode 2

Channel Measurement
33a/_ 8_/_ 331/'_ 81/_ "
bits/see bits/see bits/see bits/see

116 Event counter 4: command events, Sun acquire,

solar panel 4A7 open, scan platform unlatched.. 4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
117 Thrust chamber pressure 4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
118 Propulsion nitrogen tank pressure ................ 4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
119 Propellant tank pressure ....................... 4.20 16.8 12.6 50.4
200 Synchronization .............................. 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
201 Low deck position ............................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
202 Deck 500 .................................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
203 Dual booster regulator input current ............ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
204 Power switching and logic current to commutator
converter .................................. 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
2O5 Main booster regulator output current ........... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
206 Battery voltage ............................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
207 2400-Hz inverter output voltage ................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
208 Attitude-control X, -- Y gas pressure ............ 420 168.0 126.0 504.0
Attitude-control --X, Y gas pressure .............. 42.0 168.0 126.0 5O4.O
210 Receiver local oscillator drive ................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
211 Decks 400 and 410 ............................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
212 Decks 420 and 430 ............................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.O
213 High-gain antenna drive ....................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
214 Low-galn antenna drive ...................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
215 Receiver automatic gain control (fine) ........... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
216 Battery charge current ......................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
217 Propellant temperature ........................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
218 Attitude-control X, -- Y gas temperature ......... 42.0 168.0 126.0 5O4.O
219 Attitude-control -- X, Y gas temperature .' ........ 42.0 168.O 126.0 504.0
220 CC&S timing of events ........................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
221 Maneuver booster regulator output current ....... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
222 Solar panel 4A1 current ....................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
223 Solar panel 4A5 current ....................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
224 Solar panel 4A3 current ....................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
225 Solar panel 4A7 current ....................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
226 Battery current drain .......................... 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
227 2400-Hz inverter output current ................ 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
228 Oxidizer pressure ............................. 42.0 168.0 126.0 504.0
229 Exciter power output .......................... 42.O 168.0 126.0 504.0
30O Cathode, helix current .......................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
301 Exciter voltage 1 ............................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
302 Exciter voltage 2 .............................. 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
303 Canopus sensor cone angle ..................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
304 Recorder pressure ............................. 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
305 Solar vane position, -bX ....................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
306 Solar vane position, -X ....................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
307 Solar vane position, +Y ....................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
308 Solar vane position, --Y ....................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0
309 CC&S 28-V monitor .......................... 420.0 1680.0 1260.0 5040.0

67
 a

MARINER-MARS 1964 o

w--

Table 3-111.--Telemetry channel assignments--Concluded

Time between samples, sec

Data mode 1 Data mode 2

Channel Measurenlent

33_ 8¼ 33_ 8IA

bits/see bits/sec bits/see bits/see

400 Synchronization ............................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0

401 Bay I temperature ............................ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
,I02 Bay III temperature .......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
403 Spare ....................................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
404 Bay V temperature ............................ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
405 Bay VI tempecature ........................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
4O6 Bay VII louver position indication .............. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 O80.0
407 Power regulator assembly temperature ........... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
408 Propulsion nitrogen tank temperature ............ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
409 Solar panel 4A1 front temperature .............. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 08O.0
410 Canopus sensor temperature .................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
411 Scan actuator temperature ..................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
412 Absorptivity standard temperature I ............. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 O80.0
413 Absorptivity standard temperature 2 ............. 840,0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
414 Science cover and spacecraft identification ........ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
415 Standard cell current .......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
416 Radiation-resistant cell current ................. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
417 Standard cell voltage .......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
418 Television temperature ........................ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
419 Ionization chamber temperature ................ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
420 Temperature reference ......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
421 Bay II temperature ............................ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
422 Bay III louver position indication ............... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 O80.0
423 Bay IV temperature ........................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 I0 080.0
424 Crystal oscillator temperature ................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
425 Bay I louver position indication ................. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.O
426 Bay VII temperature .......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
427 Spare ....................................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
428 Battery temperature ........................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
429 Solar panel 4A5 front temperature ............... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
430 Lower ring temperature above Canopus sensor .... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
431 Upper ring temperature under Sun sensor ........ 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
432 Absorptivity standard temperature 3 ............. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
433 Absorptivity standard temperature 4 ............. 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
434 Upper thermal shield temperature ............... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 O80.0
435 Lower thermal shield temperature ........... .... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
436 Recorder temperature ......................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
437 Instrument simulator (replacement for ultraviolet
photometer) temperature .................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
438 Trapped radiation detector temperature ......... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0
439 Magnetometer temperature .................... 840.0 3360.0 2520.0 10 080.0

68
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

bits). The total bit storagc capacity of thc tape recorder had to be at least 5.24x
10 G bits, contained on two tracks of 0.64-cm (0.25-in.) tape 100 meters (330 ft)
long. Design bit error rate was less than 1 bit error in 105 bits, not including errors
accumulated while establishing lock or those due to track changes.
The tape recorder, located in bay V, had three operating modes:
1. Launch mode, in which the tape transport was operated at the recording
speed, although no actual recording took place. The record motor was started
shortly before launch and it continued running until after spacecraft separation.
The tape was then positioned automatically at the proper location in preparation
for planetary encounter.
2. Record mode (fig. 3-10), in which application of 2400-hertz power and
single-phase 400-hertz power prior to encounter energized all sections of the
recorder system except those associated with the launch mode. The recorder was
then ready to record at least 20 picture sequences while making two complete
passes of the tape, changing tracks after the first pass and returning to the initial
track after the second pass. Response to record .......... (.2Ol].lllldl IU_ J- then '-' ""
3¢ig" a ' s 1i1111 kii L(2(.I.

During recording, a pulse was generated for each complete pass of the tape by the
end-of-tape circuit as the end-of-tape foil passed over sensor contacts. The data
6 _ OSE FREQUENCY- OSE RECORD
MAIN DOUBLED RECORD MOTOR MONITOR

24-kc POWER_ _OWER -6 _ MONITOR OSE OPERATIONAL SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

SUPPLY _+_0 ____ t H I DAS DATA AUTOMATION SYSTEM

RETuRN-TO- c- .............. _'_ @ _ _ F--------_

R ATA ' I /

_ RETORN-TO-ZEROTO
FREQUENCY-DOUBLED
_ CONVERTER [ STOP
_--"I'>--4
_
-j /
_ RF('(3_r)\
'
I
_ I _
1"
|

L IDATA AND SYNC COMBINER) I l NORMAL I I 2,-_;_b- Y-J .... _.) /

S:0LEP :SE
.
oo-Hz OWER_
o TART I 1I ,
o LAUNC. 'r S
J
"---C___
UMRl/Ir'A/ I _ I I /' _ 330- it TAPE

INT EG_R A'TOR _ _ [ ! I v _ ENDLESS LOOP

MONITOR
DAS
--
I
I L IE%OL ?R J
START RECORD _L_--_ I I"--.. 1 _ _ I DATA ENCODER

COMMAND _ - J+ )--'f'-_ _'--'J--'t) I TRACK _l---J_ i_'_ _ I ( PLAYBACK

N',B,TC "_ I _ _ _ _ E I COMMAND

DAS

STOP RECORD >----- i _r'_ I r.._ "L-c_ I I _ OSE PLAYBACK

COMMAND / _- +)-'--_ _ P I_ I - MOTOR ON

T _'L_ I V L AT_-HING I I I

OSE

RECORD
TART
COMMAND
I

;
_
RELAY

q CHANGE I
END-OF-TAPE
DATA ENCODER

i I I? iiii!2 -
I CIRCUIT ' OSE

O ;OPRECORO
M A "_ _ i
i
'_ L _
_ _

(
END-OF-TAPE

UMBIUCAL

CO M NO i I_ I _ I TRACK STEP

COUNT TWO ',

sTeP C,RC TSI OSE TRACK FLIGHT COMMAND

ENOOPTARE
INDICATOR TRACK STEP

FIGURE 3 10.--Functional block diagram of video-storage-subsystem record mode.

69
MARINER-MARS 1964

automation system was mechanized to terminate the encounter record sequences

upon receipt of the second end-of-tape signal or at the end of the 22d picture if an
end-of-tape pulse had not yet been received. For telemetry purposes, the end-of-
tape pulses registered on an event counter in the data encoder. Pictures were
recorded in two-sequence frames.
3. Reproduce mode (fig. 3-11), in which after encounter, the recorder system
was switched into the reproduce mode by a command from the data encoder.
When the correct playback tape speed and phase for accurate readout of the data
was achieved, the recorder system was "phase locked." This reproduce mode
could continue indefinitely after encounter. Complete reproduction of 20 picture
sequences required from 8 to 10 days. Provision was included for switching the
data encoder from data mode 4 (picture playback) to data mode 1 (engineering
data) during the time data were absent because of erasures on the tape made
between record sequences. As in the record mode, the end-of-tape pulse served to
change tracks and it registered on an event counter in the data encoder.

PHASE COMPARATOR
OSE OPERATIONAL SUPPORT EQUIPMENT
NRZ NONRETURN-TO-ZERO
OSE PLAYBACK
VCO VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
+B AMPLIFIER MONITOR

POWER ÷ 20 _'

I FREQUENCY-l _ | _ PREAMPLIFIERS f ....

DATA ENCODER _DOUBLEO TO NRZ,_I._ I PEAK_ _ _l._ 1' _T-RA_
DATA OUTPUT - _ l I CONVERTER AND ! I DETECTOR I _ I t SWaT

%AOUTPUT iSYNC SEPARATOR A,2AMPLIFIER !

_1/-- SL AVED BiT

SYNC --J 330-h TAPE

MODE ENCODER@
DATA 4/t @
POWER END-OF-TAPE

DI\
- L
L CE_ - L_F""_ _ DATA ENCODER
T -_ - END-OF-TAPE
I INHIBIT
i

MASTER BIT- : PLAYBACK

DATA ENCODER_
SYNC INPUT COMMAND

PLAYBACK
MOTOR
OSE ON

L_ _ DATA
OSE ENCODER
RECORD- END-OF-TAPE

UMBILICAL RELAY
_NTEGRATOR 4 START-STOP -- ( TRACK STEP
@_ UMBILICAL

MONITOR I OSE TRACK FLIGHT COMMAND

START INDICATOR TRACK STEP

FIOURE 3-11.--Functional block diagram of video-storage-subsystem reproduce mode.

7O
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

Comman_

The command subsystem, located in bay IV, was required to process and
execute any of 29 direct command (DC) words and 3 quantitative command (QC)
words sent by the DSIF ground stations. A description of the ground commands
is given in table 3-IV, and a functional block diagram of the subsystem is given in
figure 3-12. The groutld-transmitted signal was modulated by command data to
control various spacecraft functions. The spacecraft receiver demodulated the
composite received signal and routed the command subcarriers from the radio
subsystem to the command subsystem. The command subsystem detected the
command word information (a sequence of binary digits), decoded the informa-
tion content, and issued the necessary command signals to the appropriate space-
craft subsystems. The command word format is shown in figure 3-13.
The subsystem was composed of a command detector, a decoder, and a
transformer-rectifier (to convert the spacecraft 2400-hertz voltage into the ac and
dc voltages required by the command subsystem). A command word was com-
posed of 20 bits, the first 3 of which began the command decoder function. The
next 6 bits, the command address bits, identified which command word was sent.
The remaining bits were quantitative information bits. For a DC, a momentary
switch closure took place in the recipient subsystem or subsystems circuitry. For
a Q C, a sequence of binary digits representing roll, pitch, and yaw midcourse-
maneuver information was directed to the central computer and sequencer.
SIGNAL PHASING WITHIN THE COMMAND SUBSYSTEM
BIT I I

SYNC
2f s SYNCHRONIZATION SUBCARRIER
I i
FREQUENCY

i
ONE
BIT II
I
ZERO
BIT

COMMAND WORD BITS_ _-_IDC

_ WORD OUTPUTS TO
I .......... IBIT SYNC _ ._IiCOMMAND E -- .....
[ SPACECRAFT SUBSYSTEMS
FROM SPACECRAFT_=I_IDETECTOR I DELAYED SYNC
_"_QC WORD OUTPUT)

IP ALERT PULSES _ SPACECRAFTsuBsYSTEM

CC_S
BIT SYNC J -

_--= EVENT PULSES _ SPACECRAFT

BIT SYNC _ SUBSYSTEM

DATA ENCODER
DETECTOR LOCK
SIGNAL

i _--- + 6 V dc
50 Vrms, TRANSFORMERCOMMAND
I._1 w - 6 V dc
SQUARE WAVE,_
2,4 kc RECTIFIER _ + 28 V dc

UNIT _ 25 Vrm$, SQUARE WAVE, 2.4 kc

FIGURE 3--12.--Functional block diagram of command subsystem.

71
MARINER-MARS 1964
,p

Table 3-1V.--Ground commands

Command Function Effect

designation

DC-1 Command data mode 1 ............... Transfers data encoder to data mode 1 (engineering
words) as soon as transfer is acceptable to the
data encoder transfer logic
DC-2 Command data mode 2, turn on cruise Transfers data encoder to data mode 2 (20 engineer-
science ing words, 40 science words) as soon as transfer
is acceptable to the data encoder transfer logic.
Applies 2400-Hz power to cruise-science instru-
ments
DC 3 Command data mode 3 .............. Transfers data encoder to data mode 3 (science
words) as soon as transfer is acceptable to the
data encoder transfer logic
DC-4 Command data mode 4 .............. Transfers data encoder to data mode 4/data mode 1
(television picture data/engineering words) as
soon as transfer is acceptable to the data encode_
transfer logic. (If television picture data are avail-
able from video-storage subsystem, they are telem-
etered; if no such data are present, as between
pictures, then engineering data are telem-
etered.) Removes 2400-Hz power from cruise-
science instruments
DC-5 Switch data rates ..................... Transfers data encoder (operating at either 8x/_ or
331/_ bits/sec) from one bit rate to the other
DC-6 Switch analog-to-digital converter/pseu- Transfers data encoder (with 2 such items: A and B)
donoise generators from one analog-to-digital converter/pseudonoise
generator to the other
DC-7 Switch power amplifiers .............. Transfers radio (with 2 amplifiers: traveling-wave-
tube A, and cavity B) from one power amplifier
to the other
DC-8 Switch exciters ...................... Transfers radio (with 2 exciters: A and B) from one
exciter to the other
DC-9 Switch ranging ...................... Transfers spacecraft radio ranging receiver (with 2
positions: on and off) from one position to the
other
DC-IO Transmit high, receive low ............ Causes radio circulator switches to be conditioned
so that spacecraft transmits on high-gain antenna
and receives on low-gain antenna
I)C-11 Transmit high, receive high ........... Causes radio circulator switches to be conditioned
so that spacecraft transmits and receives on high-
gain antenna
DC-12 Transmit low, receive low ............. Causes radio circulator switches to be conditioned
so that spacecraft transmits and receives on low-
gain antenna
DC-13 Inhibit maneuver command, inhibit pro- Removes attitude-control excitation power from
pulsion command CC&S control lines so that attitude-control func-
tions controlled by CC&S are disabled. Prevents
pyrotechnics control circuitry from firing motor
start and stop squibs

72
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

Table 3-1V.--Ground commands--Continued

Command Function Effect

designation

DC-14 Remove maneuver command inhibit... Reverses state of all relays acted upon by DC-13.
Returns attitude-control and pyrotechnics sub-
systems to CC&S control
I)C-15 Canopus gate inhibit override ......... Causes Canopus sensor roll error signal to be applied
to roll gas jet electronics at all times whether or
not roll acquisition logic is satisfied. Prevents roll
search signal from being applied to roll channel
and prevents roll acquisition logic violations from
turning on the gyros
DC-16 Narrow-angle acquisition ............. Initiates narrow-angle acquisition signal, thereby
conditioning data automation system logic to
begin television picture-taking sequence and to
transfer data encoder to data mode 3
DC-17 Cycle Canopus cone angle ............ Changes voltage on deflection plates of Canopus
sensor's image dissector, causing step change in
Canopus scnsor cone anglc
LI(A-I _5 Gyros on: inertial control, positive roll.. Turns on gyros (in inertial mode) and Canopus
sensor Sun shutter. Turns off Canopus sensor.
Turns on turn command generator. Conditions
attitude-control circuitry for commanded roll
turns. (Succeeding DC-18 commands cause
clockwise 2.25 ° roll turns)
DC-19 Gyros off: normal control ............. Serves as reset for DC-15, DC-18, and DC-20
DC-20 Remove roll control .................. Turns off Canopus sensor. Turns on Canopus sensor
Sun shutter. Inhibits roll acquisition logic from
turning on gyros
DC-21 Roll override: negative increment ...... Simulates Canopus acquisition logic violation.
Turns on gyros. Applies negative roll search
signal to roll gas jet electronics. Causes spacecraft
to begin counterclockwise roll search to acquire
a new target. (If preceded by a DC-18, causes a
2.25 ° counterclockwise roll turn by spacecraft)
DC-22 Change tracks ....................... Changes video-storage-subsystem tape tracks by
applying power to record head and gating output
of playback amplifiers
DC-23 Arm second propulsion maneuver ...... Sets relays in pyrotechnics subsystem such that
CC&S commands M-6 and M-7 are routed to

squibs allotted to second motor burn

DC-24 Inhibit scan search ................... Removes 400-Hz single-phase power from scan
platform drive motor
DC-25 Turn on planetary science, unlatch cover Causes 2400-Hz power to be applied to encounter
science loads, video storage subsystem, and cruise
science loads (if 2400-Hz power was off to cruise
science). At same time, applies 52 V dc from
booster regulator to 400-Hz single-phase inverter,
which in turn supplies power to scan system drive
motor and video-storage-subsystem record motor.

73
MARINER_MARS 1964
a

Table 3-IV.--Ground commands--Concluded

Command Function Effect

designation

Enables battery charger boost mode. Causes

pyrotechnics subsystem to energize solenoid that
releases scan platform science cover
DC-26 Turn off planetary science, cruise science, Removes 2400-Hz power from all science loads
and battery charger (allowing video-storage-subsystem 2400-Hz power
to remain on) and 52-V-de power from 400-Hz
single-phase inverter. Enables battery charger
boost mode
DC-27 Initiate midcourse maneuver .......... Starts maneuver sequence by issuing CC&S com-
mand M-1 (turn on gyros), applying power to
maneuver clock, and removing maneuver clamp
and flip-flop reset signal from CC&S maneuver
circuitry
DC-28 Turn on battery charger, turn off video Removes 2400-Hz power from video storage sub-
storage subsystem system. Enables charge mode of battery charger
DC-29 Arm first propulsion maneuver ........ Sets relays in pyrotechnics subsystem such that
CC&S commands M-6 and M-7 are routed to
squibs allotted to first motor burn
QCI-1 Command required pitch turn duration Sets pitch turn polarity and preloads CC&S pitch
for maneuver shift register such that, at a 1-pulse/see counting
rate, the register will fill in required time interval
for attitude-control subsystem to pitch turn the
spacecraft the amount required for a given mid-
course maneuve
QC 1-2 Command required roll turn duration for Sets roll turn polarity and preloads CC&S roll shift
maneuver register such that, at a 1-pulse/sec counting rate,
the register will fill in required time interval for
attitude-control subsystem to roll turn the space-
craft the amount required for a given midcourse
maneuver
QC1-3 Command required motor burn duration Preloads CC&S velocity shift register such that, at a
for maneuver 20-pulse/see counting rate, the register will fill in
required time interval for a midcourse motor burn
yielding required velocity change for a given mid-
course maneuver

Three telemetry signals were telemetered to Earth from the command sub-
system. These signals time shared the telemetry transmission channel and were
sampled at a rate determined by the telemetry mode. The signals were as follows:
1. Detector bit synchronization pulses, to be conditioned into information
concerning the detector voltage-controlled-oscillator frequency. From this infor-

74
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

DIRECT COMMAND FORMAT

COMMAND BIT NO. I 12 ]3 , is1617

IB19'oi"21'3i"1'S1'61'71'B1'9i2012'
12212312412Si26
COMMAND BIT COM- - BITS
,2-_6
.AVENOS,ON.FICANCE
INDC'S
IDENTIFICATION MAND CO',_AND__-:,NQC'S
T,-,E,'
FORMPAR',
OFTHE
CC'.S
DECODER
START ADDRESS __ _ z_ COMMAND.
REFER TO QUANTITATIVE COMMAND FORMAT

COMMAND BIT VALUE 1 J1 Jo VARIABLE ZERO FOR DC'S; VARIABLE FOR QC'S

QUANTITATIVE COMMAND FORMAT

COMMAND BIT NO. 26

CC&S COMMAND BIT NO. 18

CC&S COMMAND BiT

iDENTIFICATION

QC PITCH TURN
COM-
MAND ROLL TURN

VALUES MOTOR BURN

NOIES:

1. COMMAND BITS 10 AND 11 ARE ADJUSTED TO ENSURE AGAINST SINGLE BIT ERRORS CAUSING AN INCORRECT COMMAND WORD OUTPUT.

2. COMMAND BITS 9 THROUGH 11 (CC&S COMMAND BITS 1 THROUGH 3) ARE NOT USED QUANTITATIVELY BY CC&S BUT ARE USED TO REMAIN

COMPATIBLE WITH PREVIOUSLY DESIGNED HARDWARE (MARINER VENUS 1962).

3. COMMAND BIT 14 (CC&S COMMAND BIT 6) IS ADJUSTED IN QC'S TO GIVE AN ODD NUMBER OF ONE BITS IN COMMAND BITS 9 THROUGH

26 (CC&S BITS I THROUGH 18).

4. COMMAND BIT 26 (CC&5 COMMAND BIT 18) MUST BE A ONE TO PRODUCE A CLOCKWISE (POSITIVE) SPACECRAFT ROTATION ABOUT THE
SPECIFIED SPACECRAFT AXIS, A ZERO IN THIS BIT POSITION WILL RESULT IN A COUNTERCLOCKWISE (NEGATIVE) SPACECRAFT ROTATION

ABOUT THE SPECIFIED SPACECRAFT AXIS. _LARITY BIT FOR MOTOR BURN COMMAND IS ALWAYS ONE,

S. COMMAND BITS 15 THROUGH 25 (CC&S COMMAND BITS 7 THROUGH 17) ARE A PSEUDOBtNARY CODE REPRESENTATION OF THE TURN OR
MOTOR BURN DURATION.

FIOURE 3-13.--Command word format.

mation, the proper ground-command signal frequency was ascertained so that a

minimum command lock acquisition time could be accomplished.
2. Detector lock signal, to be converted into one word of information regard-
ing the detector lock condition. The data indicated when the command subsystem
was capable of detecting and processing the command signal.
3. Command event pulses, approximately 10 sec after the command detector
recognized the start of a command word. The pulses indicated a normal decoding
timing function.

Attitude control

Attitude control is required to maximize solar panel electrical output by

orienting the panels perpendicular to the Sun's rays and to maintain communica-
tions through directional antennas. The Mariner-Mars 1964 attitude-control sub-
system (fig. 3-14), located in bay VII, established and maintained three-axis (pitch,

75
 ,m
MARINER-MARS 1964
P

OC-21 COMMAND ROLL ¢'---1

OVERRIDE ?

'+I
\ ,
INHIBIT

CANOPUS SENSOR CONE

ANGLE CONTROL

CCSS MT I

2_
_ SWITCHING 1

s-_/"
4_

;QUASI"
SUN
---
SENSC

i YAW

L I

QUISI
SUN
SENSC

i POWE

E-- _IMAR
SUN
ZNSOF
PITCH --

CANOPUS ACQUISITION
ATTITUDE
CONTROL
dc POWER

RIMAF
SUN CONI

POW,,
_ENSO _ dc P(

FINTERMITTENT

LOAD I _ UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED,

_?- j soy i_ I RO*ERI_ ALL LATCHING RELAYS HAVE HOLD

--J 240O Hz I CURRENT SUPPLIED THROUGH

SEPARATION CONNECTOR VIA
ATTITUDE-CONTROL TURN-ON

_.__-E

FIGURE 3-14.--Functional block diagram of

76
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

CANOPUS GATE OVERRIDE RESET

DC-13 CC_S

_+, _c-,8ROLL
A×,S,NERT,AL
BAC_UR VR,oNA_E#
vER

f %0,_L
#OV#-##R,,_,,_E##_
RESET %;,iR#,_SREsE
T
' AE6 CCSS

I
" ' TURN ' I_'1_,
4
i

I SCCBS M-3

ANEUVER_ __]
i ; S CCgS M-2

ROLL TURN
COMMAND SCCP_S M-
IC

ROLL OVERRIDE COMMAND

--
;
4 ONE-SHOT
E-de
INCREMENT
9 POLL
!

(-) ;NCREMENT L_
PITCH TURN COMMAND
GYRO -
SCCBS M-4

YAW U
r

i3-PHASE, 400-Hz I

GYRO SPIN

YAW Ii I NV ERTER
MOTOR ]

L AUTOPILOT]

GENERATOR
POWER

,o,, ........
F 40 V _
GYRO _ GYRO GYRO SIGNAL
INTERMITTENT I

PO W_ ___.._ MOTOR

_ _ ,,_ o:_ TELEMETRY

GYRO_CONT ROL DELAY - MI-- _' EVENT

RQ...,>__

26 V
is;......
a I
,
CRUrSE
INVERTER
I
;
1
4
F

I
I
I
_C_
2400 Hz S e.._.__

I . ,_E,v,%
_ RCCe, S L-2
,_GENA SEPARATION SWITCH

ATTITUDE
ACI CONTROL
POWER

attitude-control subsystem.

77
MARINER-MARS 1964

+ YAW (CLOCKWISE) +PITCH (CLOCKWISE)

J
t

+y ' ÷x
LOW-GAIN
ANTENNA

SOLAR y /_'_ __

+ ROLL (CLOCKWISE)

+Z

FIOURE 3-15.--Spacecraft coordinate system.

yaw, and roll) stabilization of the spacecraft by using the Sun and the star Cano-
pus as references. (The spacecraft coordinate system is shown in figure 3-15. The
spacecraft may be compared with an airplane pointing in the direction the solar
panels faced--that is, toward the Sun--although the spacecraft usually traveled
at right angles to this direction. Yawing moved the nose to the right or left, pitch-
ing moved the nose up or down, and rolling spun the craft around.) Two-axis
(pitch and yaw) Sun stabilization alined the spacecraft Z-axis with the space-
craft-Sun line, keeping the sensitive surface of the solar panels facing the Sun. Roll
stabilization about the Z-axis with the star Canopus as the reference insured that
the high-gain antenna beam included Earth during the latter portions of the
mission. Whenever the spacecraft started to yaw or pitch, the cruise- and acquisi-
tion-phase Sun sensors produced error signals proportional to the angular position
displacement about the yaw and pitch axes. The acquisition Sun sensors facing
away from the cruise-phase Sun direction supplemented the cruise Sun sensors so

78
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

+26 V

CRUISE 1 ACQUISITION

SENSORS
OUTPUT TO
T SHADOW SWITCHING
AMPLIFIERS

NULLAxIS "16 V_ •
-16V

-26V
SENSOR

FIGURE 3-16.--Sun sensors.

that the Sun would be in the field of view of at least one set of Sun sensors regard-
less of the spacecraft's angular orientation. Each Sun sensor consisted of a photo-
resistor mounted beneath a shadow mask (fig. 3-16). A Sun gate kept the power to
the acquisition Sun sensors on during acquisition and thus could be used in
determining when acquisition occurred.
Similarly, the Canopus sensor (fig. 3-17) produced, when a star was in its
field of view (11 ° in cone and 4 ° in clock), a error signals proportional to the
angular position displacement of the star from the spacecraft roll axis. An elec-
tronic logic was set to respond to any object more than one-eighth as bright as
Canopus. Including Canopus, there were seven such objects visible to the Canopus
sensor as the spacecraft swung around in its search mode. A Canopus gate was
used to switch the roll-axis control system to the acquisition mode.
It was anticipated that star identification would be a major problem since the
only information from the Canopus sensor, other than the error signal, was a
brightness measurement and the cone angle of an object within ±5 °. Therefore, a
map-matching technique was developed to identify objects seen during the roll
search mode. Fundamental to the plan was an a priori telemetry-type map of the
expected sensor brightness output as a function of clock angle. A mathematical
model of the Canopus sensor and the sky, including the Milky Way, was developed

8Using the spacecraft center as the vertex (intersection) of the lines forming the angles, the position of an ob-
ject is described by its cone angle from the spacecraft-Sun llne and its clock angle from the spacecraft-Canopus line,
as projected on a plane at right angles to the Sun's direction (i.e., on the plane of the solar panels). These angles
are defined for the case of the Earth in fig. 3-18.

79
 *
c

MARINER-MARS 1964
.

FIGURE
3-1 7.-Canopus sensor.

so that, with available trajectory information, an IBM 7094 computer could be

programed to print, before launch, a map of the expected telemetry output of the
brightness channel during roll search. This then could be matched with an actual
telemetry map to identify observed objects.
Initially, the actual telemetry map produced by a complex computer pro-
gram after receipt of the telemetry was statistically correlated with the a priori
map and other data available from the spacecraft. Whenever an object was ac-
quired after a roll search, the probability that each acquirable object had been
acquired was calculated. If the object were not Canopus, another roll search was
instituted and another computer run made until Canopus could be identified as
the object acquired. This procedure was necessary because of the lack of knowl-
edge concerning the absolute calibration of the Canopus sensor for all stars and
the integrated background of stars in the field seen by the sensor. Until the sensor
could be calibrated in flight, the various uncertainties made it essential that the
best possible analysis techniques be prepared before launch.
A second technique for star identification was much simpler, but required
actual flight experience to prove reliability. With this technique, a continuous

80
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

Z [TO SUN_

E (TO EARTH)

SPACECRAFT

C (TO CANOPUS]

FmvaE 3 18.--Graphic definition of clock and cone angles. _ =cone

angle; /3= clock angle.

strip chart recorder was used to plot, in real time, the star sensor brightness telem-
etry. The a priori map was transcribed to a transparent overlay to the same scale
as the real-time telemetry plot for instantaneous comparison during a roll search.
This technique became the primary technique because of its accuracy and speed.
A typical plot--that for the first roll search of Mariner IV--is shown in figure
3-19.
The Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft were the first to use a star as a reference
object; earlier spacecraft such as Mariner II had sighted on the Earth. However,

81
MARINER-MARS 1964

..... PREDICTEO STAR MAP

ACTUAL TELEMETERED STAR MAP

REGULUS
EARTH KOCHAB
CANOPUS

PHECDA
CANOPUS I MERAK

ALFARD /_

GAMMA \
VELORUM \
AND S-302

I I I I I I I I
40 80 120 160 200 240 260 320 360

CANOPUS SENSOR CLOCK ANGLE, deg

FIGURE 3-19.---Typical plot used in star identification procedure.

during the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions, Earth would transit across the face of the
Sun and through much of the flight it would appear as a relatively dim crescent.
Therefore, a bright reference source, such as Canopus, at a wide angle away from
the Sun was necessary. (The need for a second reference can be realized by
imagining a weight suspended from a single long cord. This weight would spin
unless a second cord, approximately at right angles, was attached, in which case
the weight would stabilize. Thus, Canopus simply served as the stabilizing cord of
the spacecraft.) An Earth detector (fig. 3-20), consisting of a photocell in series
with a fixed resistor, was used to verify roll stabilization by sensing reflected sun-
light from Earth after acquisition of Canopus.
The spacecraft was maintained at certain angular positions or rotated at
prescribed angular rates through the application of appropriate torques obtained
by the expulsion of gas through pairs of jet nozzles. These nozzles were located so
as to produce couples 4 about each of the principal axes. The gas jets were opened

4A couple is a system of two forces, equal in magnitude, parallel in direction, but opposite in sense.

82
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE3--20.-Earth detector assembly.

and closed by solenoid valves operated by switching amplifiers. These amplifiers

responded to position error signals from the Sun and Canopus senscrs. The gas
supply was contained in two completely independent nitrogen-gas systems. Oscil-
lations could be damped out by mixing a rate error signal from a rate gyroscope
(gyro) with the position error signal; however, the gyros were not operating during
most of the flight. Three single-degree-of-freedom gyros provided the rate error
signals when they were operating (during initial acquisition and for inertial con-
trol during the midcourse maneuver). When used during acquisition, all gyros had
an output to the switching amplifiers that was proportional to the sensed space-
craft angular rate.
For the long cruise period, a “derived rate” switching amplifier system was
devised which enhanced reliability by using, in place of the gyros, a passive stabi-
lization technique. Fundamentally, this technique depended upon a lag feedback
around the switching amplifier with a long time constant of about 100 sec. When-
ever there was a switching amplifier output to activate the gas jets, the long time
constant produced a feedback signal to the input. While the gas jets were open, the
spacecraft was accelerating, and the feedback appeared the same as a rate feed-
back obtained by gyro integration of acceleration (thus, the term “derived rate”),
provided that the gas jets were open for a much shorter period than the derived-
rate time constant and the initial spacecraft rate was nearly zero. This system was
capable of controlling any cruise-mode disturbances.
During the midcourse-maneuver mode, the attitude-control subsystem was
required to orient the spacecraft so that the thrust vector of the rocket motor on

83
MARINER-MARS 7964 .

the spacecraft was alined to a predetermined direction in space. This orientation

was maintained during the motor-burn period, and the cruise orientation was then
reestablished. For inertial control used during the midcourse-maneuver sequence,
gyros provided error signals proportional to angular rate. This mode was con-
trolled by the central computer and sequencer. The rate error signal from a gyro
could be fed to a switching amplifier to maintain an angular rate within the rate
deadband orientation. This error signal could be integrated to give position error.
The midcourse autopilot was used to control the attitude of the spacecraft during
the motor-burn period. Control was accomplished by continuous adjustment of
the angular positions of four jet vanes mounted in the midcourse-motor nozzle.
Since the motor was not mounted along any of the three spacecraft axes, motion
about all three axes (pitch, yaw, and roll) was possible during midcourse motor
burn. The motion of each jet vane was controlled by a mixture of the signals of all
three gyros. Each jet vane had its own control system consisting of an autopilot
amplifier, a jet vane actuator, and a feedback loop. Power was switched on only
during the midcourse-maneuver sequence. The three gyro signals and the feed-
back signal were combined in different proportions at the input to each amplifier.
The jet vanes were then adjusted so that the motor thrust vector passed through
the spacecraft center of gravity, nullifying the gyro error signals.

-SOLAR PRESSURE
VANE

-BACK SIDE OF
SOLAR PANEL

FIGURE3 - 21 .--Solar pressure vane and hardware mounted to

back side of solar panel.

84
 SPACE VEHICLESYSTEMDESIGN AND TESTINGOPERATIONS

A new auxiliary two-axis Sun-stabilization system on the spacecraft employed

solar pressure to provide a restoring torque. Solar pressure vanes were auto-
matically positioned to balance the solar pressure about the spacecraft center of
gravity at the correct spacecraft Z-axis alinement. A solar pressure vane and its
hardware are shown mounted to the back side of a solar panel in figure 3-21. Use
of these solar vanes enabled a savings of a_atude-_ont.ol-jet gas and permitted a
longer stable flight. Every time the pitch or yaw jets were opened, the solar vane
electronics operated solar vane actuators which would make step changes in the
angular position of the appropriate solar vanes. As opposite vanes were stepped
toward and away from the plane normal to the Sun line, the solar center of pres-
sure was shifted, creating a solar torque of the same sense as the opened jet.

Central computer and sequencer ( ( C&S)

The CC&S, an extremely accurate electronic clock located in bay VII, was
responsible for spacecraft time-sequenced events, excluding the science experiment
sequence. In performing this function, spacecraft time after launch was recorded
and commands were executed at predetermined times during the mission. Table
3-V lists the CC&S commands. The assembled CC&S is shown in figure 3-22.
The following were provided through the use of this subsystem:
1. A 38.4-kH synchronization frequency used as a spacecraft time reference.
2. Three commands, shortly after injection, to deploy the solar panels and
turn on the attitude-control subsystem.
3. Decoding and storage for the three midcourse-maneuver parameters:
pitch and roll turns and velocity correction (as determined by motor-burn time).
4. Sequenced commands to the attitude-control subsystem for spacecraft
positioning, and start and stop commands to the pyrotechnics control unit for
motor burn during the midcourse maneuver.
5. Commands, at predetermined times prior to and after encounter start, to
change or update the Canopus cone angle, data rate, and transponder operation
modes (master timer sequence: MT commands).
6. Capability to adjust, while the spacecraft was on the launch pad, the
planetary encounter start and stop commands to be sent to the science subsystem
when the spacecraft was in the vicinity of the planet.
7. A periodic (every 662/_ hr) command to the radio subsystem for backup
switching of redundant elements.
The reasons for the Canopus cone angle update commands are as follows: The
Canopus sensor was mounted on the "shady" side of the spacecraft ring pointing

85
MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 3-V.--Central computer and sequencer (CC&S) commands

Command designation Function

L_l ................................. Deploy solar panels, unlatch scan platform

L-2 ................................. Turn on attitude-control subsystem
L-3 ................................. Energize Canopus sensor, turn on solar pressure vanes
M-1 (set) ............................ Gyros on, data encoder to data mode 1
M-1 (reset) .......................... Gyros off, data encoder to data mode 2
M-2 (set) .......................... i Spacecraft on inertial control
M-2 (reset) .......................... Spacecraft off inertial control (reacquire Sun and Canopus)
M-3 (set) ........................... Turn polarity (set if positive)
M-3 (reset) .......................... Turn polarity reset
M-4 (set) ........................... Pitch-turn start
M-4 (reset) .......................... Pitch-turn stop
M-5 (set) ........................... Roll-turn start
M-5 (reset) .......................... Roll-turn stop
M-6 (pulsed) ........................ Ignite midcourse motor
M-7 (pulsed) ........................ Turn off midcourse motor
MT-1 (set) .......................... First Canopus sensor cone angle update
MT-2 (set) ........................... Second Canopus sensor cone angle update
MT-3 (set) .......................... Third Canopus sensor cone angle update
MT-4 (set) .......................... Fourth Canopus sensor cone angle update
MT-5 (set) .......................... Switch transmitter to high-gain antenna
MT-6 (set) .......................... Switch data encoder bit rate to 81/_ bits/sec
MT-7 (set) ........................... Encounter science on (all science on)
MT-8 (set) .......................... Encounter science off (all science off)
MT-9 (set) ........................... Cruise science off, start data playback
CY-1 (pulsed) ........................ Backup switching for radio subsystem (pulse occurring every 66_ hr)

outward from the center of the spacecraft; its field of view (11 °) covered an area
in the shape of a narrow cone. As the spacecraft moved about the Sun, the angle
between the Sun-spacecraft line and the Canopus-spacecraft line changed slowly.
The total change during the mission was approximately 28 ° . Therefore, the angle
of the Canopus sensor had to be altered four times during the mission to keep
Canopus in view. Each CC&S command to update the angle changed the cone
angle one increment of 4.6 ° .
PoweT

The power subsystem was designed to generate standard voltages for distri-
bution to spacecraft power users and to turn on and off various spacecraft loads.
A functional diagram of the subsystem is given in figure 3-23. The components
of the power subsystem were as follows: (1) four photovoltaic solar panels with a
combined active area of 6.51 sq m (70 sq ft); (2) a 1200-W-hr, silver-zinc, 18-cell
battery; (3) dc voltage regulating devices; (4) 2400- and 400-hertz inverters; and

86
 ..
L
SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

0 3 6
I I 1
INCHES 91
\

FIGURE3-22.-Assembled CC&S subsysteiri.

(5) battery charging, load switching, and frequency control devices. The solar
panels were mounted at the top of the spacecraft’s basic octagon, and the re-
mainder of the subsystem was contained in bays I and VIII.
Power during the launch-to-Sun-acquisition phase and during maneuvers
was provided by the battery. In order to insure maximum reliability, the sub-
system was designed to require no battery power after initial Sun acquisition,
except during maneuvers; however, the battery was maintained in a state of full
charge as a backup source of power if needed. Battery capacity was such that both
the launch and maneuver phases could be completed without battery recharging.
After Sun acquisition, the battery could be recharged by using the flight battery

a7
 R
MARINER-MARS 1964

>.

'-O

o
-a
.o

_4
Oq

88
 SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGNAND TESTINGOPERATIONS

charger. After the battery was fuiiy charged, the charger could be turned off by
direct radio command to prolong battery life. If the battery should be needed
again as a result of losing Sun acquisition, a radio command could reapply the
charger.
When the spacecraft became Sun oriented, the 7056 photovoltaic cells on
each of the four solar panels converted sunlight into approximately 700 watts of
raw electrical power, which, in turn, was converted into various forms to operate
the spacecraft and recharge the battery. (At Mars distance from the Sun, the
battery still generated 300 watts, leaving an adequate safety margin in the event
of solar cell damage in the space environment.) Since launch trajectories allowed
the spacecraft to spend some time in the Earth's shadow, and since there is a
large solar panel power capability near Earth, it was necessary to be able to limit
the output voltage of each section of the solar panels immediately after the space-
craft left the Earth's shadow to 50 volts by incorporating six 50-watt zener diodes.
For increased reliability, the voltage regulating elements of the subsystem
consisted of two booster regulators: the main booster regulator, which would
normally be on throughout the entire flight, supplying power to all spacecraft
loads except the communications converter (which accepted unregulated power
directly from the battery or solar panels); and the maneuver booster regulator,
which would be used to power a large portion of the attitude-control subsystem
(with turn-on controlled by that subsystem) and which would be on during the
launch and midcourse-maneuver phases.
Under normal conditions, the main 2400-hertz inverter received dc power
from the main regulator. An identical inverter received dc power from the maneu-
ver regulator and supplied 100-volt peak-to-peak, 2400-hertz voltage to the
attitude-control subsystem. Also operating from the maneuver regulator was a
28-volt root-mean-square, 400-hertz, three-phase inverter that delivered step
square-wave power to the gyro spin motors. A 400-hertz, single-phase, square-
wave inverter supplying nominal outputs of 56 and 65 volts to the science scan
platform and video storage subsystem, respectively, operated from the main reg-
ulator. This inverter was turned off except during encounter.
Some spacecraft subsystems received power whenever the power subsystem
was operating; others were turned on and off during various parts of the mission
by logic on the spacecraft or by direct radio command. The actual switching of
these loads was accomplished by the power subsystem in the power distribution
assembly. This unit accepted commands from other spacecraft subsystems and
translated the commands into relay closures.

89
MARINER-MARS 1964

Pyrotechnics

By definition, a pyrotechnic is a mixture of oxidant and reductant designed to

perform some nonpropulsive function. The pyrotechnics subsystem on the
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft supplied power and performed switching for the
following operations: pin retraction (by pinpullers) of eight solar panel latches and
one scan platform latch, first and second starts and stops of the midcourse motor,
and solenoid release of the science cover. The pyrotechnics subsystem accepted
commands from the appropriate sources and provided the energy necessary to fire
the proper squibs (small, electrically fired explosive charges) and to activate the
solenoid. The subsystem contained a total of 29 such squibs. A pyrotechnics firing
unit is shown in figure 3-24.
The subsystem was not energized (armed) prior to spacecraft separation so
that an inadvertent or spurious command prior to separation could not cause a
premature squib firing. At separation, the subsystem was armed by the pyro-
technics arming switch (fig. 3-25), which also supplied the arming event indica-
tion to the data encoder, an Agena D isolation-amplifier-off function, prelaunch
monitoring of the disarmed state of the switch, and turn-on of the attitude-control

FIGURE3-24.-Pyrotechnics firing unit.

90
 . *

L
SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE
3-25.-Pyrotechnics arming FIGURE
3-26.--Separation-initiated timer.
switch.

subsystem. This pyrotechnics subsystem arming event at separation was backed up

by the separation-initiated timer (fig. 3-26), and the attitude-control subsystem
turn-on was backed up by the CC&S. The separation-initiated timer provided
two time-delayed switching functions sequenced from spacecraft separation : arm-
ing of the pyrotechnics subsystem and deployment of the solar panels.
Propulsion

The Mariner-Mars 1964 propulsion subsystem (fig. 3-27) was functionally a

monopropellant-hydrazine, regulated-gas-pressure-fed, constant-thrust rocket for
use in trajectory-correction (midcourse) maneuvers. Principal components were :
(1) a high-pressure gas reservoir (nitrogen tank); (2) a pneumatic pressure regu-
lator for reducing inlet pressure to a constant value; (3) a propellant tank and
propellant bladder containing the hydrazine; (4)an ignition reservoir; (5) explo-
sive valves for start and stop functions; and (6) a rocket motor (midcourse motor).
The midcourse-motor installation is shown in figure 3-28. A catalyst was included
to accelerate hydrazine decomposition. The nominal vacuum thrust capability
was 222 newtons (50 lb). The tankage was sized for a maximum velocity increment
of 81 m/sec (approximately 267 ft/sec) to a 272-kg (600-lb) spacecraft, but
velocity increments as small as 0.2 m/sec (approximately 0.67 ft/sec) were
possible.

91
 MARINER-MARS 1964

_] TWO-WAY VALVE, EXPLOSIVELY

OPERATED, NORMALLY OPEN

TWO-WAY
OPERATED, VALVE, EXPLOSIVELY
NORMALLY CLOSED

ANGLE
OPERATED VALVE, MANUALLY

CHECK VALVE

FILTER

PRESET REGULATOR

COMPONENT NUMBERS

INSTRUMENTATION NUMBERS

INSTRUMENTATION

PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
COMPONENTS

(_NITROGEN TANK

No DESCRIPTION
(_PROPELLANT TANK
I ROCKET ENGINE
(_)THRUST CHAMBER
2 N 2 FILL VALVE, IGNITION CARTRIDGE 14. PROPELLANT VALVE, SHUTOFF 2

3 N 2 RESERVOIR, IGNITION CARTRIDGE 15 FILL VALVE, PROPELLANT IGNITION CARTRIDGE

N 2 RESERVOIR
4 OXIDIZER VALVE, START I 16 PROPELLANT BLADDER

5 OXIDIZER VALVE, START 2 17 PROPELLANT TANK TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

6 OXIDIZER RESERVOIR, IGNITION CARTRIDGE IB PREPRESSURIZATION VALVE, NITROGEN
PROPELLANT
7 CHECK VALVE 19 FILL VALVE, NITROGEN TANK

8 NITROGEN TANK 20 PRESSURE REGULATOR, NITROGEN NITROGEN TANK

9 OXIDIZER FILL VALVE I, IGNITION CARTRIDGE 21 NITROGEN FILTER

I0 OXIDIZER FILL VALVE 2, IGNITION CARTRIDGE 22 NITROGEN VALVE, START I NOTE :

EVENT REGISTER DATA (BLIP DEA)
II PROPELLANT VALVE, START 1 23 NITROGEN VALVE, START 2
ON EXPLOSIVE VALVE START AND
12 PROPELLANT VALVE, START 2 24 NITROGEN VALVE, SHUTOFF I SHUTOFF CURRENT

13 PROPELLANT VALVE, SHUTOFF I 25 NITROGEN VALVE, SHUTOFF 2

FIOURE 3-27.--Schematic drawing of propulsion subsystem.

92
 SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGNAND TESTINGOPERATIONS

NOMINAL UNDEFLECTED THRUST

SUBSTRUCTURE /
AXiS (MOTOR CENTERLINE)/
SPACECRAFT

/ MOUNTING BRACKET

-- SUBSTRUCTURE

MOTOR TANK THRUST PLATE _-'-'_

l-_ _-P,VOT
II POINT

MIDCCOURSE MOUNTING BLOCKJ_

_''/_l_

FIGURE 3-28.--Midcourse-motor installation.

The subsystem, located in bay II, was capable of two starts, and thus two
midcourse maneuvers could be performed if necessary. The ignition and thrust
termination signals were generated by the pyrotechnics subsystem upon command
from the CC&S. Ignition and thrust termination were controlled by explosive
valves, which fired simultaneously to initiate nitrogen, propellant, and oxidizer
flow and to terminate nitrogen and propellant flow. "Ganged" valves in parallel
were used to meet the two-start (dual-burn) requirement. Jet vanes capable of
deflecting the midcourse-motor jet stream provided the thrust vector control
through ±5°i The thrust produced by the system could be calibrated so accurately
that the change of velocity resulting from the maneuver could be metered by the
burning time of the motor alone.

Temperature control

The four major variables affecting the temperature of spacecraft components

are incident solar radiation, electrical power expenditure, thermal transfer be-
tween components, and thermal radiation from the spacecraft into space. The
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft temperature-control subsystem was comprised of
all devices and treatments employed to maintain temperatures within specified
bounds.

93
MARINER-MARS 1964

The principal active temperature-controi devices were six variable-emittance

(varying amounts of heat radiated per unit area) louver assemblies mounted on
six of the electronic assemblies (fig. 3-29). Passive devices included removable
multilayer blankets (fig. 3-30) shielding the top and bottom of the spacecraft
basic octagon, polished aluminum shields on electronic assemblies, and numerous
other shields covering the spacecraft exterior surfaces. Surface treatments (e.g.,
gold plating and polished aluminum) having particular thermal properties were
also used extensively on spacecraft components.
An engineering experiment called the absorptivity standard (fig. 3-31) was
included on the spacecraft to enable: (1) the measurement of the solar absorptance
of four typical spacecraft surfaces in direct sunlight; (2) the measurement of the
change or degradation of the surface properties with time in space; and (3) the
determination of the accuracy of flight predictions based upon the temperatures
measured during space simulator testing. The instrument measured the tempera-
ture of an irisuiated f b t piate normal to t'he direction of solar irradiation by
signaling the time at which a known temperature was reached. A white paint, a
black paint, an aluminum silicone paint, and polished aluminum were the sample
surfaces.
Science
The Mariner-Mars 1964 science subsystem consisted of scientific instruments
and ancillary equipment selected to meet the mission objectives. Interplanetary

FIGURE3-29. -Louver assemblies installed on

spacecraft.

94
 SPACE VEHlClE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

cruise-science instruments performed experiments during the trip, and planetary-

science experiments were conducted at Mars encounter. The science instruments
may be described as follows:
Television.-The television experiment, to provide topographic reconnais-
sance of part of the surface of Mars, used a single camera employing a narrow-
angle telescope. The camera (fig. 3-32) was a shuttered system utilizing a slow-
scan vidicon capable of storing an image with negligible degradation for a 24-sec
frame time. The instrument took and encoded television pictures upon receipt of
frame and line start signals from the data automation system (DAS). It was
composed of seven functional parts (fig. 3-33) :
1. Optics and shutter, the mechanical assembly of the telescope and the
combination shutter-filter. The telescope was an f/8 Cassegrain with a 30.48-cm
(12-in.) effective focal length and a 1.05" by 1.05" field of view. Filtering was
accomplished by a disk with two cutouts which contained red filters and two cut-
outs which contained green filters. These filters were introduced into the light path
by a rotating solenoid and remained until a second current pulse energized the
solenoid. Eight such pulses caused a complete rotation of the shutter filter wheel.

FIGURE3-3O.-Blanket shielding for temperature control.

95
MARINER-MARS 1964 .

FIGURE
3-30.-Concluded.

2. Camera head, containing the vidicon tube, preamplifier circuitry, 110-kHz

oscillator, and filtering and distribution circuitry. The vidicon tube was a photo-
sensor that provided the electrical video signal. The 110-kHz oscillator provided
vidicon beam modulation which served as a carrier for amplitude-modulated
video information. The video signal was amplified by the tuned preamplifier.
Filtering and distribution of the voltages required for operation of the vidicon tube
were accomplished through the appropriate circuitry.
3. Sweeps, consisting of the horizontal and vertical sweep circuitry and the
4-kHz oscillator. This circuitry provided the voltages necessary for horizontal and
vertical deflection of the vidicon beam both during picture readout and during the
time that the vidicon target was being erased and primed for the next picture.

96
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

(_ POLISHED ALUMINUM CYLINDER

(_) DOUBLE CONICAL SUPPORT

(_) ALUMINUM MOUNTING RING

(_ POLYCARBONATE PLASTIC BASE

(_) POLYCARBONATE PLASTIC COVER

(_ TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCER

(_ ALUMINIZED MYLAR WRAPPED SUPPORT CONE

(_) ALUMINIZED MYLAR DISCS

SAMP

FIGURE 3--31 .--Absorptivity standard.

FIGURE 3 32.--Sectional view of television camera.

 b
MARINER-MARS 1964

I POWER
SUBSYSTEM

, I
SWEEPS

I[
RECTIFIER
I TRANSFORMER _ 2.4 kc 1 50 V rms
DAS

I D PLANET IN VIEW
c PLANET IN VIEW

CAMERA "D'[-'-_'_
I r'VAIDE, O, l--lIJ TELEDVTSION _ :II:IIT:_ ;IICc;;:E E _AA;: Oz_E;s
HEAD

CAMERA
CONTROL I ENCODER _1 ANALOG-TO- PULSEWIDTH DATA
AND

I COMPUTER

I
AM RA _ LINE START COMMAND
AND
SHUTTER
OPTICS
-- ; 22;c02;
ND

ENCODER
TEMPERATURE SUBSYSTEM
TRANSDUCER

DATA

I
FIGURE 3-33.--Functional block diagram of television instrument.

Voltages were adjusted to scan a 0.56- by 0.56-cm (0.22- by 0.22-in.) area of the
vidicon target. The 4okHz oscillator was gated on during the interval between
pictures and caused the vertical sweep voltage to vary at that rate, providing
erasure of the image on the vidicon target.
4. Camera control and computer, containing gain-control computer, planet-
acquisition, and control circuitry. By means of this circuitry, simple computer
operations were performed, and control of certain functions affecting subsystem
operation and dynamic range was provided.
5. Camera control logic, consisting of the external DAS command logic, the
divide-by-25 logic control circuitry, frame control logic, and control logic gates
circuitry. These circuits provided logic control of all camera timing functions and
the necessary switching functions.
6. Video channel, consisting of an RF amplifier and detector and the video
output amplifier. Amplification, demodulation, and dc clamping for the video
signal were provided.

98
 t

SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

7. Television data encoder, containing a data output conditioner, accumu-

lator and shift register, analog-to-digital comparator and gates, 1-MHz clock and
gate, ramp generator, matrix, matrix buffers, programer, ground-support-equip-
ment buffer circuitry, analog-to-pulsewidth converter circuitry, and line syn-
chronization generator circuitry. The encoder provided analog-to-digital conver-
sion of the television picture data to 6 bits per picture element. Also, analog-to-
pulsewidth conversions were performed on certain critical television performance
data, and line synchronization information was reconstructed.
Helium magnetometer.--The magnetometer instrument (fig. 3-34), designed
to measure the magnetic field strength in three orthogonal axes, consisted of a
sensor, an oscillator and phase shifter, a commutator, an RF power supply, and
servoamplifiers. The sensor and electronics modules are shown in figure 3-35.
This experiment employed the principle that the absorption of light by a cell
containing helium gas is a function of the angle between the ambient magnetic

IGNITER
'q_-- BACKUP
DATA
AUTOMATION I COMMAND

SENSOR I

Z-AXIS

:i: Z-AXIS DATA

I
BANDPASS I
AMPLIFIER :
_'_ IGNITER :i: X-AXIS DATA
AND

BACKUP
COMMAND I
COMMUTAT_
I
BANDPASS
AMPLIFIER :b Y-AXIS DATA

AND

I COMMUTATOR

3 2

1
4

II CALIBRATE

AND
DEMODULATOr
PHASE SHIFT
DRIVE

DEMOOULATOF

DRIVE

PHASE SHIFT

_, AND
CLOCK PULSE DEMODULATOI
DRIVE
POWER SUBSYSTEM

FmuI_E 3-34.--Functional block diagram of helium magnetometer.

99
MARINER-MARS 1964

MODULE CONTA!N!NG MODULE COkTAlNlNG

RF POWER SUPPLY, BASIC SIGNAL
IGNITION LOGIC. HELIUM CHAIN CIRCUITRY
MAGNETOMETER POWER SUPPLY, AND ANCILLARY
AND ANALOG-TO-WLSEWIDTH EOUIPMENT
CONVERTERS

t
.

INCHES (SURROUNDED
BY COILS)

FIGURE
3-35.-Helium magnetometer sensor and electronics modules.

field and the optic axis of the cell. The instrument was mechanized with calibra-
tion circuitry which, by command from the data automation system (DAS),
superimposed a sequence of magnetic steps a t the sensor to allow calibration of the
combined instrument output through the DAS for periodic checks of both linearity
and scale factor. The cycle was initiated at the beginning of each DAS sequence.
Cosmic dust detector.-This experiment was designed to make direct meas-
urements of dust-particle momentum and mass distribution, particularly in
regions encountered having unusually high numbers of such particles. The instru-
ment is shown in figure 3-36, and a functional block diagram is given in figure
3-37. The detector was a single assembly containing a sensor plate mounted on the
top cover of an electronics chassis. The plate had a microphone bonded to one side
and penetration capacitors on both sides to provide measurements of dust-particle
impacts. The sensor was exposed to space, but the electronics chassis was protected
beneath the thermal blanket.
Ionization chamber.-By this experiment, it was hoped to detect and meas-
ure the omnidirectional flux of corpuscular radiation in space and in the vicinity
of Mars, and to measure the ionization produced by this flux. The instrument is
shown in figure 3-38. The first of the two detectors which comprised the instru-
ment was an integrating ionization chamber of the quartz-fiber variety housed in
a 12.7-cm-diameter (5-in.) stainless-steel sphere filled with argon gas at four times
atmospheric pressure. The second detector was a conventional, halogen-quenched
Geiger-Mueller (GM) type 10311 counter tube mounted in a thin-wall, stainless-
steel cylinder 12.7 cm (5 in.) long. Both detectors were mounted to a gold-plated

100
 .
. .
I
SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE3-36.-Cosmic dust detector

DIRECT
FILM

-
THRESHOLD
DAS

t C
. RESET
READOUT 4 PEAD
CIRCUIT COMMAND
I BIT
RETRO C MICROPHONE
FILM + THRESHOLD * GATE
I BIT
AND

t
3 BITS
AMPLIFIER FIRST
AN0 C HIT
PULSE-HEIGHT ENABLE

CALIBRATION
C I RCUlTS * CALIBRATE
+----
2 m
POWER
SUPPLY
POWER
SUBSYSTEM

FIGURE3-37.-Functional block diagram of cosmic dust detector.

101
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE3-38.-Ionization chamber.

chassis housing the high-voltage power supply and the pulse-amplifying and pulse-
shaping electronics. The package was mounted part way up the cylindrical wave-
guide on the spacecraft.
A functional block diagram of the instrument is given in figure 3-39. When
the ionizing particles penetrated the sphere, the gas became ionized, The resulting
positive ions were attracted to the ground sphere and the electrons attracted to a
collector rod, tending to neutralize its positive charge. When the collector charge
was sufficientIy neutralized, an image charge was induced and attained a sufficient
magnitude that the fiber inside the sphere was pulled to the collector and con-
tacted it. A surge of electrons then passed from the collector to the fiber and
through a load resistor. The current pulse was amplified, shaped, and presented to
the DAS. Since each output represented a fixed amount of charge collected from

102
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

OAS

AMPLIFIER IL ION CHAMBER

DATA
PREAMPLIFIER _-_ OUTPUT

GEIGER-
PREAMPLIFIER MUELLER I0311
GEIGER- MUELLER_ DATA
___ OUTPUT ]
AMPLIFIER J

10311 TUBE

POWER
SUBSYSTEM

ION CHAMBER SUPPLY

GEIGER-MUELLER 10311 SUPPLY POWER

SUPPLY ]_ SPACECRAFT
POWER
AMPLIFIER SUPPLY

FIGURE 3-39.--Functional block diagram of ionization chamber.

the gas, the interval between pulses was inversely proportional to the ionization
rate.
Charged particles which penetrated both the steel cylinder and the glass wall
(location of the cathode) of the GM tube and entered into the sensitive volume of
the tube ionized the gas molecules. The high electric field between the anode (a
wire running along the axis of the tube) and the electrode accelerated the dis-
sociated ions and electrons. The electrons accelerated rapidly because of their low
mass, ionized other gas molecules, and thus produced a momentary current flow
through an appropriate load resistor. The resulting pulse was amplified, shaped,
and delivered to the DAS. Since one output pulse was generated for each charged
particle that penetrated the shield and entered the sensitive region of the tube, the
pulse rate was directly proportional to the radiation flux.
Cosmic ray telescope.--A cosmic ray telescope (fig. 3-40) was included in the
science subsystem to measure certain charged particles approaching within a
conical acceptance zone. The detector system consisted of three gold-silicon, solid-
state, surface-barrier detectors arranged as a telescope, with absorbers placed
between each. The detectors were positioned so that the half-angle of the cone of

103
MARINER-MARS 1964
. b

\---ELECTRONICS
WSSIS

FIGURE3-4O.--Cosmic ray telescope.

acceptance of the telescope was 20". When an ionizing particle passed through a
surface-barrier detector, the detector put out a pulse of charge whose size was
proportional to the energy lost by the particle in the depletion layer of the de-
tector. A charge-sensitive preamplifier and an amplifier were connected to each
detector. A voltage pulse proportional to the charge collected from the detector
was generated at the output of an amplifier to be passed on by a pulse-height dis-
criminator. Logic circuits provided the current rates, which, together with the
pulse-height analysis data, were recorded in two 10-bit registers to be read out
alternately by the DAS. A power converter changed the 2400-hertz spacecraft
power into the various dc voltages required by the detectors and electronics.
Figure 3-41 illustrates the operation of this instrument.
Trapped radiation detector.-The trapped radiation detector (fig. 3-42) was
designed to measure the distribution, energy, and identity of magnetically trapped
particles in the vicinity of Mars. Included were three GM tubes (detectors), a
silicon, solid-state, surface-barrier proton detector, electronic discriminators and
amplifiers, and a power supply. The functional operation of the instrument is
illustrated in figure 3-43. The GM tubes measured the total number of charged
particles passing through their sensitive volumes after entering at the end of the
tubes. By allowing for omnidirectional flux of higher energy particles, a directional
measurement was made of the low-energy particles. The outputs were shaped by

104
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND T€STING OPERATlONS

PULSE RESET IMODE I!

3-41 .-Functional
FIGURE block diagram of cosmic ray telescope.

FIGURE3-42.-Trapped radiation detector.

105
MARINER-MARS 1964 f_

DAS

DETECTOR A
OUTPUT
AND OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER

_'_ DETECTOR 8
AND OUTPUT OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER t

DETECTOR C
AND OUTPUT OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER I

POSTAMPLIFIER DISCRIMINATORI RATE

v L,M,TERI
I AND OUTPUT j
_--- DETECTOR
OUTPUT
DI

DETECTOR
D I_..__ PREAM PLI F[ER

REFERENCE
DISCRIMINATOR /

1
I POSTAM PLIFIER

I _ '
DETECTOR D2
POSTAMPLIFIER DISCRIMINATOR AND OUTPUT OUTPUT
_ _ RATE LIMiTER t
POSTAM PLIFIER

- POWER
SUPPLY

I POWER
SUBSYSTEM

DATA
ENCODER
TRANSDUCER
TEMPERATURE L

FIGURE 3--43.--Functional block diagram of trapped radiation detector.

means of saturating current amplifiers before being sent to the DAS. The solid-
state detector output was fed into a linear charge sensitive amplifier (preampli-
fier), followed by a series of highly stable negative-feedback voltage amplifiers
(postamplifiers). Voltage gains of the postamplifiers were different and were set to
produce pulses, corresponding to the particles detected, at two identical amplitude
discriminators.
Solar plasma probe.--To measure the densities, velocities, temperatures, and
directions of movement of low-energy protons streaming outward from the Sun, a
solar plasma probe was included in the science subsystem. The instrument (fig.
3-44) measured and recorded the magnitudes of the positive-ion currents inter-
cepted by each of the three sectors of a current-collecting electrode in each of 32

106
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND JESTING OPERAJIONS

FIGURE3-44.-Solar plasma probe.

slightly overlapping energy intervals. A high-voltage subsystem modulator, trans-

former, multiplier, and voltage divider supplied selected magnitudes of square-
wave ac to a grid so as to select the various energy intervals. Any one or all three
outputs of the three current-collecting sectors with their individual preamplifiers
(comprising the current measurement chain) could be gated into the summing
amplifier and subsequent circuitry. Two standard dc currents produced by the
calibration signal generator were gated periodically into the three sector pre-
amplifiers. The digital control circuitry stepped the instrument through the proper
sequence of measurements. These operations are illustrated in figure 3-45.
The functioning of the science subsystem is illustrated in figure 3-46. An
ultraviolet photometer was a part of the set of scientific experiments initially
selected for the Mariner-Mars 1964 mission; however, because of its unavailability
in time for complete testing, this instrument was replaced by an instrument

107
MARINER-MARS 1964

SENSOR
[ l I OAS

I
THREE- SECTIONL
FARADAY Ivl
IPREAMPLIFIERSI_
(THREE) lwl
I SUMMING
AMPLIFIER FILTER
I
L cup Jl I1 BANDPASS
L
I
READ
ANALOG -
LOGARITHM IC L,_ SYNCHRONOUS_J MEASUREMENT _ TO-PULSE-
WIDTH COMMAND
CONVERTER
COMPpRLESI_RON rv I DETECTOR I_1 DIAMOND Ivl

l t CONTROL LOGIC

T
4okc
WIDTH
DATA

STANDARD OSCILLATOR
CALIBRATE AND CALIBRATE
DIVIDE-BY- 2
SIGNAL
NETWORK

CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL

LOGIC LOGIC LOGIC

I
.ULT,P.,ER
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE LOGIC
STEPPING
PULSE

'" I ITRANSFORMERI
I MODULATOR
HIGH- 1 CONTROL

T _LcoNTROL LOGIC
IPOWER

I SUBSYSTEM

POWER I 2.4 kc
SELECTION CONTROL LOGIC
CONVERTER I
REGISTER

FIGURE 3-45.--Functional block diagram of solar plasma probe.

simulator (dummy) which served no purpose other than maintaining inertial

mass and temperature balance in the spacecraft.
In addition to the above experiments, an occultation experiment was chosen
as a Mariner-Mars 1964 planetary-science experiment. However, a special scien-
tific instrument was not required since the experiment relied on the telecommuni-
cations system and on the accuracy of the flight path. This experiment is discussed
in chapter 4 and is described in detail in chapter 7.
The ancillary equipment on the spacecraft consisted of the DAS, the plane-
tary scan system, and the narrow-angle Mars gate. The DAS, a digital computer
located in bay III, automatically controlled and synchronized the data-gathering
sequence of all science instruments and formatted all the diversified science data
into a single, continuous bit stream of ones and zeros for the data encoder, with a
separate bit stream for the video storage subsystem. Each of the science instru-
ments was sampled at a different rate and in a different format. The data were
converted from the forms presented by the instruments (such as serial, parallel,

108
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

_1 lel

o o Z

o_o
z -I

z 5
o o 0_1,-

z z
u u
m z
_- <

1111 II1
z Z
0 w 0
w LL I.-

WO U)

_
T1![!!'I EI_Z "-I

o..
_[L.-- _.
Z U _::-j
zOZ

JwO i_
e_

P-._w z_l
._z_u __ ©
±_z _- uJi _N _

I " 1.)

C]?
w
_J
w
I
,.4
I

c2

109
MARINER-MARS 1964

analog-to-digital conversion, and pulses to be counted) into a single, serial bit

stream to be transmitted to the spacecraft telemetry system (data encoder) for
subsequent transmission to Earth. The only functions which bypassed the DAS
were the 2400-hertz power from the power subsystem and the temperature meas-
urements performed by the data encoder. The DAS received and issued com-
mands to the spacecraft as required to perform the science mission. Identification
information was supplied with the data so that each block of data bits was
uniquely identified. Thus, those science measurements represented by any block of
data could be located in time and space through the knowledge of the spacecraft
trajectory. In addition to processing scientific measurements, the DAS also per-
formed science subsystem performance measurements to aid in the engineering
evaluation of the science payload and the calibration of the science instruments.
The real-time portion of the DAS (fig. 3-47) operated continuously during
the mission, being turned on after launch and remaining on until after Mars en-
counter. This portion sequenced the cruise-science instruments, collected their
data, translated the information into constant-rate form, and transmitted the
information to the data encoder to be passed on to the transmitter and then to
Earth. The non-real-time portion of the DAS (fig. 3-48) was dormant during most
of the mission, being turned on a few hours prior to Mars closest approach. Its
primary function was to provide the sequencing for the television recording por-
tion of the encounter. Instead of being transmitted directly to Earth, data from the
non-real-time portion were stored on magnetic tape in the video storage subsystem
for later playback and transmission to Earth at a much slower rate than that
during recording. The real-time and non-real-time portions of the DAS were
completely independent of each other, each naving a separate power supply and
sequencer. The word formats for the real-time and non-real-time portions are
shown in figures 3-49 and 3-50, respectively.
The primary function of the planetary scan system (fig. 3-51) was to find and
hold the correct camera attitude for the television camera as the spacecraft passed
Mars. Its operational sequence (fig. 3-52) was designed as follows: When power
was turned on by either the CC&S command or a ground command, the scan
system entered into a planet-searching operation. The television was mounted on
a scan platform which rotated about the roll axis of the spacecraft through 180 °
of arc, searching for the planet at a scan rate of 0.5 deg/sec. Limit switches
actuated scan reversals when the platform completed each of the 180 ° rotations.
Mounted on the platform was a wide-angle planet sensor with a 50 ° circular field
of view. This sensor detected the presence of the planet and sensed its position with

110
 SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGNAND TESTINGOPERATIONS

respect to the spacecraft. When the planet came into the sensor field of view, the
scan system generated a wide-angle, planet-in-view signal and switched to planet
tracking in such a way that the television was oriented toward the desired portion
of the planet. When the spacecraft reached the proper position for picture taking,
a scan inhibit signal was initiated either by a narrow-angle Mars gate (fig. 3-53),
which was also mounted on the platform, or by the television instrument itself.
This signal indicated that the planet was in the television field of view, stopped the
tracking motion, and initiated the picture-taking sequence. Thus, the tape
recorder was triggered to start its recording operation.
When the spacecraft was launched (data mode 2), the science subsystem was
deenergized. On spacecraft separation from the Agena D second stage (still data
mode 2), the real-time portions of the DAS and the interplanetary instruments
were energized. During maneuvers (data mode 1), no science data were trans-
mitted, although the real-time portion of the DAS continued to sample the
instruments. The initiation of the encounter mode by either a CC&S or ground
command was designed to accomplish the following functions:
1. The television, non-real-time portion of the DAS, narrow-angle Mars gate,
planetary scan system, and tape recorder were energized.
2. The non-real-time portion of the DAS sequenced the television, but did
not issue start and stop commands to the tape recorder.
3. The protective science cover was removed from the television, narrow-
angle Mars gate, and planetary scan system sensors. The scan platform moved
through 180 ° arcs until the planet was acquired. An output from the planetary
scan system through the DAS to the data encoder initiated data mode 3 (science
data). The planetary scan system then tracked the planet to insure that the plat-
form continued to point at the bisector of brightness defining the location of Mars.
When the edge of the lighted disk came into view of either the television or the
narrow-angle Mars gate, the DAS tape-recorder-start circuitry was enabled. The
DAS waited until the beginning of the next standard sequence to start the record-
ing cycle. All science data acquired during encounter were stored in the spacecraft
tape recorder. The measurements made by the real-time portion of the DAS were
sent to Earth by means of the telemetry channel and were also transferred to the
non-real-time portion of the DAS for storage. Scan platform motion was inhibited
during the science encounter (picture-taking sequence) mode.
The science encounter mode and data mode 3 were terminated when the
second end-of-tape signal occurred. A backup stop-recording circuit was also
included in the DAS. This circuit could be set after 18 pictures and reset after 22

!11
 q

MARINER-MARS 1964
q

uJ
_w
w_

,.=,

t I

z_l A
_ wz

oz

KS
IIIII IIIIII
[tl"'" "" I
I
I
!li
I!
II
:I
II
II
II
llll
II
II
II

•_;-IIIIII
I IIIII
IIIIII

:
I :: I II II
I II I
',',11

|it 'tiff 1
_ x_
mz _z

112
 I,

SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

_1
_88
j_J
o-J
_ __ zz

' t d
. z
z

7_
111111J,111111
w

_Y x__

_4
T _w
<

3190q ,kNJ.N_ 7377Yard

8_
_w

F _I I,)
I =ca

u _o°

lllll
I

Illll .£

IJrlll
IIIIII
t_
I

I!!!!!

_t_--
I,
N
+
_'_ +_ o_

ww

mmm
8o
zz

113
 i

MARINER-MARS 1964 eg

114
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

SEGIN TRAPPED RADIATION RATE LEGEND

MAeNETOMETER
Y Z Y X I _( Y Z X I MAll

NRT NONREAL-
OI OE 015 04 S// OD OS 07 OR TIME
IJ PN , N _ _ OAS PLASMA TRAPPED RADIATION 0 PN
PSEUOONOISE

• • "
_ w SR _ PNORE 'J i 'JCOSMicY
RAY ,oR
•¢NAMNER YMADX
AX,E TEMP TEMPERATURE

PLASMA READ TCOS RAY READ MAR READ T/R TRANSFORMER-

RECTIFIER
ION CHAMRER
PL PLASMA

COSMIC RAY

H-r- r'""
TELESCOPE

AXIS AXIS PROBE OU|T AXIS AXIS AXIS AXIS " ENC ENCOUNTER

RT REAL-TIME

t STEP PL , PLASMA READ T MAR READ AG READ CALLS CALIBRATION

POS POSITION

APW ANALOG-TO-

PULSEWIDTH
MAC) y RAG Z PLASMA RT OA$ ECAN COSMIC NOISE MAD X If;

AXIS AXIS PROOE EVENTS POS RAY MONITOR AXiS SN SERIAL

I_/ ,_ I_ Et_ E_ _ E_ SYSTEM E_
NUMBER

I STEP PL I PLASMA READ T SCAN/COS RAY READ I MAR READ

AXIS AXIS PROBE CLOCK AXIS RAY VOLTAGE AXIS

T STEP PL T PLASMA READ _" SCAN/COS RAY/TV READ T MAD READ

.AS,_'.AO__ PLASMA
S3
_ SCAN
_,CA,
*EM,_.,
,N_*VS,DRAL
_ SCANT,
R 34 S 37 3l 39 0

iAX" IA*'S _P'O''_ OAL'SNPRE_URE

| - _ LEVELI_
VO**'
I'']
T STEP PL T PLASMA READ T SCAN/TV READ T SCAN READ

L/ EN¢ _7 LEDENO:

::;:.: s:.. *oRb

.UM,.
t SCA.
RED I V ERC /'_MOOE SDATA\ [ X r,_OUTPUTR.,..
21 O8 WORD MATRIX
E ........... O,ATIC ..... -OJ ]2 DATA / _I[

DATA CONVERTED

FROM X RESISTER FIRST

ZERO- BIT UNIFORM
IS ALWAYSCONVERSION

FIGURE 3-49.--Real-time DAS word format.

pictures were taken. The reset function activated the "switch to data mode 2"
command to the data encoder in exactly the same way as in the second end-ol-tape
signal. The spacecraft then stayed in data mode 2 until either a CC&S or ground
command caused the encounter instruments and the non-real-time portion of the
DAS to be deenergized.
The playback of stored science data was initiated by either a CC&S or
ground command. The science subsystem was deenergized, data mode 4 initiated,
and the stored data transmitted to Earth. The pictures were transmitted individ-
ually; between each picture, the data encoder switched to data mode 1 so that
engineering telemetry could be transmitted and the condition of the spacecraft
evaluated. No new science data were obtained during data mode 4. Upon com-
pletion of picture playback, the spacecraft reverted to data mode 2.

115
MARINER-MARS 1964

REAL-TIME DATA FRAME

WORDS WORDS WORDS WORDS

! - 28 29-42 1-2B 29-42 I -28 29-42

280 BITS 140 BITS 280 BITS 140 BITS 2BO

BITS ,40B,TS 280 L

f! MODE
2 WORDS "/'////
WORDS MODE
2 9///2 MODE2 _///2 MOD!,

MODE 3 MODE 3 MODE 3 \

_1_ 50.4 sec "_
PN PSEUDONOISE
AAC AUTOMATIC APERTURE CONTROL

REAL-TIME (RT) DATA ACCUMULATED IN BUFFERS DURING PICTURE SEQUENCE

PN NRT FRAME NRT SUB- LINE SPARE

SERVO SEQUENCE COUNT FRAME COUN1 NUMBER DATA
TAPE

4 BITS :5 BITS 9 BITS 3 BITS 60O

80 BITS :31 BITS
200BITS OR /

\ /
/

1 /
NON-REAL-TIME (NRT) DATA FRAME

"_ .I _
TV

;265:520 BITS 26,5:520 BITS NO DATA 26

R
RECORDED RECORDED RECORDED

25
Z52, 200 BITS 252 200 BITS
0
OF DATA 330
DATA BITS OF DATA 7:50
RT BLOCKi RT DATA BITS
BLOCK
OF DATA OF DATA
144
O 24_ _ 48 72
I. _ 144 sec
I_ NON-REAL-TIME FRAME

TELEVISION DATA BLOCK

1261-- 1284 BITS 1261- 1284 BITS

0 40 80 12_ 24 sec

120 m sec
TELEVISION LINE TIME

TELEVISION LINE FORMAT

TELEVISIO_N "_
PN NRT FRAME NRT SUB- LINE TV AAC TELEVISION

I/
RT DATA
LOGIC ENGINEERING
SEQUENCE COUNT =RAME COUNT NUMBER

:5 BITS I BIT I0 BITS

51 BITS 4 BITS :5 BITS 9 BITS

FIGURE 3-50.--Non-real-time DAS word format.

116
 ..
v SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS
*

FIGURE3-51 .-Planetary scan system.

TESTING OPERATIONS
Environmental Testing Program
The environmental testing program was established by the Mariner-Mars
1964 project office to meet its requirement for flight-acceptance testing of all
proof test model^,^ flight, and spare spacecraft equipment, and for type-approval
testing of one complete set of prototype spacecraft equipment. All equipment was
required to pass the tests before being considered acceptable for flight. Since it was
felt that a system configuration provided the only true mechanical, thermal, and
electrical environment and interactions for the various spacecraft equipment,
environmental testing of the assembled spacecraft was also included. In general,
the static environments, such as thermal soak and linear acceleration, could be
readily achieved on the subsystem level, but the dynamic environments, such as

j T h e proof test model (FTM) is a prototype of the actual flight spacecraft and is used to “prove” the overall
design and any design changes before they are incorporated into the flight spacecraft. Test data on proof-test-
model performance served as standards against which flight spacecraft performance could be judged.

117
MARINER-MARS 1964

I
t"
SENSOR TEMPERATURE SIGNAL I BAS

I I I CHANNEL
(SIX- SELECT
POSITION)

POSITION SIGNAL ANALOG-TO-

PLANET _READ COMMANO

" PUALSAEW, DTH

TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER ACTUATOR

VOLTAGE
F--i_ ii
POSITION
SHAFT _._

POTENTIOMETER I i

' I
I
PREAMPLIFIER.
SWITCH
WHEN IS
SCAN
OPEN [
Hz, PLATFORM IS

SINGLE PHASE LATCHED I

400 Hz,

'- I
ONE-SHOT I

I._ PLANET-IN-VfEW

I ] SIGNAL

400 HI, SINGLE PHASE'_'J POWER

SO_LY
_,_,-- -- INHIBIT SCAN

_L _ SUBSYSTEM
' u-2.4 kc

I
_'mm_F. 3-52.--Functional block diagram of planetary scan system.

vibration, thermal-vacuum, and electromagnetic-interference-produced environ-

mental interactions, were quite dependent upon the response characteristics of the
total vehicle and were, therefore, best achieved at the system level.
Type-approval tests were defined to verify designs, and the flight-acceptance
tests were defined to prove the capability of the equipment or spacecraft to with-
stand the environmental conditions expected during flight. The complete environ-
mental testing program covered such diverse environments as vibration, shock,
electromagnetic interference, temperature cycling and extremes, humidity, ex-
plosive atmosphere, and magnetic field effects.
The type-approval subsystem-level environmental test levels were intention-
ally severe to compensate for material and fabrication differences in the flight
hardware. In general, these tests were conducted to provide qualification against

118
 .I

SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE
3-53.-Narrow-angle Mars gate.

environments that were independent of the spacecraft, such as humidity, static

acceleration, and explosive atmosphere (at launch). Ten test environments were
defined. Since all tests were not appropriate for each item, they were performed
only where applicable. The type-approval tests covered all phases of equipment
preparation and operation from fabrication of the equipment to the actual flight.
The flight-acceptance subsystem-level environmental test levels were in-
tended to be as severe as the expected environment. These tests were limited to two
environments in which equipment operation could be evaluated and which could
be simulated in a well-controlled manner. All flight equipment was subjected to
flight-acceptance testing in vibration and thermal-vacuum environments.
In formulating which type-approval system-level tests would be performed,
the expected environment was evaluated. Type-approval testing at the system
level consisted of full-scale vibration, shock, acoustic, space-simulation, thermal-
vacuum, and electromagnetic-interference tests on the proof test model. T o com-
pensate for the statistical limitations of the small number of samples and to insure
that faults and inadequacies would be located, the imposed test conditions were,
by selection, more severe than the operational conditions. They were not, how-
ever, intended to be so severe as to exceed reasonable safety limits or to excite
unrealistic failure modes.
Flight-acceptance system-level testing was performed on each of the three
flight-quality spacecraft in such environments as vibration, thermal-vacuum, and
electromagnetic interference. The conditions used during these tests were those
estimated to be the actual operational environmental conditions.

119
 e

MARINER-MARS 1964

Essentially all magnetic environmental testing was conducted on the assembly

or subassembly level. All proof-test-model and flight spacecraft equipment was
examined on the basis of magnetic qualities to insure meaningful magnetometer
measurements. The effort made at magnetics control during the Mariner-Mars
1964 project was more extensive than that during previous projects.
Also included in the testing program were life tests. The ultimate aim of any
life test is to gain information about the operating characteristics of given equip-
ment as a function of time and, as a result, to be able to estimate the useful life of
the equipment. For the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft equipment, it was neces-
sary to define the test objectives such that the following would be provided:
1. Analysis of such effects as the degradation of performance as a function of
time, the critical failure modes, and the influence of various test environments on
these effects.
2. Support, whenever necessary, in the diagnosis of inflight problems.
3. Indication, whenever possible, of the nature and extent of the likely deteri-
oration of flight hardware.

The units assigned for the life tests were the type-approval units. Each underwent
a wide assortment of environmental conditions ranging from simulated flight and
ambient laboratory conditions to extensive temperature cycling. Various miscel-
laneous subsystem environmental tests were also conducted whenever they were
deemed necessary or desirable.
The small number of subsystem failures or problems occurring during the
system-level flight-acceptance tests proved the adequacy of the subsystem-level
tests that had been performed. A total of 83 design changes were documented as a
result of problems encountered during the environmental tests. Even this number
could have been reduced had it not been for schedule delays which necessitated
conducting certain flight-acceptance tests prior to or concurrently with type-
approval tests. On an ideal schedule, type-approval tests would demonstrate the
need for a design change before flight hardware was fabricated. (The operation of
the equipment during the Mariner IV mission indicated that the environmental
testing program made a significant contribution to the ultimate success of the
mission.)

Miscellaneous Qualification and Developmental Testing

Many special qualification and developmental tests were also conducted to

prove the feasibility and adequacy of the spacecraft mechanical hardware. For use

120
 ..
* SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS
0

in these tests, four test spaceframe structures (in addition to the proof test modeij
were fabricated.
1. Structural test model, composed of mass and structural simulations of all
spacecraft components including electrical cables. This model was used primarily
for structural qualification tests of the basic structure.
2. Temperature control model, composed of thermal mockups of all critical
spacecraft i tems with flight-equivalent external surfaces and thermal shields. This
model was used primarily in space simulator tests (fig. 3-54).
3. Developmental test model, a structural simulation of the flight spacecraft
structure, composed of mass mockups of all structurally critical spacecraft items.
Its primary use was for structural vibration qualification tests with the Agena D/
spacecraft adapter.
4. Extra test model, composed of the basic octagon structure ballasted to the
proper boost weight and moment of inertia. This model was used for -4gena D/
spacecraft separation tests and other interface tests.

FIGURE3-54.-Te1nperature control model during space simulator

testing.

121
MARINER-MARS 1964 D

q,

In addition to the tests performed with these spaceframes, many developmental

tests using prototype and test hardware were performed to confirm analyses, verify
problem solutions, and gather critical information essential to mission success.

System Testing Program

System testing of the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft, performed on the three
flight-quality spacecraft and the proof test model, was conducted at both JPL and
the AFETR to test the spacecraft as a complete integrated system. These tests,
including the previously discussed environmental tests, always followed the as-
sembly and subsystem checkout to verify the functional integrity of the spacecraft.
One such test always preceded shipment of the flight spacecraft to AFETR and
another followed upon arrival of the spacecraft at that location. A final system
test was performed before final commitment to the launch pad, after which no
flight equipment could be removed or connectors disconnected. During the tests,
the spacecraft were exercised through the entire flight sequence from launch to
picture playback in all primary and backup modes of operation; for example,
several encounter sequences were performed, including one using CC&S com-
mands and another using ground commands. The "combined system test" was the
overall name given to the preliminary on-pad tests performed at AFETR on the
launch vehicle and the spacecraft. Among the tests included in the series was an
exact simulation of the actual launch-day countdown. While these tests were per-
formed at AFETR, the proof test model was used to verify the compatibility of the
JPL Space Flight Operations Facility and the Deep Space Instrumentation
Facility with the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft.
Whereas tests of the proof test model were performed to verify design, those of
the flight spacecraft verified proper operation of the equipment. The flight space-
craft acceptance criteria were: (1) The spacecraft had to operate for 250 hours in a
solar-vacuum environment without any major failures (defined as failures pro-
hibiting the successful completion of the mission) ; and (2) the spacecraft could be
shipped to AFETR only upon successful completion of the final system test atJPL.
(A test was considered successfully completed when no major misoperation
occurred during it.) The minimum qualification time for any subsystem was 100
hours, and the minimum total test time (subsystem and system) was 400 hours.

Test Facilities

During the test and evaluation program, the spacecraft were exposed to
different environments simulating launch and flight conditions. For this usage,

122
 .J

SPACEVEHICLESYSTEMDESIGNAND TESTINGOPERATIONS

three basic JPL and three AFETR environmental facilities were available. They
are as follows:

JPL Spacecraft AssemblyFacility

The spacecraft and the system test complex (discussed later in this section)
were first assembled and tested at this facility, where all hardware to be assembled
was brought together for the first time. Simultaneous testing of three spacecraft
could be conducted in the Spacecraft Assembly Facility.

JPL Spacecraft Environmental Test Facility

In order to verify that the proof-test-model and flight spacecraft could operate
satisfactorily after exposure to flight-acceptance vibration levels (determined from
those expected of the Atlas D and Agena D during the boost phase), a vibration
exciter with a 133 446-N (30 000-1b) vector force rating, a granite oil table, and a
horizontal test fixture for vibration in all three spacecraft axes were provided.
Other equipment included acoustic chambers, shock equipment, centrifuges, and
climatic test facilities (e.g., temperature, salt, fog, and explosive-atmosphere
chambers).

JPL 7.5-meter (25-ft) Space Simulator

The spacecraft were exposed to the vacuum and thermal conditions simulat-
ing a space environment in this 7.5-meter-diameter (25-ft), 12-meter-high (40-ft)
simulator chamber. The chamber could be evacuated to a pressure of approxi-
mately 10 -6 mm of mercury. Liquid-nitrogen cold walls were used for cooling,
and arc lamps were used for simulating the Sun's heat.

Eastern TestRange Spacecraft Checkout Facility

The Spacecraft Checkout Facility, Hangar AO, is the principal JPL test
facility at the AFETR. A complete system test complex enabled a detailed check-
out of the spacecraft before launch operations; some of this equipment was also
used during the launch operations. The operations and communications centers
are also housed in this facility.

Eastern Test Range ExplosiveSafe Facility

Located in a remote area, this facility provided a location where the hazard-
ous operations necessary in the final preparation of the spacecraft could be per-
formed just prior to the spacecraft launch operations in the launch complex. Two

123
 m

MARINER-MARS 1964
ii

buildings comprise this facility: the sterilization and assembly laboratory, and the
propellant laboratory. The hazardous operations included installation of the
pyrotechnics squib and the midcourse motor, and loading of the liquid propellant.

Eastern Test Range Launch Complex

Certain monitoring and control equipment is installed in the launch complex

for use during the launch operations of a spacecraft. This equipment is housed in a
blockhouse console connected to the spacecraft by cabling and an umbilical con-
nector. Test personnel monitor and control the spacecraft during prelaunch
operations from this area. Spacecraft control equipment, such as power supplies
and signal conditioning units, is located in the launch pad building and on the
umbilical tower and is controlled from the blockhouse during launch operations.
Parabolic antennas located on both the service and umbilical towers provide an
RF link between the launch pad, the Spacecraft Checkout Facility, and the Deep
Space Instrumentation Facility areas at AFETR.

Operational Support Equipment

The spacecraft operational support equipment (OSE) provided a tool for

verifying the design and flight readiness of the proof-test-model and flight space-
craft. The equipment was mechanized so that the spacecraft was exercised through
all its standard and backup modes of operation, with enough flexibility to adapt to
nonstandard conditions. Another use was in supporting troubleshooting operations
necessary to locate failures, with the capability to differentiate between OSE prob-
lems and spacecraft problems. The equipment (both electrical and mechanical)
necessary to support subsystem, system, and flight readiness testing was divided
into three categories: system-test-complex equipment, launch-complex equip-
ment, and mechanical support equipment.

System-test-complex equipment

The system test complex (fig. 3-55) consisted of approximately 45 racks of

equipment capable of evaluating and troubleshooting on both the subsystem and
system levels. Essentially the same configuration was used at both the JPL Space-
craft Assembly Facility and the Eastern Test Range Spacecraft Checkout Facility.
This equipment served to: (1) differentiate between spacecraft and OSE failures;
(2) exercise and/or activate the OSE subsystems to simulate flight-type opera-
tions; (3) monitor and evaluate the OSE subsystems during subsystem and system
tests; (4) provide self-power for subsystem test and evaluation; and (5) provide the

124
 .
. .
I
SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

m
-
1
I

FIGURE
3-55.-System test complex.

necessary input, stimulus, and output loading required for spacecraft subsystem
testing and troubleshooting. The equipment was divided into four groups, which
are described in the following paragraphs.
The first group was the direct counterpart of the spacecraft flight subsystem
and contained such units as radio, command, power, CC&S, data encoder,
attitude-control, pyrotechnics, video storage, and science subsystems. The second
group, which completed the command and telemetry group, contained the
ground command subsystem for sending commands to the spacecraft and the
ground telemetry subsystem for demodulating, decommutating, distributing, and
printing out the telemetry data. The ground telemetry subsystem assembly is
shown in figure 3-56. The third group contained the following support items: the
central recorder, the central timing system, the power distribution system, the
telemetry processing system, and the telemetry teletype encoder. A computer data
system (fig. 3-57) consisting of a medium-size general-purpose computer and a
data input system (fig. 3-58) made u p the fourth equipment group.

125
MARINER-MARS 1964 ..

FIGURE
3-56.-Ground telemetry subsystem assembly.

126
 .*

. SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

I
II !

FIGURE3-56.-Concluded.

Some ancillary equipment was also provided. Laid out in a rectangular pat-
tern with the subsystem test consoles forming the periphery, the complex was
located on a raised floor; provisions for rigidly mounting and positioning the
spacecraft were included. Contact of the system test complex with thc spacecraft
was made in three ways: (1) through the separation and the umbilical connectors,
which provided an interface with the entire spacecraft system; (2) through the RF

127
MARINER-MARS 1964

SYSTEM TEST COMPLEXES

TEST DATA INPUTS

176 ANALOG CHANNELS II _ PATCH

J OATA INPUT LINE PRINTER

eOEVENT CHANNELS II SYSTEM

144

16

I0
STATUS

TRANSIENT

COUNTERS
CHANNELS

DETECTORS = 4 TTY PRINTERS

TELEMETRY DIRECTION BOX

PCM TELEMETRY N_I I I_ INPUT =

I SYSTEM NO. I PRINT

._ TEST
I REQUEST BOX

PCM TELEMETRY NO. 2 I l INPUT

I SYSTEM NO 2 TTY PRINTER

I TELEMETRY _ "_

PCM TELEMETRY NO.3

I • INPUT
SYSTEM TTY PRINTER
I TELEMETRY NO. 3 _

I
I DIGITAL DATA CABLES
3700 ft (max)

t
Ii CENTRAL COMPUTER ARE_ _ PROGRAMING
CONSOLE ]

TTY FORMAT TELEMETRY I= FOUR-UNIT

I DIGITAL
SUBSYSTEM DIGITAL TAPE

TV DIGITAL VIDEO DATA

CARD READER

-_I PLOTTER 1

PCM PULSE-CODE-MODULATED DIGITAL COMPUTER

TTY TELETYPE

FICURE 3 57.--Block diagram of computer data system.

link; and (3) through direct-access connections to the individual subsystems of

the spacecraft.

Launch-complex equipment

The OSE configuration at the launch complex is shown in figure 3-59. The
launch-complex equipment consisted essentially of six racks of equipment: two
located in the launch-pad building immediately beneath the umbilical tower and
four located in the blockhouse. Contained within the racks were selected elements
of most of the subsystems represented in the system test complex that were re-
quired to support launch operations. In many instances, parallel equipment was
available to support operations in the Air Force Eastern Test Range Spacecraft
Checkout Facility.

128
 SPACE VEHICLE SYSTEM DESIGN AND TESTING OPERATIONS

FIGURE
3-58.-Data input system.

HANGAR A 0

k
PARASITIC
IARD-LINE ANTENNA
R F CONNECTIONS

UMBILICAL
TOWER

I LCE I UBlLlCAL
LAUNCH
BLOCKHOUSE
BUILDING
GTS GROUND TELEMETRY SUBSYSTEM
LCE LAUNCH COMPLEX EOUIPMENT

FIGURE
3-59.-0SE configuration at launch complex.

129
MARINER-MARS 1964

The launch-complex equipment functioned to put the spacecraft in its launch

mode after the spacecraft was mated to the launch vehicle. The equipment located
in the launch-pad building consisted of science OSE, launch support power, and
line-driver amplifiers (required because of the long line cables between the launch-
pad building and the blockhouse). The blockhouse equipment consisted primar-
ily of power control, data encoder, attitude-control, and CC&S OSE subsystems.

Mechanical support equipment

Spacecraft ground handling equipment was used during the spacecraft

assembly, testing, and handling phases. The system was designed to maximize
operational simplicity and allow safe access to the spacecraft components during
all phases of operations. Special attention was paid to the height of the spacecraft
equipment. Such attention to details significantly contributed to the speed, ease,
and safety with which the spacecraft assembly, testing, and handling operations
were accomplished. In the design of the equipment, the following were required:
The equipment must provide stiff structural support for the spacecraft structure
during ground tests; the design must allow personnel to work with and around the
equipment safely and efficiently; the equipment must contain as few parts as
possible; equipment for use in the vicinity of the spacecraft must be capable of
being kept clean to prevent contamination of the spacecraft; and commercial parts
should be used in the equipment wherever possible.
The ground handling equipment consisted of: (1) a universal support ring to
support the spacecraft octagon when it was being moved in approximately the
same manner as when it was mated to the booster adapter; (2) a spacecraft posi-
tioner to tilt and turn the spacecraft; (3) a dolly for moving the spacecraft within
the work area; (4) a universal ring spacer to raise the spacecraft when mounted on
the dolly to an optimum working height; (5) a transport trailer for interarea space-
craft transport; (6) hoisting equipment to lift the spacecraft; (7) shipping con-
tainers for use during shipment of the spacecraft around JPL, around AFETR,
and between these two locations; and (8) a purging-control assembly for purging
the spacecraft when it was under either the shipping bag (of the shipping con-
tainer) or the flight shroud.
Another piece of mechanical support equipment was a magnetometer test
fixture used to support the complete spacecraft, less solar panels, when the space-
craft magnetic field was mapped. The fixture allowed the spacecraft to be rotated
and displaced about any axis through the magnetometer sensor.

130
 Q

CHAPTER 4

Flight History and Space Vehicle Performance

CHRONOLOGY OF MARiNER-MARS 1964 FLIGHTS

Moriner III Flight

After two scheduled and four unscheduled holds in the countdown, Mariner
III, the first of the Mariner-Mars 1964 flight spacecraft, was launched from
Launch Complex 13 at AFETR at 19:22:04.92 GMT 1 on November 5, 1964.
(Launch had been delayed from the preceding day, which was the first day of the
launch interval, to permit a test series on certain relays replaced in the Agena D
second stage.) All systems appeared to be functioning properly during the initial
phase of the flight. At approximately 60 min after launch, it was confirmed that
the science instruments were on, but there was no indication of solar panel power.
A command was sent to the spacecraft to turn off the gyros to conserve battery
power and thus extend the life of the spacecraft, giving additional time for possible
corrective action.
After turnoff of the gyros, both engineering and science telemetry data gave
indications that either the Agena D second stage or the shroud had not separated
from the spacecraft. The separation velocity was calculated to be that which would
be approximately normal with the shroud on. Other factors also verified that the
shroud was still on the spacecraft. The execution of a maneuver designed to shake
the spacecraft free of the shroud was not verified, since the last telemetry reception
from the spacecraft occurred prior to the time of the maneuver start. Battery
power was depleted 8 hours 43 min after launch. The spacecraft did, however,
attain Earth-escape velocity and went into orbit about the Sun.
An extensive 24-hr/day test program directed by Lewis Research Center
(LeRC), the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC), and JPL was
started the following day. The probable failure mode was found to be a structural
failure caused by skin separation from the fiber-glass honeycomb core of the
shroud. A LeRC/LMSC/JPL task team was then formed to design and qualify an
all-metal shroud in time to allow launching of the second Mariner-Mars 1964
spacecraft in that launch interval. An intensive effort by this team enabled the

1 Hr:min:sec Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). All times given in this document are expressed as GMT.

131
MARINER-MARS 1964

delivery of the first replacement shroud to AFETR within 17 days of the Mariner
III failure. In the new design, the fiber-glass structure was replaced by a mag-
nesium section with an inner thermal liner. As a backup effort, JPL also con-
structed and tested an all-metal shroud using some parts of a previously damaged
test shroud. Meanwhile, a second all-metal shroud built by LMSC was subjected
to tests to qualify the design for flight. With the final test completed on November
26, November 27 was established as the launch date for the second Mariner-Mars
1964 spacecraft.

Mariner IV Flight

Launch to Canopus acquisition

Mariner IV, the second of the Mariner-Mars 1964 flight spacecraft, was
launched from Launch Complex 12 at AFETR at 14:22:01 GMT on November
28, 1964 (fig. 4-1). (The first launch attempt on November 27 was "scrubbed," since
insufficient time remained in the launch window to evaluate the anomaly which
caused the second of two unscheduled holds.) The ascent trajectory profile is
shown in figure 4-2, and the sequence of events for this phase of the flight is
illustrated in figure 4-3. Critical events and times of the flight from launch until
the end of the mission are listed in table 4-I. The initial launch azimuth was 90.5 °
east of true north. After liftofl, the booster rolled to an azimuth of 91.4 ° and per-
formed a programed pitch maneuver until booster-engine cutoff (BECO). 2
During the sustainer and vernier stages, adjustments in vehicle attitude and engine
cutoff times were commanded, as required, by the ground guidance computer to
adjust the altitude and velocity of the vehicle at the Atlas D vernier-engine cutoff
(VECO).
After Atlas D/Agena D separation, there was a short coast period prior to the
first ignition of the Agena D second stage. The Agena D engine ignited and, at a
preset value of sensed velocity increase, was cut off. At that time, the Agena D/
spacecraft combination was coasting in a nearly circular parking orbit around the
Earth in a southeasterly direction at an altitude of 189 km (117.5 statute miles)
and an inertial speed of 7.9 km/sec (4.88 statute miles/sec). The parking orbit,
illustrated in figure 4-4, was inclined 28.3°; apogee (point in orbit farthest from
the Earth) was 184.2 km (114.5 statute miles); and perigee (point in orbit nearest
to the Earth) was 172.2 kln (107 statute miles).
2 Because of the Earth's rotation, the direction in which the booster should fly is constantly changing; thus, the
Atlas D rolled to its proper bearing shortly after liftoff and performed a gradual pitch maneuver from the vertical
in the desired flight direction.

132
 *
(.

4
FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

FIGURE
4-1 .-Launch of Mariner IV spacecraft.

After a parking-orbit coast time of 32 min 15 sec, as determined by the

ground guidance computer and transmitted to the Agena D during the Atlas D
vernier stage, a second ignition of the Agena D engine occurred. This engine was
cut off 95 sec later with the Agena D/spacecraft combination in a nominal Earth-
Mars transfer orbit. Injection (second Agena D cutoff) took place over the Indian
Ocean at a geocentric latitude and longitude of -26.25' and 68.82", respectively.

133
MARINER-MARS 1964

AGENA D SECOND --AGENA D SECOND

IGNITION---_ CUTOFF /SEPARAF--'4GEA/A D/ISoPNACECRAFT

_AGENA O FIRST \ T

\\
\\

ooo ,ooo
\\
\\
,oo/ _,//.,_oo \\
\
_" 400 / /y._--_,46EN,4 O FIRST IGNITION
?- 300/ _'/_K_ VECO
C--: 200_/ _.,,__ _-SECO (Inouticglmile=l.15stotutemiles=l.852km) \
_oo 2/,-
,o _BECO RANGE, nouticol miles
6000

FIGURE 4-2.---Ascent trajectory profile of Mariner IV spacecraft.

,_ 7 6 5

(I) LAUNCH _ 8

(2) BECO

(3) SECO, VECO, SHROUD EJECTION, AND _

ATLAS D / AGEN4 D SEPARATION

(4) AGENA D FIRST IGNITION

(5) ,4GEN.4 D FIRST CUTOFF (START OF PARKING ORBIT) _'-_ INJECTION

(6) AGENA O SECOND IGNITION (END OF PARKING ORBIT) ( ...... _-7

(7)
A_E,,,,,
_/SPACECRAFT
SEPARAT,ON
AGENA D SECOND CUTOFF (INJECTION) AND _'_'"'m_ 6 [_

"I SUN
ACOO,S'T,ON LA'-'NC"V
'5
(9) CANOPUS ACQUISITION I 2-4

FIGURE 4 3.--Typical sequence of events froul launch to Canopus acquisition.

134
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Table 4-1.--Critical events and times of the Mariner IV mission a

Date Time, GMT,

Event ] hr:min:sec

Launch ............................................................... Nov. 28, 1964 14:22:01

Atlas D/Agena D separation ............................................ Nov. 28, !964 14:27:23
Agena D first ignition ........... ....................................... Nov. 28, 1964 14:28:14
Agena D first cutoff ................................................... Nov. 28, 1964 14:30:38
Agena D second ignition ............................................... Nov. 28, 1964 15:02:53
Agena D second cutoff (injection) ....................................... Nov. 28, 1964 15:04:28
Entrance of Agena D/spacecraft into Earth's shadow ....................... Nov. 28, 1964 15:05:51
Agena D/spacecraft separation; cruise-science instruments on; data mode 2 .... Nov. 28, 1964 15:07:09
CC&S L-1 event (deploy solar panels, unlatch scan platform; preempted by ac-
tion of separation-lnitiated timer on spacecraft) ....................... Nov. 28, 1964 15:15:00
Exit of spacecraft from Earth's shadow ................................. Nov. 28, 1964 15:17:35
CC&S L-2 event (turn on attitude-control subsystem; preempted by action of
pyrotechnics arming switch at Agena D/spacecraft separation) .......... Nov. 28, 1964 15:19:00
Sun acquisition ..................................................... Nov. 28, 1964 15:30:57
CC&S L-3 event (energize Canopus sensor, turn on solar pressure vanes) .... Nov. 29, 1964 06:59:00
3 DC-21 (roll override: negative increment) transmissionsb .................. Nov. 30, 1964 09:13:00
Nov. 30, 1964 10:45:00
Nov. 30, 1964 10:59:07
Canopus acquisition .................................................... Nov. 30, 1964 11:02:47
QC1-1, -2, and -3 (pitch turn, roll turn, and motor-burn durations ) transmissionb Dec. 4, 1964 13:05:00
Dec. 4, 1964 13:10:00
Dec. 4, 1964 13:15:00
DC-29 (arm first propulsion maneuver) transmissionb ...................... Dec. 4, 1964 13:45:00
DC-14 (remove maneuver command inhibit) transmissionl, .................. Dec. 4, 1964 14:05:00
DC-27 (initiate midcourse maneuver) transmissionb ......................... Dee. 4, 1964 14:35:00
DC-13 (inhibit maneuver command, inhibit propulsion command ) transmissionb Dec. 4, 1964 14:47:13
3 DC-21 (roll override: negative increment) transmissions h ................. Dec. 4, 1964 15:22:00
Dec. 4, 1964 15:32:00
Dee. 4, 1964 16:02:00
7 DC-21 (roll override: negative increment) transmissionse ................. Dec. 4, 1964 22:40:00
Dec. 4, 1964 23:04:00
Dec. 4, 1964 23:05:01
Dec. 4, 1964 23:05:59
Dec. 4, 1964 23:40:00
Dec. 4, 1964 23:57:00
Dec. 4, 1964 23:58:00
Canopus reacquisition ................................................. Dec. 5, 1964 00:02:44
QC-1, -2, and -3 (pitch turn, roll turn, and motor-burn durations) transmissionb Dec. 5, 1964 13:05:00
Dec. 5, 1964 13:10:00
Dec. 5, 1964 13:15:00
DC-29 (arm first propulsion maneuver) transmissionb ...................... Dee. 5, 1964 13:45:00
DC-14 (remove maneuver command inhibit) transmission b ................. Dec. 5, 1964 14:05:00
DC-27 (initiate midcourse maneuver) transmissionb ........................ Dec. 5, 1964 14:25:00
Start of midcourse motor burn .......................................... Dec. 5, 1964 16:09:11

See footnotes at end of table.

135
 B

MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 4-1.--Critical events and times of the Mariner IV mission--Continued

Time, GMT,
Event Date hr:min:sec

Dec. 5, 1964 16:21:07

Sun reacquisition .....................................................
Dec. 5, 1964 16:52:00
DC-21 (roll override: negative increment) transmission b ....................
Dec. 5, 1964 16:58:19
Canopus reacquisition .................................................
Dec. 13, 1964 14:09:00
DC-7 (switch power amplifiers) transmissionb ..............................
Dec. 17,1964 16:00:00
DC-21 (roll override: negative increment) transmission c ....................
Dec. 17,1964 16:06:22
Canopus reacquisition ..................................................
Dec. 17, 1964 17:30:00
DC-15 (Canopus gate inhibit override) transmissionc ........................
Jan. 3,1965 16:59:54
CC&S MT-6 (switch data encoder bit rate to 8a_ bits/sec)command .........
Feb. 11, 1965 03:29:29
DC-3 (command data mode 3) transmission b .............................
Feb. ll,1965 03:36:13
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissionb ..........
Feb. 11, 1965 03:53:15
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans-
missionb
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissionb ......... Feb. 11,1965 04:15:51

DC-28 (turn on battery charger, turn off video storage subsystem) transmission I'. Feb. 11, 1965 04:32:39
Feb. 11,1965 06:54:43
DC-25 (turn on planetary science, unlatch cover) transmission h .............
Feb. ll,1965 08:59:23
DC-24 (inhibit scan search) transmissionb ...............................
DC-28 (turn on battery charger, turn off video storage subsystem) transmission b. Feb. 11, 1965 09:13:51
Feb. 11,1965 09:30:56
DC-3 (command data mode 3) transmissionb .............................
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmission b ......... Feb. 11, 1965 10:21:20
Feb. 11,1965 10:27:08
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans-
missionb
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmission b ........ Feb. 11, 1965 10:49:35
Feb. 27,1965 17:02:19
CC&S MT-1 (lst Canopus sensor cone angle update) command ...........
Mar. 5, 1965 13:02:37
CC&S MT-5 (switch transmitter to high-gain antenna) command ..........
Apr. 2,1965 14:25:15
CC&S MT-2 (2d Canopus sensor cone angle update) command ...........
May 7, 1965 17:27:25
CC&S MT-3 (3d Canopus sensor cone angle update) command ............
June 14, 1965 15:51:45
CC&S MT-4 (4th Canopus sensor cone angle update) command ...........
.July 14, 1965 14:27:55
DC-25 (turn on planetary science, unlatch cover) transmissiond ............
July 14, 1965 15:41:49
CC&S MT-7 (encounter science on; backup) command (preempted by DC-25)
July 14, 1965 17:10:18
DC-24 (inhibit scan search) transmissiond ................................
July 14, 1965 22:10:29
DC-3 (command data mode 3) transmissionb .............................
luly 14, 1965 23:42:00
Wide-angle acquisition at spacecraft (action preempted by DC-24 and DC-3)..
July 15, 1965 00:11:57
DC-16 (narrow-angle acquisition) transmission (preempted by action at narrow-
angle acquisition)
July 15, 1965 00:17:21
Narrow-angle acquisition at spacecraft ...................................
July 15, 1965 00:31:42
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans-
missionb
July 15, 1965 00:32:40
6 DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissions b ........
July 15, 1965 00:37:00

July 15, 1965 00:42:00

July 15, 1965 00:47:00
July 15, 1965 00:52:00
,July 15, 1965 00:57:00

See footnotes at end of table.

136
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Table 4-1.--Critical events and times of the Mariner IV mission--Continued

Time, GMT,
Event Date
hr:min:sec

Spacecraft's closest approach to Mars .................................... July 15, 1965 01:00:58

Spacecraft's entrance into Earth-occultation region of Mars ................ July 15, 1965 02:19:11
Spacecraft's exit from Earth-occultation region of Mars ................... July 15, 1965 03:13:04
CC&S MT-8 (encounter science off) command (preempted by DC-26) ....... July 15, 1965 05:01:49
CC&S MT-9 (cruise science off, start data playback) command ........... July 15, 1965 11:41:50
Start of first picture playback .......................................... July 15, 1965 12:49:54
End of first picture playback .......................................... July 24, 1965 19:26:33
Start of 2d picture playback ........................................... July 24, 1965 21:21:53
DC-28 (turn on battery charger, turn off video storage subsystem) transmissione. Aug. 3, 1965 03:08:33
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans- Aug. 3, 1965 03:14:33
missione
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissione ......... Aug. 3, 1965 03:20:33
End of second picture playback ........................................ Aug. 3, 1965 03:36:02
DC-25 (turn on planetary science, unlatch cover) transmissionf ............ Aug. 21 , 1965 22:22:00
2 DC-28 (turn on battery charger, turn off video storage subsystem) trans- Aug. 21, 1965 23:20:00
missionsf 23:22:00
2 DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans- Aug. 21, 1965 23:28:13
missionsf Aug. 21, 1965 23:30:13
7 DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissionst ........ Aug. 21, 1965 23:34:13
Aug. 21, 1965 23:39:00
Aug. 21, 1965 23:44:00
Aug. 21, 1965 23:49:00
Aug. 21, 1965 23:54:00
Aug. 21, 1965 23:59:00
DC-13 (inhibit maneuver command,inhibit propulsion command) transmissionf Aug. 26, 1965 21:06:52
QC-1, -4, and -3 (pitch turn, roll turn, and motor-burn durations) trans- Aug. 26, 1965 21:15:16
missionsf 21:23:40
21:32:04
DC-17 (cycle Canopus cone angle) transmissionf ......................... Aug. 27, 1965 19:40:00

DC-25 (turn on planetary science, unlatch cover) transmissiont ............ Aug. 30, 1965 20:30:00
DC-3 (command data mode 3) transmissionf ............................ Aug. 30, 1965 21:10:24
DC-24 (inhibit scan search) transmissionf ............................... Aug. 30, 1965 22:48:33
DC-16 (narrow-angle acquisition) transmissionr .......................... Aug. 30, 1965 23:35:26
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissionf ......... Aug. 31, 1965 00:05:00
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans- Aug. 31, 1965 00:44:00
missiont
DC-22 (change tracks) transmissionf ................................... Aug. 31, 1965 00:49:00
DC-4 (command data mode 4) transmissionf ............................ Aug. 31, 1965 01:25:00

Start of "black space" picture playback ................................. Sept. 1, 1965 02:00:46

DC-28 (turn on battery charger, turn off video storage subsystem) transmissione Sept. 2, 1965 06:17:00
DC-26 (turn off planetary science, cruise science, and battery charger) trans- Sept. 2, 1965 06:23:00
missione
DC-2 (command data mode 2, turn on cruise science) transmissione .......... Sept. 2, 1965 06:29:00
End of "black space" picture playback .................................. Sept. 2, 1965 06:48:32

See footnotes at end of table.

137
 b
n

MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 6 1 . - C r i t i c a l events and times of the Mariner IV mission-Concluded

Event
I

Date I
I
Time, GMT,
hr:min:sec

DC-12 (transmit low, receive low) transmissione. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 1, 1965 21 :30:17

Receipt of last signal from spacecraft; end of mission.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 1, 1965 22:05:07

a All commands sent to Mariner IV from the deep space stations were verified in the telemetry data as having
been received and acted upon within 1 min after transmission.
11 Command(s) transmitted and verified by Pioneer DSS 11.
c Command(s) transmitted and verified by Woomera DSS 41.
d Command(s) transmitted and verified by Johannesburg DSS 51.
eCommand(s) transmitted by Venus DSS 13 in uplink lock and verified by Echo DSS 12 in downlink lock.
f Command(s) transmitted and verified by Echo DSS 12.

FIGURE
4-4.-Early flight path of Mariner IV spacecraft.

The trajectory was well within launch tolerances. The Agena D/spacecraft com-
bination was a t an altitude of 198.4 km (123.3 statute miles) and was traveling at
an inertial speed of 11.50 km/sec (7.15 statute miles/sec).

138
 Q

FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

At ! min 23 sec after injection, the Agena D ,/spacecraft entered the Earth's
shadow. Separation occurred 1 rain 18 sec later. With the spacecraft operating in
data mode 2 (engineering and science data), the cruise-science instruments and
the real-time portion of the data automation system were turned on. The total
time spent in the Earth's shadow by the Mariner IV spacecraft was 11 rain 44 sec.
Within 1 hour after iniection, the spacecraft was receding from the Earth in
almost a radial direction with decreasing speed. This reduced the geocentric
angular rate of Mariner IV (in inertial coordinates) until the angular rate of the
Earth's rotation exceeded it.
The CC&S command to deploy the solar panels and unlatch the scan plat-
form (L-1 event) occurred on time, but no action resulted since this command
action was preempted by the action of the separation-initiated timer. The CC&S
command to turn on the attitude-control subsystem (L-2 event) was preempted
by the action of the pyrotechnics arming switch during the already completed
separation of the Agena D. Sun acquisition was completed in approximately 8
rain, and the spacecraft went into a programed roll to furnish ea,.bradun data for
the magnetometer (i.e., so that the magnetic field value of the spacecraft could be
subtracted from the magnetometer readings). Telemetry indicated that the video-
storage-subsystem launch mode was turned off on time at separation.
The CC&S command to initiate acquisition of the star Canopus (L-3 event)
occurred on November 29, with the acquisition sequence beginning at a clock
angle of 60 ° . (The terms "clock angle', and "cone angle" were defined previously
in fig. 3-18.) At a clock angle of 119 ° (in the vicinity of the star Markab), an ac-
quirable object entered the Canopus sensor field of view and was acquired. Telem-
etry indicated immediately that this object was not the star Canopus. (Subse-
quent analysis revealed that it was probably a cluster of stars whose brightness was
augmented by earthlight reflected into the sensor optics.) Later on November 29,
the spacecraft was in a roll search in its automatic reacquisition mode. Another
acquirable object entered the sensor field of view, but the brightness of this object
was shown by telemetry to be approximately one-quarter of the expected Canopus
brightness. It was decided to proceed with Canopus acquisition by means of
ground commands the following day.
The first such roll override command (DC-21) was transmitted on November
30, and the spacecraft went into a roll search. After nearly 60 ° of roll, another star
was acquired. Comparison of the data received with the values expected resulted
in the first positive indication of the spacecraft roll orientation between the star
Regulus and the star Naos. A second command (DC-21) moved the roll reference

139
MARINER-MARS 1964 e

to the star Gamma Velorum. The final roll override command (DC-21) resulted
in Canopus acquisition (as determined by the light intensity observed by the
Canopus sensor and the saturated condition3 of the Earth detector) and the initia-
tion of the premidcourse-maneuver cruise phase of the mission.

Premidcourse-maneuvercruise

This portion of the Mariner IV mission was essentially without incident,

except for the two roll control transients, one of which caused a momentary loss of
Canopus acquisition. The first transient occurred on November 30, but telemetry
showed no correlation with any spacecraft function or event. The second transient,
which occurred on December 2, was the first to demonstrate characteristics which
later became associated with a specific type of repeatable roll transient. Canopus
brightness had been consistently indicating its expected value. Suddenly, the
Canopus brightness for one sample rose above the expected value, and the roll
error signal was less than expected; for the next sample, the Canopus brightness
was less than the expected value, the roll error signal was higher than expected,
and the gyros turned on. Reacquisition occurred almost immediately, and the
gyros turned off. Analysis indicated that not all the roll position errors observed
could be valid. Although the problem remained unexplained, all indications were
that the spacecraft had tracked a very bright object which had passed through the
sensor field of view.
Midway through November 30, the Earth detector came out of saturation,
somewhat earlier than expected. Because of the additional confidence in the deter-
mination of roll orientation afforded by the Earth detector data after the detector
came out of saturation (when it could be determined positively that the detector
was indeed sensing the reflected sunlight from the Earth), it was recommended
that a midcourse maneuver be performed as early as possible. The optimum date
was chosen to be December 4 during the pass over Pioneer DSS 11 with December
5 and 6 as alternate dates.
Tracking data then being gathered and analyzed indicated that, without
such a correction, the spacecraft would pass the upper leading edge of Mars at a
closest approach distance of about 246 378 km (153 125 statute miles). Closest
approach would then occur at 01:25:11 GMT on July 17, 1965. To alter the
trajectory so that the spacecraft would pass through a selected aiming region
centered at approximately 12 000 km (7500 statute miles) from the center of

3A condition at which the reading or output from the instrument could no longer increase regardless of whether
the input (reflected sunlight from the Earth) increased or remained constant.

140
 Q

FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

Mars, a midcourse velocity correction of 16.98 m/sec (55.7 ff/sec) was required.
[The maximum capability was 81 m/sec (267 ft/sec).] In addition to altering the
distance from the planet at the time of closest approach, this correction changed
the arrival time (time of closest approach) to 01:47:00 GMT on July 15,1965, and
thus allowed preset CC&S commands to activate properly various subsystems
near encounter.

Mictcoursemaneuver

On December 4, the sequence of planned midcourse-maneuver events was

followed through the spacecraft receipt of the ground command to initiate the
midcourse-maneuver sequence (DC-27). Almost immediately after the space-
craft responded to the command, Canopus acquisition was lost and the spacecraft
began a roll search. A successful maneuver requires that roll and pitch stabiliza-
tion be maintained by maintaining Sun and Canopus acquisition until the time
of the maneuver pitch turn. The midcourse maneuver was inhibited by a ground
command (DC-13) after it was determined that there was insufficient time to
reacquire Canopus with ground commands (DC-21's) before the start of the
pitch-turn maneuver. Sun acquisition remained stable during this period.
The spacecraft continued to roll until an object was acquired. Three roll-
override commands (DC-21's) were sent to the spacecraft, and short-duration
roll searches were made. Finally, a decision was made to discontinue the attempt
to acquire Canopus during the Pioneer DSS 11 pass because of the short time
remaining in the view period of that station.
The spacecraft was then acquired by Woomera DSS 41, and a DC-21 com-
mand was transmitted which resulted in acquisition of the star Regulus. After six
additional commands, Canopus was again acquired.
The second attempt to perform the midcourse maneuver, which occurred
on December 5, was entirely successful. At the time of the maneuver, the space-
craft was at a geocentric distance of 2 033 776 km (1 264 000 statute miles) and
was traveling at an inertial speed of 3.15 km/sec (1.96 statute miles/see) relative
to the Earth. Both Woomera DSS 41 and Pioneer DSS 11 tracked the spacecraft
during the maneuver, after Pioneer DSS 11 had sent the command to initiate the
maneuver sequence (DC-27). The roll-position error signal and roll rate were
approximately zero when the command was sent, providing optimum conditions
for the roll channel at the start of the maneuver. (Canopus acquisition was main-
tained until about 1 hr after DC-27 was sent.) The ground-commanded (QCI-1,
-2, and -3) and actual (estimated) values of the maneuver were as follows:

141
 0

MARINER-MARS 1964 p

Commanded pitch turn, deg ............... --39.16

Actual pitch turn, deg ..................... -- 39.47
Commanded roll turn, deg ................. 156.08
Actual roll turn, deg ....................... 156.71
Commanded velocity increase, 4 m/sec (ft/sec). 16.98 (55.7)
Actual velocity increase, m/sec (ft/sec) ...... 17.34 (56.9)

As planned, the angle of flight was changed less than 1/4 o. The maneuver moved
the trajectory from a 242 960-km (151 000-statute-mile) miss distance on the
wrong side of the planet Mars (ahead of the planet and above its equator) to an
approximately 9650-km (6000-statute-mile) miss distance on the side of the planet
which satisfied all science and engineering subsystem constraints (behind the
planet and above its south pole). (The accuracy of the maneuver can be demon-
strated by comparing the difference between the commanded miss distance and
the actual miss distance at encounter to the miss difference resulting from throw-
ing a baseball from Los Angeles to New York, aiming for home plate and hitting
second base.)

Postmidcourse-maneuver (interplanetary) cruise

Return of the spacecraft to a cruise configuration was uneventful. Sun re-

acquisition was accomplished, and roll search was initiated. The first acquirable
object to pass within the Canopus sensor field of view, the star Gamma Velorum,
was acquired. One roll-override ground command (DC-21) was sufficient to
reacquire the star Canopus.
After the reestablishment of a cruise-mode configuration, the spacecraft
entered a cruise phase which lasted until the start of the Mars encounter sequence
on July 14, except for the period of the early science cover deployment exercise on
February 11. At the time of reestablishment of the cruise mode, the spacecraft was
traveling primarily under the gravitational influence of the Sun in an ellipse with
the Sun as the focus. The Mariner IV elliptical interplanetary orbit was inclined
0°TaA ' of arc to the ecliptic, with perihelion (point in orbit nearest to the Sun)
near launch and aphelion (point in orbit farthest from the Sun) near Mars at
encounter. The Earth-probe and Sun-probe distances are shown in figures 4-5
and 4-6, respectively, as functions of time from launch.
During the early portion of the cruise, the heliocentric velocity of the space-
craft was greater than that of the Earth; thus, the spacecraft led the Earth in

4As determined by the commanded midcourse motor-burn time of 20.06 sec.

142
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

300 3OO
I

ENCOUNTER--,

"o ENCOUNTER --
\
x
E

200 2011 .I
J

I-
u) / _J

/
Q

rr I00

/
IOO
O.
I

o_
J
I00 200 300 0 I00 200 3oo

TIME FROM LAUNCH, doys TIME FROM LAUNCH, doy$

FIGURE 4-5.--Earth-probe distance as a function FIGURE 4-6.--Sun-probe distance as a 1unction

of time from launch, of time from launch.

orbital rotation around the Sun. Their relative positions are illustrated in figure
4-7, which contains a heliocentric plan view of the orbits of Earth and Mariner IV
during the first 35 days of flight. Slowly, however, the spacecraft began to move
out toward the orbit of Mars with decreasing heliocentric speed. On February 28,
1965, the Earth finally passed the spacecraft in its orbital motion around the Sun.
At that time, the spacecraft was at a distance of 19 million km (11.8 million
statute miles) behind the Earth and 321 800 km (200 000 statute miles) above the
ecliptic plane. Throughout the rest of the flight, the Earth increased its lead in
orbital rotation about the Sun. The trajectory of Mariner IV in relation to Earth
and Mars for the period from launch to encounter is shown in figure 4-8.
Occurring during the postmidcourseomaneuver cruise phase were the exe-
cution of six CC&S master timer (MT) commands, the transmission and execution
of two ground commands to modify the cruise configuration of the spacecraft, and
two failures in the science subsystem (the ionization chamber and the plasma
probe, discussed later in this chapter and in chapter 7). The ground commands
sent to the spacecraft were as follows:
1. Power amplifier switch command (DC-7). As the distance from Earth
increased, the radio output of the spacecraft had to be increased to maintain con-
tact with the Earth. As part of the radio flight plan formulated prior to the
Mariner IV launch, a DC-7 command was transmitted to the spacecraft on

143
MARINER-MARS 1964

35 doys

MARINER /]Z"
ORBIT

EARTH ORBIT_

3O
/
/
3C

25
/
/
25

SUN

_.0
//
I
2O

15

I0
I

SCALE:
MILLIONS OF KILOMETERS 5 5

o IO 20

FIGURE 4-7.--Heliocentric plan view of Mariner IV trajectory during first 35 days of flight.

144
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

#MARS ORBIT

EARTH ORBIT
AT LAUNCH
NOVEMBER 28_ 1964

SUN

_ MAR/NER .23E
/ t _ TRAJECTORY

Oda,

/ 228
I / /
6O 180 \

90 150
\
[20 \
\
MARS AT ENCOUNTER \
JULY 15_ 1965 __1

FIGURE 4-8.--General relationship of Earth, Mars, and Mariner IV positions from

launch to encounter.

145
MARINER-MARS 1964

December 13 to switch the radio from the cavity amplifier to the longer life and
slightly more powerful traveling-wave-tube amplifier. As expected, a slight in-
crease in spacecraft temperature due to the increased power required by the
traveling wave tube was noted.
2. Canopus sensor gate override command (DC-15). Because of the previous
problems in maintaining attitude stabilization in normal roll control prior to the
midcourse maneuver, and because of a subsequent loss of Canopus acquisition and
a reacquisition on Gamma Velorum on December 7, questions were raised con-
cerning the capability of the spacecraft to remain attitude stabilized. It was
decided to reacquire Canopus with a DC-21 command (roll override) and then
send a DC-15, which would disable (desensitize) the Canopus sensor brightness
gates used for acquisition and prevent the initiation of roll search due to observed
high brightness gate violations. These commands were sent to Mariner IV on
December 17, and, although a significant number of roll transients (approxi-
mately 40) were observed during the remainder of the mission, roll acquisition to
the star Canopus was maintained with no problems occurring.
The first CC&S command was the bit-rate switch event (MT-6) which
occurred on January 3 as expected. The data encoder responded normally,
switching from a rate of 33V3 bits/sec to 8½ bits/sec to permit the long-range
communications required for the mission. The altered bit rate was maintained for
the duration of the mission. Coincident with the rate change, a 1-dB received
signal level change was observed at Woomera DSS 41. This was found to be a
peculiarity of the L- to S-band conversion system at that station and was not
associated with the spacecraft.
The first Canopus sensor cone angle update command (MT-1) was issued by
the CC&S on February 27. The cone angle was changed from the preset position
of 100.2 ° to 95.7 °. A skip in the data encoder commutation cycle which occurred
at the time of this event still remains unexplained.
As the distance from Earth increased, the received signal strength from the
spacecraft low-gain omnidirectional antenna had reached levels approaching
telemetry thresholds. A marginal received signal condition was anticipated at the
time prior to the programed CC&S switchover of the spacecraft transmitter to the
spacecraft high-gain antenna. The switchover command (MT-5) was issued on
March 5 after the Earth had entered the narrow beam of the high-gain antenna.
The received signal strength then increased about 15 dB. The spacecraft continued
to receive on the low-gain antenna.

146
 ,J

FLIGHTHISTORYAND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

The second Canopus sensor cone angle update command (MT-2) was
observed in the telemetry data on April 2. The new cone angle was 91.1 ° . An
apparent decrease in the average ground-received carrier power of about 1.5 dB
was indicated and confirmed by three deep space stations during the following 2-
week interval. This behavior is still unexplained, although there is considerable
doubt that it was in any way connected with the MT-2 event. By April 14,
Mariner IV had equaled the U.S. long-distance communications record, just
under 86.9 million km (54 million statute miles), set by Mariner II.
On May 7, the third Canopus sensor cone angle update command (MT-3)
was observed in the data. In view of the previous anomalies which occurred during
the MT-1 and MT-2 events, a thorough analysis of the data was performed for
MT-3. All data indicated that the cone angle update to 86.5 ° was normal in
every respect.
The fourth Canopus sensor cone angle update to 82 ° by MT-4 on June 14
was also completely normal.
A class 2 solar flare occurred on February 5. Solar flares, which are brilliant
eruptions of hydrogen gas generally observed in the vicinity of the large irregular
sunspots, last from a few minutes to an hour or more. (During the mission, a total
of six class 1 and six class 2 flares occurred.) The class 2 flares generally last
approximately 35 min. The particle experiments on Mariner IV detected the
high-energy particles from this event, as well as a rate increase over the succeeding
3 hours. Class 2 flares were also detected on April 11 and 16. Increases in magnetic
plasma activity detected by the spacecraft instruments on April 16 were possibly
caused by a solar storm resulting from the flare of April 11. No solar storm activity
was detected that might have been caused by the flare of April 16. A solar flare
detected by the spacecraft instruments on May 25 was not detected on Earth,
possibly because Earth-based observers could no longer see the same part of the
Sun as the spacecraft.

Science-coverdeployment exercise

In order to preclude the possibility that particles dislodged by science-cover

deployment at encounter would cause a loss of Canopus acquisition, it was decided
to deploy the science cover earlier than planned. On February 11 with 12 ground
commands (DC's) transmitted to the spacecraft, the deployment exercise was
performed to: (1) deploy the science cover; (2) preposition the scan platform to the

147
MARINER-MARS 1964

optimum encounter position to permit useful television data should a scan plat-
form failure occur before encounter; and (3) turn off the battery charger and
enable the boost mode. All commands were received and executed normally, with
only one anomaly observed during the exercise. Command lock was lost after an
apparently normal command lockup, but was regained approximately 6 min later.
There was no explanation for this loss. Telemetry confirmed that the science cover
was deployed, the scan platform was prepositioned to within 0.7 ° of the optimum
position, and all systems were functioning without any apparent degradation.
Only about 44 min of cruise-science data were lost. The spacecraft was returned to
a cruise configuration without difficulty.

Encounter

Mariner IV approached Mars along the trailing edge and from inside the
orbit of the planet. The near encounter of the Mariner IV and Mars orbits is
illustrated in figure 4-9. The encounter sequence was initiated on July 14 with the
transmission of a command to turn on the encounter-science instruments (DC-25).
A deck skip in the data encoder observed coincident with the command execution
was not totally unexpected. Spacecraft response to the command was normal:
non-real-time power turned on, video-storage-subsystem 2400-hertz power turned
on, scan platform went into a normal search, and power levels and temperatures
increased as predicted. The CC&S turn-on of encounter science (MT-7 event)
was observed in the telemetry data, but, inasmuch as it had been preempted by
DC-25, it had no effect upon spacecraft performance.

SHADOW MARINER TRAJECTORY

ZONE OCCULTATION ZONE RELATIVE TO MARS

I [ I / II /I (
\-
/ ii I
i / i1 / / /
J I t z z

f t / CLOSEST i ! ! i

•,q..- I / APPROACH /

; _" _ _ / Ohr/ --I/2 hr/ --Ihr / --I i/2 hr / MARS ORBIT

A * --------_ _ _, _ A ' /

f?'
;T /
" "' "'i-it ?NDTV / START Tv

SENSOR"SEES"MARS, MARINER TRAJECTORY

(u
_ TV READY RELATIVE TO MARS

FmURE 4 9.--Mariner IV and Mars orbits near encounter.

148
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

A command to inhibit the scan platform (DC-24) was sent to the spacecraft
for a predicted scan platform position of 178.9". The data indicated that the scan
platform had positioned to 178.45 ° , well within tolerances.
Beginning approximately 51_ hours after DC-25 was issued and continuing
through encounter, anomalous unexplained indications were noted in the mag-
netometer X-axis data which appeared to be cyclic with a period of approximately
16 min. This period corresponded to coincidences between the real-time and non-
real-time portions of the data automation system which count at different rates.
The anomaly had no effect upon the quality of the planetary data gathered.
Had the scan platform been allowed to search for and track the planet auto-
matically, acquisition of the planet by the scan sensor would have initiated a
switch to data mode 3 (all science data) several hours before the recording se-
quence. With the scan platform prepositioned, however, the expected time of
wide-angle acquisition was so near the beginning of the television recording
sequence that insufficient time was available for television performance analysis
prior to the latest time to send commands. Therefore, a commanded switch to rill
A,,
science data (DC-3) was included in the encounter sequence and was transmitted
approximately 7_/2 hours after the start of the sequence. Television sequencing
was normal.
Wide-angle acquisition occurred approximately 11_ hours later. No effect
was noted, other than the indication in the science telemetry data, because the
scan platform had been inhibited by DC-24 and the switch to data mode 3 had
been accomplished by DC-3. The backup command (DC-16) for the initiation of
the recording sequence was transmitted on the following day, July 15. It was
anticipated that this command would arrive at the spacecraft after two pictures
had been recorded by the video storage subsystem if normal-angle acquisition by
the sensors on the spacecraft had initiated the sequence.
Narrow-angle acquisition was noted in the data. The narrow-angle Mars gate
had sensed the planet at about 43.5 min before closest approach or at approxi-
mately 18 200 km (11 313 statute miles) from the center of the planet. The tape
recorder started recording television data 1 min 12 sec later. A ground command
to back up the termination of the recording sequence (DC-26) was initiated, and
commands to turn cruise science back on (DC-2's) were then sent every 5 min
until six of these commands had been transmitted. After a picture-taking sequence
which lasted 25 min 12 sec, at a distance of 13 270 km (8248 statute miles) from
the center of the planet, the scan platform field of view moved permanently off the

149
MARINER-MARS 1964

planet because of the angular movement of the spacecraft in its hyperbolic orbit
about Mars.
Although the recording sequence appeared to start normally, two anomalous
end-of-tape events were observed. It was concluded that these could have been
triggered by noise in the system or could have resulted from some normal transient
in the television sequencing. (During the playback of the stored data, it was
verified that the recording sequence was normal because a failure would have
resulted in fewer than 21 pictures. In other words, only a normal sequence would
have yielded the 21 pictures plus the 22 lines of the 22d picture which were found
to be present on the tape.)
Tracking data gathered and analyzed during the encounter sequence indi-
cated that the Mars-encounter trajectory as predicted during the postmidcourse-
maneuver cruise portion of the flight was somewhat erroneous. Orbit computa-
tions made as early as 1 hour before encounter revealed that the actual magnitude
of the parameter B would not be the approximately 12 068 km (7500 statute miles)
from the center of Mars hoped to be attained by the performance of the midcourse
maneuver. (This discrepancy was previously discussed in ch. 2.)

Postencounter cruise

The command to terminate the recording sequence (DC-26) was observed in

the telemetry data on July 15, and confirmation was received that cruise science
was on and appeared normal. All engineering and science subsystems were per-
forming as before encounter. The remaining CC&S event to turn off the encounter
science (MT-8 event) occurred several hours later, but, since it had been pre-
empted by DC-26, this command had no effect upon spacecraft performance.
Approximately 1 _ hours after DC-26 was observed in the data, and approxi-
mately 1 1,4 hours after closest approach to Mars (which occurred at 01:00:58
GMT on July 15), the spacecraft RF signal was lost as Mariner IV entered the
Earth-occultation region behind Mars (i.e., that region where the spacecraft
passed behind Mars as viewed from the Earth, as shown in fig. 4-9). When the
spacecraft entered the occultation region, it was known that its radio signals would
pass obliquely through the atmosphere of the planet and would be attenuated and
bent, just as a stick appears to be bent when placed in water. Thus, by measuring
and then analyzing the changes in the characteristics (frequency and strength) of
the radio signals, it was hoped to learn more about the composition, density, and
scale height of the Mars atmosphere.

150
 FLIGHTHISTORYAND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

All four deep space stations then tracking Mariner IV were able to obtain
usable data. The occultation occurred about 8 min later than the time estimated
prior to closest approach. Less than 1 hour later, the spacecraft left the occultation
region and the spacecraft RF signal was reacquired. Analysis of the telemetry data
subsequent to the exit indicated that no apparent changes in the state of the space-
craft had taken place during the occultation and that performance was normal.
As Mariner IV left the vicinity of Mars, the gravitational pull of the planet
altered the heliocentric orbit of the spacecraft to such an extent that the perihelion
distance changed from 148 322 648 to 166 774 861 km (92 183 125 to 103 651 250
statute miles). Because the spacecraft passed underneath the planet, a heliocentric-
orbit-plane change of 2.67 ° occurred between the preencounter and postencounter
orbits. As was previously illustrated in figure 2-16, the postencounter orbit does
not intersect the Earth's orbit. The minimum distance between the orbits, which
represents the smallest possible closest approach distance between Earth and the
spacecraft, equals 16 335 373 km (10 152 500 statute miles). The spacecraft will
.....
-**-: n a close encounter ...... Ea _*_-
'":_" .... "In September 1. n,.7
,,,, at a ua:o.,
.... nce of approxi-
mately 47 264 375 km (29 375 000 statute miles).

Television picture playback

Postencounter cruise was terminated, and television picture playback was

initiated by the CC&S event MT-9 on July 15, approximately 81_ hours after the
spacecraft left the occultation region. The switch to data mode 4 (stored science
data playback) was confirmed. An anomaly was noted with MT-9 when two
events were registered in an event register rather than the expected single event.
Coincident with MT 9 was a CC&S cyclic command. It is believed that the two
events were sufficiently separated in time that each (rather than just one) caused
an increment in the event register.
After approximately 68 min of engineering data, the first data mode 4 data
were observed in the telemetry. Playback proceeded in a normal manner through
the termination of the playback on August 3. During this period, the data from
each of the pictures were transmitted to Earth twice, with the exception of the last
few lines of the 22d picture. Data recovery rate was quite high, and the perform-
ance of the spacecraft was normal throughout the playback sequence.
The first complete transmission of the stored data ended.July 24, and a second
transmission began automatically. This second playback was necessary to insure
that any data missing from the first transmission might be recovered and to pro-

151
MARINER-MARS1964

vide duplication of the remainder of the data for comparison purposes. Spot checks
of the data from both transmissions confirmed that the data were repeatable, so it
was decided to return the spacecraft to a cruise mode at the end of the second play-
back. The only anomaly occurred during the second playback when two events
were recorded in a data encoder register at the first end-of-tape signal. The track
change was normal, however, and the extra end-of-tape event was attributed to
dirt or foreign material on the end-of-tape foil.
Shortly before the playback phase was terminated, a second recording
sequence was considered to provide information on the behavior of the television
electronics for uniformly black pictures at each of the various gain settings. With
this possibility in mind, it was decided to terminate the playback in such a manner
that some portion of the Mars data would not be erased should another recording
sequence be performed. The playback was terminated in the 18th line of the 22d
picture, thus protecting all the complete pictures on the second track.
Since an electrical short in the 2400-hertz power supply for the video storage
subsystem would result in a "catastrophic" failure of the spacecraft power sub-
system, it was decided to send a DC-28 command on August 3 to turn off this
power supply. Data mode 1 (engineering data) was confirmed. Because this
command also disabled the boost mode and turned on the battery charger, it was
followed by a DC-26 command to turn off the battery charger and reenable the
boost mode. Then, a DC-2 command was sent to the spacecraft to inhibit the play-
back motor, switch to data mode 2 (engineering and science data), and turn on
cruise science.

Final 8 weeks

After return to a cruise configuration, all cruise-science instruments were

verified to be operating as before encounter, with all engineering subsystems per-
forming normally. The spacecraft continued to perform well throughout the final
8 weeks of the mission. One anomaly was noted: the cosmic dust detector instru-
ment began to return apparently abnormal data sporadically. Problems occurred
which caused the postponement of command sequences twice, but investigation
verified that in each case the problems were ground based rather than associated
with the spacecraft.
Various tests and operations were conducted during the remainder of the
postencounter cruise phase, in which it was possible to maintain contiguous telem-
etry coverage. Among these were inflight calibrations of the spacecraft radio and
command subsystems, which were considered necessary to any attempt to re-

152
 FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

acquire the spacecraft in 1967; and the "black space" encounter sequence to
provide television calibration data, which was considered necessary to provide an
insight into the possible fogging of Mars pictures resulting from some unknown
phenomenon in the television electronics. On August 30, the command to turn on
the encounter science (DC-25) was transmitted, and the scan platform search
mode was initiated. A DC 3 transferred the data encoder on the spacecraft to data
mode 3 (science data), a DC-24 inhibited the scan platform motion at 148.43 °,
and a DC-16 actuated the narrow-angle acquisition logic and initiated the record-
ing sequence. The following day, a DC-2 was transmitted to transfer the data
encoder to data mode 2 (engineering and science data), after which the ends of the
second and first tracks of the tape were indicated in the data. The data encoder
was transferred to data mode 2 by the data automation system after the tape was
positioned at the end of the second track (the 22d picture). The science subsystem
power and the scan-platform and video-storage-subsystem 400-hertz power were
turned off by a DC-26, and the video-storage-subsystem tape recorder changed
tracks after receipt of a DC-22.
A total of 101_ pictures was recorded during this sequence. After the space-
craft video-storage-subsystem track change, the first picture was ready for play-
back. Playback was initiated by ground command (DC-4), and data mode 1 data
(engineering data) appeared in the telemetry approximately one-half hour later.
Data mode 4 data (science data) were observed shortly afterward, and playback of
the first picture began. The stored data were played back until the first five pic-
tures, which included all the television gain settings, had been completed on
September 2. The sequence to return the spacecraft to its cruise configuration was
then begun. A DC-28, a DC-26, and a DC-2 were transmitted, and the first data
mode 2 data (engineering and science data) were observed in the telemetry,
indicating the completion of the television calibration sequence. The engineering
and science data indicated that all subsystems were performing as they had prior
to the initiation of the sequence.
Among the flight operations conducted during the final 8 weeks, a maneuver-
inhibit command (DC-13) and a minimum-turn and motor-burn command
(QCI-1, -2, and -3) were transmitted to Mariner IV on August 26 to protect
against an inadvertent midcourse maneuver which could take place if certain
specific failures of the CC&S were to occur prior to the 1967 reacquisition period.
Telemetry indicated that all commands were successfully received.
On August 27, a ground command to update the Canopus sensor cone angle
to the first optional position (DC-17) was transmitted. All previous cone angle up-

153
 le

MARINER-MARS 1964

dates were commanded automatically by the CC&S, but no master timer (MT)
event was provided for more than the four updates previously executed during the
postmidcourse-maneuver cruise phase. The new cone angle setting was 77.8 °.
On August 6 and again on September 3, the spacecraft-received carrier power
with command modulation applied was below the worst-case command threshold
for 10-kW transmitters at the prime deep space stations. The level remained low
thereafter. For a significant portion of the period after September 7, the space-
craft-received carrier power without command modulation applied was suffi-
ciently close to the absolute RF threshold to result in a drop in the ground-
received carrier power below the absolute telemetry threshold each time the space-
craft was "locked up" two-way, causing a loss of all data. To prevent this, two-way
tracking was forfeited, and the spacecraft was locked up only periodically for short
durations to prevent the spacecraft from transferring to receive by means of the
high-gain antenna.
On September 3, the average ground-received carrier power had reached the
worst-case telemetry threshold and had then dropped steadily as the spacecraft
high-gain antenna pointing error increased. On October 1, as predicted, the
carrier level was fast approaching the absolute telemetry threshold. On that day, a
command to transmit and receive by means of the low-gain antenna (DC-12) was
transmitted from the 100-kW transmitter at Venus DSS 13. This transfer pre-
cluded the cycling of the receiver between antennas by the radio subsystem logic
circuitry, thus permitting access from the 100-kW transmitter if desired. The
Mariner IV spacecraft was thus in the proper configuration for a projected
attempt to reacquire the spacecraft in 1967. Telemetry from Mariner IV was lost
at 22:05:07 GMT on October 1, 1965, at approximately 309.2 million km (192.2
million statute miles) from the Earth, marking the end of the mission.

Future operations for Mariner IV

The DSIF had determined that, if the Mariner IV transmitter was returned
to the omnidirectional low-gain antenna, it would be possible to track Mariner IV
as an RF source completely around its orbit of the Sun. Invaluable celestial-
mechanics data for reducing the present uncertainty in the astronomical unit
value and the ephemerides of the Earth and Mars could thus be obtained.
During the latter half of 1967, the spacecraft will again be within telemetry
reception range of the Earth. If the transmitter is still operating at that time and if
tracking schedules permit, it may be possible to recover additional cruise-science
information.

154
 FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

MISSION PLANNING AND DECISION PHILOSOPHIES

Launch

For the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions, two launch pads were used to obtain an
acceptable launch probability of success. The dual-pad requirement reduced the
hazards to mission success from "catastrophic" damage to the pad, either by
missions immediately preceding the first Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft launch or
by the first launch itself. This was important since the nominal launch period was
only about 27 days and since 21 days are normally required to refurbish a pad and
erect a second launch vehicle. Two pads thus permitted the immediate shift of
launch operations to the second pad if the vehicle on the first pad encountered
problems or was launched.
Primary operations during the launch phase were directed toward the ac-
complishment of the primary objectives: injection of the spacecraft successfully on
a Mars trajectory, deployment of the solar panels, and acquisition of the Sun.
Without the accomplishment of these objectives, the mission would be an immedi-
ate failure. (During the Mariner III mission, the shroud failure precluded all
three of the primary launch objectives and the spacecraft failed upon depletion of
the battery.) Secondary objectives during this phase were: turn-on of cruise science,
increase of the radio transmitted power (RF power up), removal of CC&S relay
holding current, turnoff of video-storage-subsystem launch mode, attainment of
magnetometer calibration roll, acquisition of Canopus, and assessment of the
capability of the spacecraft to perform the midcourse maneuver. Each of the
objectives, with the exception of injection (over which the Spacecraft Performance
Analysis and Command (SPAC) Team, discussed in ch. 6, had no control), had to
be examined; the procedure by which it could be verified had to be determined;
and appropriate plans for any corrective action had to be formulated.
Before launch, a standard sequence of events during Canopus acquisition was
established, since it was anticipated that star identification might pose a serious
problem and because the celestial geometry near launch made it probable that the
first star acquired would not be Canopus. The adopted sequence allowed the
spacecraft to acquire any object which fulfilled the Canopus sensor brightness
logic intensity requirements and to become roll stabilized to that star. All data
which might provide evidence as to the roll orientation of the spacecraft were
then gathered and evaluated. Based on this evaluation, a recommendation for
command action could be formulated and then implemented during the next
Pioneer DSS 11 pass.

155
 .o

MARINER-MARS 1964

Midcourse Maneuver

The midcourse maneuver was perhaps the most demanding phase of the
mission, for the SPAC and FPAC Teams (discussed in ch. 6) in particular.
Normally, the accuracy of injection is such that a midcourse correction is required
for a successful mission, and the required correction parameters must be furnished
by ground command. Careful monitoring of the performance of the spacecraft
during all phases of the midcourse maneuver is required since a nonstandard mid-
course maneuver may result in, at best, an unacceptable planetary-miss distance
and, at worst, a total spacecraft failure.
A capability existed for termination of the inidcourse maneuver by ground
command before rocket motor ignition, should an anomaly jeopardizing the suc-
cessful execution of a maneuver arise. Barring gross failure, a terminated sequence
would have no significant effect since the maneuver could be rescheduled and
performed successfully regardless of the number of previous aborts. For example,
the first attempt to correct the trajectory of Mariner IV was terminated because of
an unexpected loss of roll attitude shortly after the initiation of the maneuver
sequence. However, the following day (December 5) the maneuver was completed
without incident. Thus, the operations philosophy for the midcourse-maneuver
phase was determined by the abort capability inherent in the spacecraft design.
For the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions, it was fully expected that the maneuver
would be executed successfully without deviation from the predetermined plan.
Every consideration had been given to insure that the spacecraft would enter the
midcourse sequence in the proper state.

Postmidcourse-Maneuver (Interplanetary) Cruise

The nominal flight sequence of events was designed to be totally automatic

and to require no action from the ground for a normal flight. Such a design
relieves the mission from any dependence upon the ground-to-spacecraft com-
munications link, provided the CC&S on the spacecraft operates correctly. The
ground command function is necessary to the success of the mission only in the
event that the CC&S fails. This was the "cornerstone" of the functional redun-
dancy philosophy employed in the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft design. A strict
reliance on the functional branch of the spacecraft may, however, lead to a flight
sequence less than optimum. Thus, during the Mariner IV mission it was decided
to depart from the nominal sequence at those times when it was advantageous to
do so. The major departures are discussed in this section.

156
 t FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

Early in the Mariner IV mission, a recommendation was made and approved

to switch by ground command the spacecraft transmitter from the cavity amplifier
to the longer life, slightly more powerful traveling-wave-tube amplifier. This
switch represented the implementation of a plan formulated prior to launch. As
the distance from the Earth increased, the radio output of the spacecraft had to be
increased to mli_tain contact with the Earth. A DC-7 command was transmitted
to Mariner IV on December 13, and the transfer was successfully completed.
The traveling-wave-tube amplifier has a predicted lifetime far in excess of the
minimum Mariner-Mars 1964 requirements, and its known failure modes lead to
immediate "catastrophic" failure. The cavity amplifier, on the other hand, shows
definite aging effects which limit its useful lifetime to approximately the length of
the Mariner IV mission. Use of this amplifier during launch was necessary since
the traveling-wave-tube amplifier did not have the low power required for that
phase of the mission. Had the traveling-wave-tube amplifier failed at some later
time during the mission, the cavity amplifier would still have been available for the
remainder of the flight.
Another factor which contributed to the decision was the capability of the
spacecraft to transfer automatically from one power amplifier to the other if the
amplifier output stopped below a fixed point. Since the most likely failure mode of
the traveling-wave-tube amplifier is "catastrophic" failure, automatic switching
to the cavity amplifier would have taken place had the former failed. The most
likely failure mode of the cavity amplifier is gradual degradation; therefore, if
command capability had been lost, the spacecraft could have reached a state
where the output was so degraded that useful data could not be returned and yet
not sufficiently degraded to cause automatic switching to the traveling-wave-tube
amplifier.
After the transfer, the traveling-wave-tube amplifier operated as expected,
with one exception: from December 22 to 31, the helix current of the amplifier was
varying more than expected and generally tended to increase. This trend was
discovered to be a characteristic of the amplifiers used in space applications and
was considered normal.
Because of roll transients which had occurred, questions were raised concern-
ing the capability of the spacecraft to remain attitude stabilized in normal roll
control. When Canopus acquisition was lost and the star Gamma Velorum was
acquired on December 7, it was decided to allow the sensor to remain acquired to
Gamma Velorum by means of the high-gain antenna and to formulate a plan of

157
 ¢

MARINER-MARS 1964

action. (Roll orientation is critical during cruise only when transmitting or receiv-
ing; loss of acquisition then is accompanied by a loss of downlink communications
from the spacecraft.)
Transmission of a DC-15 command to the spacecraft would mean the
removal of the Canopus sensor brightness gates used for acquisition and would
thus prevent the initiation of roll search due to the observed high brightness gate
violations (found to be caused by transients resulting from dust particles illumi-
nated by the Sun). Since the spacecraft would respond slowly compared with the
speed of the violations, the sensor would remain oriented properly toward Cano-
pus regardless of the transient brightness seen. The only remaining mechanism for
this type of loss of acquisition with the gates removed would be that the sensor
would follow another object besides Canopus if the object were brighter than
Canopus and moving slowly enough through the sensor field of view to allow
spacecraft roll response.
The major drawback to this action would be that, since the gyro control unit
was controlled through the gate logic, there could be no gyro turn-on by ground
command should Canopus acquisition be lost. If the brightness gates were dis-
abled and the spacecraft was receiving by the high-gain antenna, it would require
662/_ to 1331/_ hours (the time required for the spacecraft logic to switch the
receiver back to the low-gain antenna automatically, thus restoring command
capability) to reacquire, should Canopus acquisition be lost. If Sun acquisition
were also lost, reacquisition within the required time might not be possible. How-
ever, since the probability for such a double loss of acquisition was quite low, the
risk was accepted.
Therefore, a DC-15 was transmitted on December 17, preceded by a DC-21
(roll override) to reacquire Canopus. Although a significant number of roll tran-
sients (approximately 40) were observed in the telemetry during the rest of the
mission, none caused the loss of Canopus acquisition. It was decided to remain in
the DC-15 condition when the transmitter was switched from the low-gain
antenna to the high-gain antenna because of the continuing occurrence of roll
transients. A more severe problem was presented by an apparent requirement to
switch the receiver to the high-gain antenna several weeks later. However, analysis
of the spacecraft RF characteristics in the transmit high-gain, receive low-gain
mode showed that an RF interference effect between the signals from the two
antennas into the receiver produced the unexpected advantage that command
capability could be maintained from the three prime tracking stations during the
remainder of the mission for all but a relatively brief period. Thus, the major

158
 \

FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACEVEHICLEPERFORMANCE

disadvantage associated with DC-I 5 was eliminated, and a decision to maintain

the DC-15 condition for the remainder of the mission was made.
Shortly after the switch of the spacecraft transmitter from the low-gain to the
high-gain antenna, it was found that the spacecraft-received signal strength and
the ground-received signal strength were varying in a manner which indicated
that some amount of RF interference was being experienced. This was felt to be a
problem only when the Earth was nearly alined with the boresight of the high-gain
antenna and the spacecraft was either transmitting or receiving by means of the
low-gain antenna. It was known that RF leakage by the high-gain antenna was
approximately of the same order of magnitude as the normal signal by the low-
gain antenna. The path length from the ground antenna to each of the spacecraft
antennas then determined the phase relationship of the two interfering signals,
causing either constructive or destructive interference.
An early switch of the spacecraft transmitter to the high-gain antenna had
been considered. However, analysis of the signal characteristics and other data
showed that the first null in the interference pattern (which would last from 3 to 5
days) would still yield signal strengths above the absolute telemetry threshold, and
that the telemetry data received would be of sufficient quality to allow normal
spacecraft data analysis. After the null, the received signal strength from the
spacecraft would begin to increase as the changing relative path length from the
two antennas to the Earth reached a point where the interfering signals began to
come into phase with each other. The CC&S-controlled switch of the spacecraft
to the high-gain antenna was scheduled for just after the time of the predicted peak
signal strength. Thus, it was decided to take no command action to effect an
early switch.
The CC&S-controlled transfer occurred as expected on March 5. Coincident
with the switch of the transmitter was a 15-dB increase in spacecraft-received
signal strength. Subsequent analysis indicated that the change of state of the cir-
culator switch controlling the antenna switch also changed the phase relationship
of the interfering signals on the Earth-to-spacecraft link, effectively changing the
position of the interferometer pattern.
Originally it had been predicted that command capability by means of the
spacecraft low-gain antenna could be maintained through April 8. Predictions,
however, included a very deep null in the interference pattern from March 24 to
April 1 for the 10-kW transmitters and from March 26 through 30 for the 100-kW
transmitter (Venus DSS 13). This null would have precluded command action
iust prior to loss of command capability by means of the low-gain antenna. Except

159
 1

MARINER-MARS 1964

for the command blackout period during the predicted null, command action
would be possible throughout the postencounter period by using the 100-kW
transmitter. Thus, the maximum loss of both uplink and downlink communica-
tions would be the period between the Goldstone Deep Space Communication
Complex passes. However, if the spacecraft was switched to receive by means of
the high-gain antenna, a loss of Canopus acquisition could result in a command
blackout of up to 1331/_ hours (with DC-15 in effect), the inaximum time until the
spacecraft automatically switched its receiver back to the low-gain antenna in the
event of a loss of uplink communications.
It was first decided to construct the spacecraft in such a manner that the
transfer of the spacecraft receiver to the high-gain antenna would take place auto-
matically on March 26. To accomplish this, no uplink RF lock could be estab-
lished until two consecutive CC&S cyclic pulses occurred. At the second pulse, the
receiver would transfer from one antenna to the other and, at each subsequent
pulse, would transfer again as long as the uplink RF lock was withheld. Thus, to
abort the transfer to the high-gain antenna, all that would be required was to
establish uplink RF lock with the spacecraft. Just prior to the cyclic pulse which
would have effected the transfer, it became apparent that the decrease in signal
strength received by the spacecraft was less than predicted. As additional telem-
etry became available, it was concluded that the null would probably still leave
a substantial command margin for even the 10-kW transmitter. A two-way RF
lock was established prior to the cyclic pulse, thus inhibiting the transfer of the
spacecraft receiver.
Analysis indicated that the error in the prediction of the spacecraft-received
signal strength was due to the fact that the circulator switch controlling the
antenna transfer had different characteristics in flight than those assumed prior to
launch. Predictions of the command margin for the remainder of the mission
showed a positive margin for all but a brief period during May and June, when
command capability could still be maintained from the 100-kW transmitter.
Therefore, it was decided that the spacecraft should continue to receive signals by
the low-gain antenna throughout the mission, pending a final review as the 10-
kW-transmitter command blackout approached in May.
Although the spacecraft-received carrier power using the 10-kW Earth-based
transmitters dropped as expected in May, it was recommended that the space-
craft still continue to receive signals by means of the low-gain antenna because:
(1) few failures could be hypothesized that were correctable by ground command

160
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

and that could not wait until the 100-kW transmitter could be used; and (2) the
significant risk of losing Canopus acquisition (since DC-15 was still in effect), and
therefore all command capability, would be present if the transfer were made.
Thus, the 100-kW transmitter would be kept ready for command transmission on
short notice. Periodic command loop lockups with both the 10- and 100-kW
transmitters were made during the remainder of the mission.

Early Science Cover Deployment Exercise

At the recommendation of the Encounter Planning Working (EPW) Group

(discussed later in this section), a science cover deployment exercise was per-
formed early to prepare the spacecraft for encounter. The science cover was
deployed on February 11, 1965, for the following reasons:
1. To minimize the possibility of losing lock on the star Canopus because of
slow-moving dust particles being shaken loose from the spacecraft by the inertia
of the spring-operated science cover when deployed by CC&S command MT-7.
2. To reveal possible but unexpected problems with the encounter sequence
in the actual flight environment, and to allow adequate preparations to enhance
the SPAC Team's capabilities for taking prompt corrective action.
3. To permit positioning of the scan platform to increase the probability of
planet acquisition and thus enable useful television data, especially in the event of
a scan system failure.
4. To provide information, such as temperature and power frequency shift,
which could be useful in assessing power subsystem operation at encounter.
5. To minimize the risk of a science cover deployment system failure by
actuating the system earlier in flight.

A series of operational tests was conducted to establish the proper times for com-
mand transmission in order to avoid any potential degradation to the system and
in order to confirm that timing errors and scan platform positioning uncertainties
were well within tolerance.
A command sequence was adopted which included all of a normal encounter
sequence, except the exercise of the video-storage-subsystem tape recorder in
either a record or reproduce mode. This exercise was not pertbrmed since the
risks involved were sufficiently large to compromise any possible value to be gained
by its accomplishment. In order to minimize the remaining risks, the command
sequence included a number of commands in a preliminary sequence designed to
verify the correct operation of the spacecraft as much as possible before sending

161
 Ii

MARINER-MARS 1964

any commands that might have irrevocable consequences. The fact that a minor
roll disturbance did occur during the science cover deployment exercise confirmed
the wisdom of the decision to conduct it at the early date.

Encounter

The basic design of the spacecraft provided for a completely automatic

planetary encounter sequence with no ground action required. If the ground
command option were to be available, however, there existed a number of possible
backups to the spacecraft automatic functions and, in addition, a number of
alternate modes which might be superior in a given situation to the normal mode
of operation. In order to provide the best possible sequence of events for the en-
counter, an Encounter Planning Working (EPW) Group was formed in January
1965 to operate in parallel with the SPAC Team for the purposes of investigating
all spacecraft encounter-related operations and modes and recommending a
detailed encounter sequence of events. Appropriate SPAC Team, J PL technical
division, and spacecraft subsystem representatives composed the EPW Group,
whose objectives were as follows:
1. To develop an encounter sequence which provided the maximum as-
surance of obtaining useful television and occultation data.
2. To determine the operational mode providing the greatest assurance of
maintaining attitude stabilization throughout encounter, thereby assuring real-
time planetary field data, particle experiment data, and occultation data.
3. To provide for full utilization of backups for all critical functions.
4. To select appropriate alternate modes for any functions that were both
time and functionally critical.

Based upon the findings of the EPW Group, an encounter sequence of events was
formulated by the director of the SPAC Team and was approved.
The basic procedures of the approved sequence were as follows: (1) turn on
the scan platform and at the same time start the television camera shutter operat-
ing; (2) stop the scan platform at the best angle for taking pictures; (3) start the
tape recorder at the proper time so that the pictures would be recorded; and (4)
stop the tape recorder at the proper time so that the pictures would not be erased.
The spacecraft was designed to produce this sequence automatically.
However, it took 25_ min for round-trip communications with the space-
craft; therefore, if the automatic sequence failed, little time would be left to
analyze the situation, send corrective commands, and wait 25_ min to see

162
 o

FLIGHTHISTORYAND sPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

whether the corrective commands were effective. Therefore, the optimum en-
counter plan was designed to anticipate possible troubles with enough lead time
for appropriate action. An initial set of commands would be sent to the spacecraft
to start the scan platform and the television shutter and then to stop the platform
at the optimum angle. If these commands were not effective, the automatic
sequence would then act as a backup. If the automatic sequence should also fail,
enough time would remain to recycle the events for another attempt at the
sequence. When Mars came into the field of view of the television lens, a command
would be sent to turn on the tape recorder. This command would serve as a
backup to the automatic sequence. The same procedure would be used to stop the
tape recorder at the proper time.
In preparation for the encounter, tests were conducted involving nominal
encounter operations and possible encounter operations with a failure-mode con-
dition. These tests were designed to exercise space flight operations (SFO) Sys-
tem analysis and operations personnel (described in ch. 6) in the performance
of their duties and to develop and maintain the proficiency required for proper
participation during the planetary-encounter portion of the Mariner IV mission.
All such testing was conducted from April 13 to July 12, 1965.
The major problem in encounter operations was the transmission delay
between the Earth and the spacecraft. Approximately 13 min was required from
data transmission at the spacecraft until data presentation to the SPAC Team;
more than 12_ min were required from command initiation at the DSIF until
command execution at the spacecraft. Thus, immediate response to anomalous in-
dications in the data could only reduce the effective reaction time in an emergency
situation to a minimum of 25_ min. Conversely, normal command action as a
part of the sequence of events could be taken only if it were assumed that nothing
abnormal had occurred in the 13 min prior to command initiation and that
nothing abnormal would occur during the 12 _ min before command execution.
Since most commands to be transmitted were time critical or functionally
critical, it was important to prevent accidental loss of command lock and, if such a
loss occurred, to provide for a minimum-time reacquisition of the command loop.
Only deep space station personnel could act on the former, but the latter could be
achieved by maintaining the command subcarrier at the slightly offset, minimum-
lockup-time frequency normally used for initial lockup and not for command
transmission. This offset was not large enough significantly to increase the proba-
bility of dropping lock at encounter signal levels. Whereas this provision was not
required during the actual encounter sequence, the flawless operation of the corn-

163
MARINER-MARS 1964

mand detector and decoder in accepting and executing all commands verified the
practicability of this approach for such critical operations.
Only minor departures were made from the recommended encounter se-
quence of events during the actual Mariner IV encounter phase.

Postencounter

Planning for the postencounter phase consisted of determining, evaluating,

and selecting those activities which were to be attempted before the communica-
tions threshold with the spacecraft was reached. The activities considered were
those needed to prolong communications with the spacecraft during 1965, to
enhance the reacquisition of the spacecraft in 1967, and to exploit the utility of the
spacecraft as an engineering test instrument subsequent to the achievement of the
primary mission objectives. The basic ground rules used in making decisions
relative to the postencounter activities were that the accepted activity had to: (1)
provide enhancement of the data already received (e.g., the television calibration
sequence); (2) protect the accumulation of a maxinmm amount of deep-space
science data in 1965 (e.g., by updating of the Canopus sensor cone angle, which
would allow Canopus acquisition until 1966); or (3) enhance the possibility of
reacquiring the spacecraft in 1967 (e.g., by using the midcourse-maneuver inhibit
sequence and by switching the spacecraft transmitter to the low-gain antenna).
Special spacecraft tests which did not jeopardize the successful achievement of the
above objectives would also be permissible.
Shortly before the playback phase of the mission was terminated, it was
recommended that a second recording sequence be considered. Such a sequence
could provide information on the behavior of the television electronics in provid-
ing uniformly black pictures at each of the various gain settings. With this possi-
bility in mind, it was further recommended that playback be terminated in such a
manner that some portion of the Mars data would not be erased should another
recording sequence be performed. By stopping the tape at some position other
than at the foil marking the end of the tape, from 1 to 10_ pictures could be
protected, since in a recording sequence the tape would run only until the end-of-
tape foil had been crossed twice. It was decided to terminate playback in the 18th
line of the 22d picture, thus protecting all the complete pictures on the second
track.
The calibration sequence was begun on August 21, when the star Altair was
at a proper cone angle to be photographed. While this star, a light source of low
magnitude, would not be resolved by the television subsystem, the effects of the

164
 i

FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

light source would be apparent in any pictures, thus providing calibration data
for the television optics as well as for the electronics. A normal two-way RF lock
was established with the spacecraft, command modulation was applied, and the
command detector locked up. All telemetry indications were normal, so the first
command in the sequence, a DC-25 (encounter science on), was transmitted. It
was planned to follow the planetary encounter sequence of events closely with, of
course, the automatic events. However, shortly after transmission, the telemetry
indicated that the carrier power at the spacecraft was fluctuating severely. Several
samples indicated momentary drops of lock by the command detector as the
carrier level at the spacecraft dropped below threshold. Since these momentary
out-of-lock indications appeared to indicate either a DSIF failure or a spacecraft
failure, it was decided to terminate this calibration sequence.
Since the DC-25 command was being executed at the spacecraft, an emer-
gency command sequence had to be used for returning the spacecraft to a
cruise mode. Redundant commands were included to avoid the possibility that
one of the momentary command dropouts would fall just prior to or during the
receipt of any of the commands, thus inhibiting execution of the command. The
spacecraft was, however, returned to cruise with no anomalies occurring.
Although the following day was also acceptable for the exercise using the star
Altair, no exercise was to be scheduled unless assurance could be given that no
failure or problem had occurred in the spacecraft radio or command equipment
and that earlier problems at the deep space stations involved had been resolved.
Since insufficient time remained to give this assurance, it was decided to forgo the
exercise until a full analysis could be made of spacecraft and DSIF performance.
This analysis revealed the problems to have been caused by deep space station
anomalies, and these problems were subsequently resolved.
The second attempt at the calibration sequence occurred on August 30 and
was successful. This try differed from the first only in that no star of sufficient
magnitude was available as a light source. Therefore, the data gathered applied
only to the television electronics and not to the optics. The use of the small 10-kW
transmitter at Echo DSS 12 was possible, since during this period the RF inter-
ferometer effect aided, rather than degraded, communications capability. The
sequence proceeded without incident. A nonstandard time to the first end-of-tape
foil was due to the tape position at the start of the sequence; tile playback of the
encounter data had been terminated just before the foil on the tape signaled the
end of tape, thus allowing the calibration sequence to record over only half the
planetary data, with the video storage subsystem automatically inhibiting after

165
MARINER-MARS 1964

the foil had been passed twice. The spacecraft transferred back to data mode 2
(engineering and science data) after the tape was positioned at the end of the
second track (the 22d television picture). The stored data were then played back
until the first five pictures (including all the television gain settings) had been
completed. The spacecraft was then returned to a cruise configuration.
The transmission of a DC-13 (midcourse-maneuver inhibit) to the spacecraft
had been considered prior to planetary encounter. This command would protect
against an inadvertent midcourse maneuver if a failure occurred in the CC&S on
the spacecraft. Since the likelihood of this occurring before encounter was very
small and since the maneuver could have been inhibited by ground command,
even if the failure occurred, it was decided not to send the command prior to the
encounter. After encounter, however, the major portion of the mission objectives
had been completed, and new objectives--to track the spacecraft in its orbit
around the Sun and to attempt to reacquire it in 1967--had been added. There-
fore, it was necessary to condition Mariner IV so that it would be in an optimum
configuration. If an inadvertent midcourse maneuver should occur, the helio-
centric orbit of the spacecraft would be altered. In order to prevent this occur-
rence, it was necessary to send a DC-13 on August 26. As an additional safeguard,
a command (QCI-1, -2, and -3) for minimum roll and pitch turns and for a mini-
mum motor-burn time was also sent at that time.
The spacecraft was receiving on the high-gain antenna, which, because of
its narrow beam, must be pointed directly at the Earth to receive a signal. How-
ever, there was no guarantee that this antenna would be pointing at the Earth in
1967, even if it was assumed that Mariner IV was still locked on Canopus. There-
fore, the spacecraft was switched by a DC-12 on October 1 to receive on the low-
gain omnidirectional antenna in order to improve chances for reacquisition in
1967.

Future Operations for Mariner IV

The second phase of Mariner IV operations will consist of periodic contacts

with the spacecraft by the Deep Space Network (DSN) by using advanced com-
munications techniques. During this period, commands to update the Canopus
cone angle will be sent if and when system capability is available. (Telemetry
reception capability is not expected.) Two-way experiments from which some
Doppler data may be extracted will be attempted by using the 100-kW trans-
mitter at Venus DSS 13. Additional trajectory data may be provided which will
yield further information on the inherent accuracy of DSN and possibly improve
 1,

FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

our values of certain astrodynamical constants. Finally, the spacecraft will act as a
far-field calibration device for DSN. The second phase of operations will officially
be terminated when Mariner IV telemetry data can once again be received by a
standard configuration of DSN (expected in 1967). This date depends upon the
operational mode chosen (low-gain omnidirectional versus high-gain antenna
mode) and the DSN performance capabilities available at the time.
The operational plans for the third phase of operations are much more com-
plex than for the first two phases and are still under study. This basic opportunity
to reacquire the spacecraft is unique in that it presents the possibility of exploring a
heretofore unexplored locale in space. Also, very valuable information for space-
craft engineering technology concerning longevity characteristics of spacecraft
may be extracted. Indeed, the continued operation of Mariner IV in 1967 could
well affect our basic approach to system design philosophy. Information on failure
modes and mechanisms could be obtained on a restricted level by discrete exercise
of various redundant provisions inherent in the spacecraft design. Redundancy
exists for many of the critical elements required for success of the 1967 reacquisi-
tion effort. In fact, most of the redundant aspects of Mariner IV have not yet been
utilized. Inherently, however, the greatest advantage of the reacquisition effort
lies in the basic scientific importance of continued sampling of interplanetary
conditions for an extended period during a time of relatively high solar activity.
The preparation and support directly associated with the Mariner IV reacqui-
sition effort have been officially designated the Mariner IV project.

MARINER IV SUBSYSTEM PERFORMANCE

Structure and Mechanisms

Because the functions of all the structural and many of the mechanical items
on the spacecraft were passive during and after launch, little telemetry was
transmitted about their performance. Thus, the inflight performance of these
items, as well as that of the electronic packaging and cable harnessing, could only
be deduced from other flight information. All such information indicated satis-
factory performance.
Telemetry was recovered during the flight on the operation of the following
mechanical devices:
1. Separation-initiated timer and pyrotechnics arming switch. Telemetry
event indications verified that either the separation-initiated timer or the pyro-

167
 _t

MARINER-MARS1964

technics arming switch energized the pyrotechnics subsystem. It was not deter-
mined which one armed the subsystem since Agena D/spacecraft-separation
telemetry data were not available for this operation. The first available telemetry
from the data encoder counter, received about 3 min after spacecraft separation,
indicated normal solar panel deployment and unlatch of the scan platform, both
actuated by the separation-initiated timer.
2. Solar panel deployment springs. Telemetry indicated that each of the
four solar panels had been deployed by the solar panel deployment springs to
within 20 ° of the fully open position. Temperature and power measurements later
confirmed the deployment.
3. Cruise dampers. From the accuracy of the midcourse maneuver, it could
be deduced that the solar panels did deploy and latch in the fully open position
and that any panel excursions during the motor firing were adequately damped.
4. Scan actuator. During the science cover deployment exercise on February
11, the scan actuator functioned normally for 127 min (approximately 11 scan
cycles), the average cycle lasting 11 min 52.9 sec. During the 108 rain of actuator
operation at encounter, which was again normal, the average cycle lasted 11 min
53.2 see. For the 66 min of actuator operation during the aborted picture-taking
sequence of the star Altair on August 21, the average cycle was 11 min 53.8 sec.
The operating period for the completed television calibration sequence on August
30 was 139 min, with an average cycle lasting 11 min 53.5 sec.
5. Scan inhibit switch. The data encoder event register indicated that the
scan inhibit switch operated perfectly when the pinpuller latching the scan plat-
form was fired at spacecraft separation. The subsequent successful operation of
the scan actuator verified this indication.
6. Science cover. On February 11, the science cover was unlatched by a
solenoid initiated by the pyrotechnics subsystem. This operation was verified by
a change in data number of the spacecraft identification channel (fig. 4-10) and
by a decrease in scan platform temperature.

Radio
The radio subsystem operated continuously with no evidence of any mal-
function or degradation of performance. However, the following anomalies were
observed:
1. Variation in traveling-wave-tube helix current after the switch to the
traveling-wave-tube amplifier on December 13 (fig. 4-11). This variation was
found to be a characteristic of these components and was therefore considered
normal.

168
 ,I

" FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Q

I00

9O

__._SCIENCE COVER
BO DEPLOYED ON

FEBRUARYII

7O

60
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 260

DAYS FROM LAUNCH

FIGURE 4-10.--Data number as a function of days from launch, as registered on

spacecraft telemetry identification channel for science cover position.

52.59 8.40

SWITCH TO TRAVELING - WAVE- TUBE .

56
/ AMPLIFIER ON DECEMBER

V
13

Z
J 40.Zl ID ?.70
m

54
_ az

52

_o 43.82 7.00
326 366 40 80 120 I(SO 200 240
1964 1965

DAY OF YEAR

FIGURE 4-11.--Data number as a function of day of year, as registered on spacecraft telemetry

identification channel for traveling-wave-tube helix current.

169
 J

e
MARINER-MARS 1964

2. Interferometer effect. Since the "effective" isolation provided by the

circulator switches, which switched the transmitter or receiver to operate with the
high-gain or the low-gain antenna, was finite, the transmission or reception of the
same signal over both antennas was possible. The relative amplitude of the com-
posite signal varied with look angle to the spacecraft, and this variation, called the
interferometer pattern of the two antennas, could have a constructive or destruc-
tive effect. For Mariner IV, the pattern was such that the maximum occurred at
the look angles during encounter. Fortunately, the interferometer pattern pro-
vided higher gain than normal for the critical portion of the mission and yet had
low gain for command reception capability in the event the spacecraft lost attitude
control. The spacecraft-received carrier power plotted as a function of date in
figure 4-12 demonstrates the interferometer effect. The Earth-received carrier
power is shown in figure 4-13.

-I00 ,
PREDICTED

0 ACTUAL

• TOLERANCE

E -=_o
nn

hi

n.-
u.I -120

cl[ e_e e e ' sHIGH GAIN

a
ILl

tLI
"
_ -130

U_

0
UJ
b * " " i

(/) -140

i
-1501 I • •
28 AU'_
28 NOV 31 DEC 9 FEB 21 MAR 30 APR 9 JUNE 19 ,JULY

DATE, 1964-1965

FIGURE 4-12.--Spacecraft-received carrier power as a function of date, showing

interferometer effect.

170
 4

$ FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

-130 I f I I I

"10 0 ACTUAL
PREDICTED
a."
. • TOLERANCE
u.I - 140

0
o.

LIJ

.. f_.. I
r_
C_
b.I
-150

•• - . "" "" "

m
I.iJ
o
bJ
n,,
I
-160
•
nr LOW GAIN
I-- "---'-'J _ • ACTUAL POINTS ARE DATA FROM

PIONEER DSS 11, CORRECTED

LIJ
FOR CALIBRATION BIAS

! I !
1-
28 NOV 19 JULY 28 AUG
31 DEC 9 FEB I 21 MAR 30 APR 9 JUNE
/
_MT-5

DATE, 1964-1965

FICURE 4--13.--Earth-received carrier power as a function of date.

3. Frequency shift by CC&S cyclic command. Both receivers at the Tidbin-

billa Station dropped lock momentarily at the time of the CC&S cyclic command
on December 23. After that occurrence, transients were observed every time a
cyclic command occurred while in one-way lock, and analysis indicated that this
had been the case since launch. The problem was traced to an auxiliary oscillator
that, while operating in one-way lock, would shift frequency slightly when a cyclic
command pulse was received, because of additional loading on the power supply.
The frequency shift appeared in the spacecraft RF carrier signal as a drop in
received signal strength.
4. Best lock frequency change. The best lock frequency is that onto which the
spacecraft receiver automatic-phase-control loop will lock in minimum time. Be-
cause of aging and temperature differences, the Mariner IV best lock frequency
changed from its prelaunch value. However, by use of two different methods to
update the frequency during the flight, the ground stations repeatedly obtained
two-way lock with the spacecraft within a few seconds after the signal arrived at
the spacecraft.

171
 P

MARINER-MARS 1964

Data Encoder

The data encoder subsystem operated normally throughout the mission. As

predicted before launch, several position skips (deck skips) and position resets
(deck resets) in the telemetry commutation cycle occurred coincidentally with
changes in the spacecraft power profile. These skips and resets were due to the
susceptibility of the commutator to electrical transients and they had no effect on
the mission other than a change of reference time for science frame count and deck
synchronization. The only unexplainable deck skips occurred shortly after launch
while the spacecraft was passing through the Van Allen radiation belts and once
coincidentally with CC&S command MT-1 (first Canopus cone angle update).
An extra event was observed in a data encoder register in addition to the
single event normally associated with CC&S command MT-9 (turnoff of cruise
science, start of picture playback). This event was believed to be due to the non-
simultaneous closure of the two relays associated with MT-9 and a CC&S cyclic
command pulse which was coincident with it.

Video Storage
The functional specification for the video storage subsystem stipulated two
prime requirements: storing 20 television pictures and playing them back at an
error rate of less than 1 in 105 bits. The subsystem actually recorded and stored
21 full pictures and approximately one-tenth of the 22d picture. Thus, the first
prime requirement was fulfilled. By comparison of redundant information from
one picture to another and of pictures from the first playback to the corresponding
pictures from the second playback, the error rate was found to be satisfactory.
Among the anomalies which occurred were two abnormal false shutter indications
observed on July 15 on a data automation system (DAS) telemetry channel after
the start of picture taking. The origin of these indications is not known, but no data
were found that link them definitely to the video storage subsystem. No anomalies
affected the performance of the subsystem.
The second playback of the Mars planetary data was stopped before comple-
tion so that, after the television calibration sequence of August 30, valid Mars data
would remain on tape for a recorder playback test during the proposed reacquisi-
tion of Mariner IV in 1967. During the sequence on August 30, 10 _ pictures were
recorded and the first 5 were played back, thus protecting all the Mars data on the
second track. Characteristics of the subsystem during playback of the calibration
sequence were the same as those during playback of the planetary data.

172
 ¢,

FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACEVEHICLEPERFORMANCE

Command

Analysis of spacecraft telemetry indicated that all 85 commands (by October

1, 1965) sent by the command subsystem were received and correctly acted upon
by the other spacecraft subsystems. It can thus be concluded that all 85 commanbs
were received with no bit errors, though it is not possible to perform a statistical bit
error test on a spacecraft in flight. The few anomalies which occurred were re-
solved without difficulty.

Attitude Control

Sun acquisition was maintained by the attitude-control subsystem without

incident throughout the mission, except, as expected, during the midcourse-ma-
neuver sequence. A significant problem was caused by roll transients believed to
be the result of bright flashes external to the spacecraft and detected by the Ca-
nopus star sensor. It was theorized that a dust particle of minute size, floating close
to the Canopus sensor and shining brightly in the sunlight, might have so in-
creased the brightness registered in the attitude-control subsystem that the space-
craft released its lock on Canopus and began to track the dust particles. As the
particles drifted out of the field of view of the sensor, the spacecraft was left in a
star-search mode. After this phenomenon had repeated itself several times, it was
decided to initiate an alternate control mode by the transmission of a ground
command (DC-15) on December 17 to disable (desensitize) the brightness gates
and the automatic reacquisition logic in the Canopus star sensor. The capability
to react to excessive brightness had been included only to prevent Earth lock, and
by December 17 the Earth was moving well out of the way. From that time on,
there was never a loss of Canopus acquisition in spite of approximately 40 observed
roll transients.
There were no other anomalies observed which might have jeopardized the
success of the mission, although problems were encountered in the solar-pressure-
vane system operation. The first solar-pressure-vane measurements were coinci-
dent with the turn-on of the adaptive mode actuators at the time of the CC&S
L-3 event (initial star acquisition). It was then observed that the vanes had been
deployed beyond the nominal position angle of 35 ° below the plane of the solar
panels and were much nearer than expected to the plane of the panels. This vane
position difference was due to an unsuspected source of friction present during
ground testing, but not present in the space environment. Nevertheless, there was
a net restoring torque of about 1.1 dyne-cm/deg about the pitch axis and 1.7 dyne-
cm/deg about the yaw axis. The +X and -X vanes (yaw) worked properly in

173
 b

MARINER-MARS 1964

the adaptive mode by canceling out an initial unbalanced torque of 25 dyne-cm,

probably due to the skewed angle of the high-gain antenna. The positions of the
+X and -X vanes are shown in figure 4-14. The +Y and - Y vanes are defi-
nitely in a failed mode, probably because the actuators, which were designed to
rotate the vanes about their deployed positions to cancel out unbalanced solar
torques, locked up electrically.
The thermal actuators were designed to provide damping such that, after
the stepping motor actuators had canceled out the unbalanced torque, the limit
cycle would be damped out within the deadband of the gas subsystem. The +X
and -X vanes were expected to operate in the thermal mode to damp out the
limit cycle. After the unbalanced torque was reduced to about 5 dyne-cm, the
disturbance torques were quite variable. The maximum restoring torque of the
spacecraft over the -t-0.5 ° limit cycle was 0.85 dyne-cm and the vane damping
was 0.30 dyne-cm. It was not possible for the thermal actuators to perform their
function under these circumstances. These disturbance torques were probably due
to the normal leakage of the gas valves.

/
E
u
i

_" o
ANGULAR POSITION MEASURED FROM
INITIAL POSITION OF DEPLOYMENT
SUCH THAT A POSITIVE ANGULAR
CHANGE PRODUCES A CONTINUOUS
WAVE RESTORING TORQUE
m

-20

o
I,- .... t .....

-5o

-- - X VANE
. 8
z
_o I
I-

___. + X VANE

zo
<[
-4
326 346 366 20 40 60 80 IO0 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 Z60 280

1964 1965

DAY OF YEAR

FzOtJRE 4-14.--Solar-pressure-vane angular position and torque imbalance as functions of day

of year.

174
 4,

FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Central Computer and Sequencer

Power was initially applied to the CC&S at approximately 4_ hours before

launch, and operation continued uninterrupted after turn-on. On August 5, after
251 days of operation, the clock had lost a total of 188.5 sec, resulting in an accu-
mulated clock error (fig. 4-15) of only -0.00087 percent.
The unexplained anomalies which occurred during the flight that may have
been associated with the CC&S were the data encoder deck skip coincident with
CC&S-command MT-1 (first Canopus cone angle update) and the extra event
in the CC&S register following MT-9 (turn-on of cruise science, start of picture
playback). None of the anomalies affected spacecraft operation, however.

Power

Operation of the solar panels began when the Sun was acquired. Since the
spacecraft was in the Earth's shadow for a shorter time than expected, no zener
diode operation was required. Differences in solar panel currents immediately

/
m"
O
ne
n,-
uJ

o -120
¢.9

uJ

IE -80

• °
O
O

"--- SLOPE = -0.00085 N

-40
_ _ SL?PE = -0.00_)82%

MT- 6"-'-1 _ i_--- SLOPE_

=-0.00078%

o I 1
28 NOV 31 DEC 9 FEB 21 MAR 30 APR 9 JUNE 19 JULY 28 AUG T OCT

DATE, 1964-1965

FIGURE 4-15.--CC&S accumulated clock error as a function of date.

175
MARINER-MARS 1964

after Sun acquisition resulted from variations in panel temperatures; however,

after I hour the temperatures equalized and the currents merged. For the remain-
der of the mission the individual panels performed as predicted, and no abnor-
malities or degradations were encountered: Because of the relatively small pitch
turn of approximately 39 ° during the midcourse maneuver, the solar panels
supplied all the spacecraft power, and the battery was not required. The con-
sumption of solar panel power during the mission is shown in figure 4-16.
With the exception of a higher-than-expected battery voltage, operation of
the power subsystem was completely normal and predictable throughout the
flight. With the battery charger on, by December 2 the battery voltage had risen
to 34.8 volts de. The charger was turned off on February 11, and on February 22
the voltage reached a new high of 35.0 volts de. After that, it increased steadily,
except for a brief period during which the changing of spacecraft loads resulted in
a lower voltage. When the antenna changeover was made on October 1, the
voltage read 37.2 volts de. A plot of battery voltage as a function of the day of the
year is given in figure 4-17. Two theories were advanced to explain the battery
voltage increase. They are as follows:
1. The increase was a normal consequence of the 0-g gravitational field, the
temperature effects, and the small (1.6-mA) charge current produced by the
battery voltage telemetry transducer.

750 I I
-- CAPABILITY

O POWER CONSUMED

600

430

TR_VEL; t_1_ -WN AvE-TUBE _

IF BATTERY CHARGER OFF _._I_OUNT(:_,I

150
o oo
PLAY_BAC K ._

0 I
28 NOV 31 DEC 9 FEB 21 MAR 30 APR 9 JUNE 19 JULY 28 AUG 7 OCT

DATE, IcJ64-1965

FIGURE4-16.--Solar panel power as a function of day of year.

176
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

3el

>
. 37

I--
.-I
o
> 36

>,-

bJ
I--
I.-
< 35
m

34
326 366 40 80 120 160 ZOO 240 280 :320

1964 1965
DAY OF YEAR

FIGURE 4-17.--Battery voltage as a function of day of year.

2. The battery case had cracked, and the electrolyte was leaking out slowly
and evaporating, producing an open cell which the battery voltage telemetry
transducer interpreted as increased voltage.

Since the voltage did not exceed 38.0 volts de, a limit at which the second theory
would become the more likely one, a positive determination of which theory is
correct does not appear possible. Numerous attempts to resolve the problem
proved unsuccessful.

Pyrotechnics

All indications for pyrotechnics subsystem events were received as expected.

Pyrotechnics current indications were seen at the CC&S L-1 event (deploy solar
panels, unlatch scan platform), but these indications were not considered abnor-
mal since pinpullers have a possibility of shorting after they have been fired. A
nominal-voltage-to-solenoid event was received as part of the planetary encounter
sequence, an indication that one channel of the pyrotechnics subsystem was still
nominally charged and functioning.

Propulsion

Inflight telemetry coverage of the propulsion subsystem performance was

excellent throughout the mission. Nitrogen tank pressure remained constant up to
the time of the midcourse maneuver, an indication that the system was leaktight.

177
MARINER-MARS 1964

The propellant tank pressure and oxidizer pressure also maintained a constant
value up to the time of the midcourse maneuver. Motor ignition and thrust ter-
mination were verified, the burning time being the predicted 20.06 sec. The de-
livered velocity increment was calculated to be within 5 percent of that of the
commanded maneuver. Even this discrepancy might be attributable to computa-
tional error and thus does not necessarily indicate an error in the execution of the
maneuver. The propulsion subsystem remained leaktight throughout the mission,
presenting no anomalous torques to the spacecraft and providing a reliable second
midcourse-maneuver correction capability.
A pressure rise of approximately 27 579 N/sq m (4 lb/sq in.) noted in the
fuel tank on February 3 was not totally unexpected, since a similar problem was
noted on most previous propulsion subsystems. An incompatibility between the
fuel tank bladder material and the hydrazine fuel was the probable cause of the
increase. No detrimental effect to the propulsion subsystem or the spacecraft took
place as a result of this rise, and no further increase was noted.

Temperature Control

Monitored temperatures remained within allowable limits throughout the

flight. The flight temperatures were generally lower than prelaunch predictions,
as demonstrated by a typical plot--that for the solar panel temperatures--in
figure 4-18. These lower values resulted because space simulator tests prior to the
mission were conducted at higher solar intensities than those encountered during

_'NOMINAL '

0 FLIGHT DATA 60

I J

\ _o_

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 28o _o

TIME FROM LAUNCH, doys

I I I 1 I I I I 1 I I l 1 I l I I

DATE, 1964-1965

FIOURE 4-18.--Solar panel temperature as a function of time

from launch.

178
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

the flight. The flight results indicated that all temperature-control hardware
functioned normally and that no unexplained temperature anomalies occurred.
The absorptivity standard provided valuable information regarding the degrada-
tion of surfaces in space and the problems resulting from space simulator testing.
Temperature histories for the four samples tested are given in figure 4-19. The
solar absorptance determinations were not successful, however, because of the
magnitude of the radiation and conduction losses.

Scieace

Television

The television instrument was turned on and operated twice during the
Mariner IV mission: during the science cover deployment exercise on February

18C
I I I
(a) WHITE SAMPLE _THERMOMETER No. (C) ALUMINUM SILICONE SAMPLE
16C

14C
__ PRED,CT,ON
_"SEDON
I I o _THERMOMETER No.
• PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS;
rEC
F_
_.
o
IOC
i
,S _. DOESo_ NOT
I INCLLOE LOSSES
O ACTUAL

PREDICTED

.
PRE

BASED ON
s\
a LABORATORY
3 o ACTUAL

SURFACE PROPERTY -- PREDICTED

MEASUREMENTS;
NOT INCLUDE
DOES
LOSSES
"1
\
4C

2C
1 i
4

, J i -'-P.-- i i I I I i i

, i i i , , , i
240 _TH'ERMO_AETEI_ NO,

2_
TT!ER_R N_ (b) BLACK SAMPLE (d) POLISHED ALUMINUM SAMPLE

! _ PREDICTION BASED ON
LABORATORY SURFACE
k_E ....
_/_1 _IN
;_ _ -PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS;
IO< DOES NOT INCLUOE LOSSES

o ACTUAL
PREDICTED
22C

I 'ASEDON
I r',,,,
160 PREDICTION -- O
a o ACTUAL
Q:
-- PREDICTED
20C 140 LABORATORY SURFACE _

CALIBRATION r PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS ; _

SHIFT
I- 18C

, ".,,
16C

14C
10012080 DIOES NOT INCLUDE LOSSES _,_ _ _'_z_
I
04
tgC i I I L I i i i i i i i 60 i i i i i J i i i i
61626

JULY

DATE, 1964-1965 DATE. 1964-1965

FIGURE 4-19.--Absorptivity-standard sample temperature histories.

179
MARINER-MARS 1964

ll and during the Mars encounter phase on July 14 and 15. The command to
deploy the science cover (DC-25) also turned on the television. When the switch
to data mode 3 (science data) was made, real-time telemetry data on the television
instrument were received. Reduction of the data from 60 frames provided the
following results: The data indicated that the shutter exposure time was 200 msec
and that no planet-in-view signal had been received or generated. The gain
control computer remained inhibited in the minimum-gain state, and the video
level was less than 2 volts. All received indications were normal for the science
cover deployment exercise, and no anomalies were detected. The turnoff of the
television instrument was timed to insure that the shutter was in a closed position.
The television was turned on by a DC-25 for the encounter operations. The
instrument had operated for approximately 7a/_ hours prior to the switch to data
mode 3. The shutter filter indication was proper, as were the exposure time of 200
msec, the lack of a planet-in-view signal, the video indication of less than 2 volts,
and the minimum-gain position of the computer. On frame 41 of the DAS frame
counter after wide-angle acquisition, a planet-in-view signal was indicated. All
other television data remained the same. It is felt that the television received the
planet-in-view signal from DAS with the Mars gate as the originator. On the next
frame, frame 42,.the data indicated more than 2 volts of video signal. Frame 43
indicated that the television had switched out of the photometer mode and into the
normal mode, and the inhibit was released from the gain control computer. The
computer remained in the minimum-gain state since the video signal was large
enough, but it was not sufficiently large to cause the shutter exposure time to
switch to the backup time of 80 msec. The first picture was recorded during
frame 43.
The data remained the same with the filter color alternating until frame 59,
where the video signal level was less than 2 volts. In frame 60 the level was again
over 2 volts. Frame 59 had indicated a green filter, and the subsystem was designed
so that the gain would change after a green picture with less than 2 volts of video.
The gain, however, did not change and stayed at minimum until frame 68, where
it stepped up one level. (In frame 67 the video signal level was again less than 2
volts.) The gain switched again in frame 70 and switched to maximum in frame
72. The video signal indications remained less than 2 volts until frame 72, where
the level again was over 2 volts. The spacecraft then switched to data mode 2
before data could be received on frame 73.
The television pictures received during the sequence demonstrate, along with
the telemetry data, that the television instrument operated perfectly.

180
 FLIGHT HISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE

Helium magnetometer

The performance of the magnetometer during all phases of the mission was
nominal, and no anomalies were observed. During the period before Canopus
acquisition, the magnetometer was used in the determination of the spacecraft
orientation, and during this roll period the X and Y components of the magnetic
t-1.
field of the spacecraft were detcrmined. Whcn the gyros came on, ,._e magnetom-
eter indicated a shift of several data numbers; therefore, the magnetometer was
useful in establishing the time the gyros came on or went off. Since the perform-
ance of the instrument during and after encounter was nominal, the planetary
measurements obtained can be accepted with a high degree of confidence.

Cosmic dust detector

Bidirectional impacts noted in the cosmic dust detector data shortly after
launch continued for approximately 3 hours. Since the instrument would be de-
tecting spacecraft-generated noise at this time, and since discrimination between
real impacts and the spacecraft-generated noise would be extremely difficult, it
was concluded that spacecraft operation under these conditions was normal.
Starting December 6, these impacts were again noted in the data and con-
tinued for 26 hours. Investigation showed that, during this exact period, an inter-
mittent are had developed in the plasma probe high voltage. The cosmic dust
detector data were in agreement with those data accompanying the plasma probe
anomalies.
The thin-film capacitor sensors failed to register any dust particle impacts
during the first 146 days of flight (through April 23). It is now felt that the par-
ticles impacting the Mariner IV sensor were most probably silicates or cometary
ice fragments, and it is quite conceivable that the threshold mass sensitivity of the
film to these particles was too high for the instrument to have registered such
impacts.
On April 24, a film hit was recorded coincidentally with a microphone event,
indicating normal film operation; another occurred on April 27. Each of the two
films on the sensor (one on each side) recorded a hit: one on April 24, and the
other on April 27. These two events were considered real since they occurred
during the period of maximum flux experienced up to that time and the micro-
phone particle momentum data were saturated, indicating particles of sufficient
mass to activate the films. Approximately 235 cosmic dust impacts were recorded
during the mission.

181
 J

MARINER-MARS 1964

Ionization chamber

The ionization chamber instrument performed nominally through the first

70 days of the mission (through February 5). A profile of radiation intensity was
faithfully recorded by the instrument as the spacecraft passed through each of the
Van Allen radiation belts, through the boundary of the magnetosphere, and into
the relatively stable interplanetary region. On February 5, a solar flare occurred,
and both the ionization chamber and the GM tube recorded peak activity of the
flare. As the flare subsided and the ionization chamber returned to the normal
background level, the GM tube indicated a higher rate than expected and on
February 20 the rate rose sharply, an indication of a spontaneous self-sustained
discharge. On March 17, the tube rate dropped to zero and the ionization Cham-
ber was not returning any data. No response from either sensor was observed
after that time. After investigation, it is felt that the power supply, which is com-
mon to both the ionization chamber and the GM tube, failed or was shorted.

Cosmicray telescope

The cosmic ray telescope performed satisfactorily throughout the entire

flight. Because of a shift in a zener diode, the pulse-height analyzer peak shifted
down three channels during the first 5 or 6 weeks of flight. After this period, no
more shifting was observed. The small shift does not, however, affect the data
obtained.

Trapped radiation detector

With the exception of the period from February 5 to March 5, the perform-
ance of the trapped radiation detector was normal. During this period there was
an increase in bad data points which was attributed to the reduction of the low-
gain antenna signal strength. When the switch to the high-gain antenna was
completed, the problem disappeared.

Solar plasma probe

The plasma probe functioned correctly until December 6, 1964, when the
load resistor of the high-voltage power supply failed. This failure eliminated the
internal calibration signal for the energy windows and changed the values of
some of the windows. A further consequence was that the energy windows after
the failure depended on the telemetry bit rate. For this reason no useful data were
obtained from the instrument during the remainder of the high-bit-rate data
transmission. With the establishment of the low transmission rate on January 3,

182
 FLIGHTHISTORY AND SPACE VEHICLEPERFORMANCE

1965, the values of the energy windows were such that approximately half the
data returned from the plasma probe provided useful information. Data from the
period January 3 to March 3, 1965, and from the Mars encounter have been
analyzed; analysis of the remainder of the interplanetary data is still in progress.

Ancillary equipment

After turn-on of science power after launch, the real-time portion of DAS
functioned continuously (with two short commanded interruptions), precisely
correct with no anomalies occurring. Every bit of data produced by every instru-
ment was sent to the data encoder at exactly the correct instant in exactly the
correct form. Approximately 200 million bits of data were processed by the real-
time portion. One flip-flop changed state well over 2 trillion (2 × 1012) times with-
out missing a beat.
The non-real-time portion was operated twice during the mission: first for
the science cover deployment exercise on February 11, and the second time at
planetary encounter. Every function was performed in exactly the correct manner.
The only events that could, even remotely, be considered nonstandard were two
extra end-of-tape events monitored through the real-time data. In all probability,
these events were noise pulses on the end-of-tape line which triggered the sensitive
monitor flip-flop. Functionally, these pulses were ignored even though monitored,
since DAS was designed not to act on an end-of-tape pulse prior to the beginning
of the 19th picture.
The planetary scan system was energized twice during the flight also. On
February 11, the scan system responded properly to the DC-25 (encounter
science on) command by immediately entering the search mode. The correct
initial search direction was obtained, and the system made a total of 10 search
cycles. The decision was made to use a ground command to stop the scan motion,
a DC-24; it was based on the desired television pointing direction in terms of
spacecraft clock angle and the scan speed calculated from the data received for
the first six scan cycles. Upon receiving DC-24, the platform stopped 0.72 ° away
from the desired position.
On July 14, the scan system responded to a DC-25 (encounter science on) by
initiating a planet search operation in the correct direction. Because of the suc-
cessful use of a DC-24 on February 11, it was decided to use this same command to
preposition the platform, using the spacecraft automatic planet-tracking sequence
as backup. Upon receipt of DC-24, the scan platform motion was inhibited at a
clock angle of 178.45 °, or 0.72 ° away from the desired position. On July 14 at

183
 #

MARINER-MARS 1964

23:42:00 GMT at the spacecraft, the wide-angle sensor detected the edge of the
planet and the scan system initiated a planet-in-view signal. The planet came into
the television camera field of view 23 rain later. Data indicate that the planet
entered the wide-angle sensor field of view about 5 min earlier than expected.

184
CHAPTER 5

Tracking and Data Acquisition

SCHEDULED SUPPORT FOR MARINER-MARS 1964 MISSIONS

Tracking and telemetry coverage for the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions was
provided by the Air Force Eastern Test Range (AFETR) and the JPL Deep Space
Network (Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF), Ground Communication
System (GCS), and Space Flight Operations Facility (SFOF)). Backup coverage
for the Agena D tracking and telemetry requirements was provided by the
Goddard Space Flight Center.
Air Force Eastern Test Range

The AFETR provided coverage during the Atlas D and Agena D flight
portions of the missions. The five areas of support were: (1) metric data from
launch to 1500 meters (4920 ft), (2) engineering sequential data, (3) telemetry
data, (4) communications, and (5) data processing. The AFETR locations which
provided this support were the following: (1) Patrick Air Force Base, Fla.; (2)
Cape Kennedy, Fla.; (3) the Florida AFETR Annex instrumentation sites at
Cocoa Beach, Melbourne Beach, Vero Beach, and Williams Point; (4) Grand
Bahama Island, Bahamas; (5) San Salvador Island, Bahamas; (6) Grand Turk
Island, British West Indies; (7) Antigua Island, British West Indies; (8) Ascension
Island, South Atlantic Ocean; (9) Pretoria, Republic of South Africa; and (10)
the range instrumentation ships Coastal Crusader, Swordknot, and Twin Falls. The
range instrumentation ships were positioned in the Indian Ocean and the South
Atlantic Ocean to support the launches so as to optimize the coverage capability
throughout the launch period.
The three basic preinjection requirements for near-real-time data were initial
acquisition prediction data for the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF),
orbital elements of the parking orbit, and the initial estimate of spacecraft injection
conditions. To calculate DSIF look angles as acquisition aids and to satisfy the
need for raw data to contribute to the accuracy and reliability of the spacecraft
orbit-determination operations, the AFETR tracked the C-band (4000 to 8000
Me) radar beacon in the Agena D stage. (There was no requirement for AFETR

185
MARINER-MARS 1964

tracking of the spacecraft.) Until separation, the orbits of the spacecraft and the
• Agena D were, of course, the same. At separation, a relative velocity of approxi-
mately 0.6 m/sec (2 ft/sec) was imparted to the spacecraft by springs in the
separation system; however, it did not significantly alter the total momentum.
The processing of AFETR raw data after spacecraft injection into the transfer
orbit was dependent upon telemetry identification of certain events. Relative
weighting of the various data types (e.g., range and angles with respect to DSIF
data) was a task requiring more information than was available to AFETR. The
AFETR was required to determine the Agena D orbit and furnish raw tracking
data to JPL during the launch phase. (Raw data are defined as azimuth, eleva-
tion, and range points not altered by smoothing or weighting. One exception
concerning altering of the data was the correcting of the raw data of the range
instrumentation ships for the motion of the ships.)
An evaluation made by LeRC of the Atlas D/Agena D performance capa-
bilities resulted in the requirement that the telemetry system of the launch vehicle
be tracked during certain phases of the missions. In addition, range safety con-
siderations necessitated obtaining launch vehicle telemetry data during the boost
phase. The telemetry could be received by a station equipped for S-band and also
a station designed to receive Agena D telemetry. The spacecraft transmitter was
continuously radiating from the time of launch, and the telemetry signal modu-
lated the 98-kc subcarrier of the Agena D telemetry system. Both links were
exploited by AFETR to satisfy the telemetry coverage requirements.
Since the requirement for the return of data from downrange stations to Cape
Kennedy within 36 hours of the first launch could not be satisfied by the usual
data-return capabilities, a special plan was devised by the U.S. Air Force by which
especially dispatched aircraft were supplied downrange for the pickup and
delivery of these data. In addition, a telemetry reader station was established at
the AFETR Pretoria Station in South Africa whereby data displayed on oscillo-
graph-type recorders were analyzed by launch vehicle engineers and the results
were telephoned to AFETR.
Most of the communications support instrumentation provided was at
AFETR. All Florida mainland instrumentation sites were linked by teletype and
voice lines. A submarine cable through Antigua Island connected downrange
stations with Cape Kennedy. Existing high- and very-high-frequency radio links
tied the range instrumentation ships and the aircraft to the land stations. Con-
nections with the radar sites at Johannesburg and Ascension Island were made by
teletype and voice circuits.

186
 TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

Metric, engineering sequential, and telemetry data were all recorded against
coded time. All major AFETR locations used standard 17-digit modified binary
codes. Data recorded on film, strip charts, and tapes were reduced and processed
at Patrick Air Force Base. Telemetry data were duplicated and processed at Cape
Kennedy.

Goddard Space Flight Center

Backup C-band radar tracking coverage was provided by Goddard Space

Flight Center at two stations of the Manned Space Flight Network: Bermuda for
the early Agena D phase, and Carnarvon, Australia, for the post-Agena D retro-
maneuver period. The Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network station at
Tananarive, Malagasy Republic, provided FM/FM telemetry coverage of the
Agena D. Bermuda recorded telemetry data on the Atlas D link (229.9 Mc) and
the Agena D link (244.3 Mc). Carnarvon recorded telemetry data on the 244.3-
Me Agena D link only.
Telemetry coverage requirements consisted of: (1) telemetry data gathered at
the participating stations for the life of the Agena D telemetry transmitter by one
telemetry link; (2) certain real-time readouts; (3) magnetic tape recordings,
direct-write recordings, and telemetry operators' logs; and (4) oscillograph record-
ings at Carnarvon. Certain mission computing and coordinating tasks were
required of Goddard Space Flight Center. Launch trajectory data were supplied
to Goddard computers at the AFETR. Approximately 1 week prior to the day of
launch, nominal pointing data were transmitted to the participating stations.
During the transmitting lifetime of the vehicle, these computers at the AFETR
updated and displayed the data as required. In addition, acquisition messages
were generated and transmitted to the participating stations. Radar data from
Bermuda and Carnarvon were reformatted into standard 38-character Gemini
format and transmitted to the AFETR in near-real time. Acquisition aids pro-
vided pointing information to the radar and telemetry RF inputs during the life of
the telemetry transmitted from the spacecraft. As the downrange radar source,
Carnarvon was responsible for phasing with the Twin Falls range instrumentation
ship and with Pretoria during acquisition.
For telemetry reception, each of the three locations used two receivers.
Limited real-time readouts were provided by Carnarvon. Signals were recorded
on 2.54-cm (1-in.) 14-track magnetic tape at Bermuda and Carnarvon, and on
1.27-cm (0.5-in.) 7-track tape at Tananarive. Participating stations used existing

187
MARINER-MARS 1964 e

full-time voice, teletype, and high-speed data circuits. No critical coverage was
required during the missions; however, special coverage was required on the
voice, teletype, and high-speed data circuits from Cape Kennedy, Goddard Space
Flight Center, and Bermuda during the launch phase.

Deep Space Network

The JPL Deep Space Network (DSN) consists of the Deep Space Instrumen-
tation Facility (DSIF), and space communications (deep space) stations based
around the world; the Ground Communication System (GCS), which connects all
parts of DSN by radio, telephone, and teletype; and the Space Flight Operations
Facility (SFOF), the command and control center located atJPL. The DSN is the
NASA facility for two-way communications with unmanned space vehicles travel-
ing 16 090 km (10 000 statute miles) from Earth and beyond.

Deep Space InstrumentationFacility

Deep space stations.--From the point of view of the Mariner-Mars 1964

project, the capabilities and facilities provided in DSIF were under the manage-
ment and control of the DSIF System Manager. (The DSIF management organi-
zation is illustrated in appendix A.) DSIF space communications stations (or deep
space stations, DSS's) are situated approximately 120 ° apart in longitude so that a
spacecraft is always within the field of view of at least one of the ground antennas.
For the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions, DSIF consisted of the following operational
stations (fig. 5-1): Pioneer DSS 11, Echo DSS 12, and Venus DSS 13 of the Gold-
stone Deep Space Communication Complex in California; Woomera DSS 41 and
Tidbinbilla DSS 42 in Australia; Johannesburg DSS 51 in South Africa; Robledo
DSS 61 in Spain; and Cape Kennedy DSS 71, the Spacecraft Monitoring Station
in Florida. Designated as prime stations for the missions were Pioneer DSS 11,
Woomera DSS 41, and Johannesburg DSS 51. The other deep space stations
served in a backup capacity: Echo DSS 12 backed up Pioneer DSS 11 ; Tidbinbilla
DSS 42 backed up Woomera DSS 41; and Robledo DSS 61 backed up Johannes-
burg DSS 51. Venus DSS 13, with its high-power transmitter, was made available
for backup use during the encounter phase of the mission when maximum com-
munications distances were involved.
JPL operates the U.S. stations, and the overseas stations are staffed and
operated by government agencies of the respective countries, with the assistance of
U.S. support personnel. The setup and equipment of a typical deep space station

188
.. TRACKING AND DATA ACQUlSlTlON

, , d I

* -- I --I-- L - ---I - --- J

S P
i
I
4 1
I
\
** hi t

FIGURE5-1 .-Location of deep space stations that supported Mariner-Mars 1964 missions.

for the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions are shown in figure 5-2. Capabilities and
operational characteristics of several of the stations are given in table 5-1.
DSIF functions include tracking (locating the spacecraft; measuring its
distance, velocity, and position; and following its course), data acquisition (gather-
ing information from the spacecraft), and command (sending instructions from the
ground to guide the spacecraft in its flight to the target, and telling the spacecraft
when to perform required operations and when to turn on the instruments for
performing the scientific experiments of the mission). Support for the Mariner-
Mars 1964 missions consisted of obtaining angular position, Doppler, and telem-
etry data during the postinjection phase and transmitting required commands to
the spacecraft. The DSIF was required to track the spacecraft, enabling it, in turn,
to supply raw tracking data for the determination of spacecraft orbits. These
determinations were necessary in generating predictions and for calculating the
required midcourse maneuver. First, an early orbit was determined to allow cal-

189
 iJ

MARINER-MARS 1964

P.

¢D
.B

e_

oi

oO_
 .q

t,
TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

O
e_

e_
0
Oo O

_ _ N_ "_o _ _Ho
_z

E
,m
o
.i.=
o

0
g
o
e',

0
0
"O
"0

°_
0
e_

2
"G d_

U e_
0
0_ _ "_" _ O O 0 o
0
C
0

.u
0 r_
Q.
0

C
U
0
,'-- ._-_ E_H
O

::122

:::::

-0

Q. :::::
U :::::
: :_ : :

!
.! o
0 e_ d e_

O : :_. . .o

.o
ef
p,-
oo
0
0 O ",_'
• "0 _ 0
_ _._

_'_ ,_ • No
"__ _._ • •- O'N
• O ,;-'-_ .

_ _'_ ._
,_ e.,

o _ _-_ _ ._g

191
 ,h

MARINER-MARS 1964 t.

culation of look angles for subsequent tracking. In general, DSIF initial acquisi-
tions were performed with the aid of preflight prediction data graphs or tabula-
tions and inflight prediction messages based on the actual orbit as determined by
the AFETR. Subsequent acquisitions were made with prediction messages based
on orbits calculated to satisfy the need for a final premidcourse-maneuver orbit.
Second, a final premidcourse-maneuver orbit had to be determined with sufficient
accuracy to permit the maneuver to be made within the accuracy requirements.
Raw tracking data in the form of two- and three-way Doppler and antenna point-
ing angles were provided for orbit determination.
Prior to launch, it was necessary to specify the amount of noise that could be
expected so that an a priori orbit-determination capability could be predicted as
the launch azimuth and launch days were varied. The estimates of the data noise
were used to establish the data weights which determined the orbit-determination
accuracy capability.
A deep space station normally tracks a spacecraft from horizon to horizon,
while maintaining a two-way frequency lock between the ground and spacecraft
transmitters and receivers. One of the Mariner-Mars 1964 project requirements
was for dual spacecraft coverage. Thus, the deep space stations incorporated the
capability of simultaneously transmitting near-real-time data received from one
spacecraft, while recording and storing telemetry data from a second spacecraft
for subsequent transmission to SFOF.
Station reports were transmitted to the SFOF from each deep space station
every 30 min from launch to the midcourse maneuver and at 1-hour intervals
after the midcourse maneuver. Coverage was equivalent to 24 station-hours/day
for most of the mission. During the injection and the midcourse maneuver,
additional coverage was provided by the prime stations up to the full view period
of each station. The full 24-station-hour/day coverage of the Mariner-Mars 1964
missions was forfeited only during certain critical periods for other spacecraft
(namely, the Ranger VIII and Ranger IX spacecraft).
A brief description of the deep space stations which supported the Mariner-
Mars 1964 missions follows.
1. Cape Kennedy DSS 71, Spacecraft Monitoring Station. Located at Cape
Kennedy, Florida, this station is the initial spacecraft and telemetry link in DSN.
It functions to verify, by means of RF communications, spacecraft performance
and telecommunications compatibility with DSN during the prelaunch checkout,
launch countdown, and initial tracking phases of a mission. It is not, however,
used as a complete spacecraft checkout facility. The station participates in com-
 1,

TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

plete operational tests involving the spacecraft and SFOF. Spacecraft telemetered
data are sent from Cape Kennedy by teletype and high-speed data lines to SFOF,
and commands from SFOF are sent by teletype to this station. If necessary,
telemetry signals may be simulated so that SFOF-supervised test sequences, such
as the midcourse maneuver, may be exercised.
This station provides a stable source for measurement by telemetry of space-
craft-received power and a stable measurement of spacecraft-transmitted power
throughout the period on the launch pad up to the actual moment of launch.
Spacecraft frequencies at launch are measured, and the data are transmitted to the
usual first-acquisition station at Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa (Johan-
nesburg DSS 51). After launch, the Spacecraft Monitoring Station continues to
provide telecommunications with the spacecraft as far as 322 km (200 statute
miles) downrange at the AFETR. At that point, the functions of spacecraft track-
ing and communications are assumed by the other deep space stations.
Since long-range tracking is not conducted from this station and because of
high angular tracking rates during the launch phase, a standard 25.9-meter-
diameter (85-ft) DSIF antenna (described later in this section) is not used. Instead,
two manually steerable 1.2-meter-diameter (4-ft) parabolic reflector antennas are
provided. These antennas have azimuth-elevation mounts; i.e., they can be
moved up and down 90 ° in elevation between the horizon and zenith (the point
directly overhead) and pivoted around the vertical axis starting from true north.
One of the antennas is used for monitoring the spacecraft downrange in the
receive mode only. The second can be used to permit prelaunch two-way RF-link
calibration of spacecraft subsystems, to permit long-term power monitoring of the
spacecraft RF system, or to provide the station with the capability of supporting a
second spacecraft mission. The transmitter consists of the standard DSIF syn-
thesizer-exciter and the standard 5-watt amplifier driver used as the final ampli-
fier. It is used with a diplexer to allow simultaneous operation of both the trans-
mitter and the receiver on the same antenna.
Standard DSIF analog and digital instrumentation and recording systems
are provided, as is a ranging system for checkout of the capability to measure
range accurately by use of an automatic coded signal in conjunction with Doppler
information.
2. Goldstone Deep Space Communication Complex. The Goldstone Deep
Space Communication Complex, named for nearby Goldstone Dry Lake, is
located in the heart of the Mojave Desert in California approximately 72 km
(45 statute miles) from Barstow. The three deep space stations of the Complex

193
MARINER-MARS 1964

assigned to support the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions were Pioneer DSS 11, Echo
DSS 12, and Venus DSS 13, each named for the project in which it first partic-
ipated. Each station has its own antenna and tracking system.
Pioneer DSS 11 was the first to begin operation (in 1958) and served as a
model for all subsequent deep space station designs. This was also the first deep
space station to be changed to S-band frequency operation. The 25.9-meter-
diameter (85-ft) antenna at this station is completely equipped in the S-band
configuration, and annex buildings and wing additions to the main control build-
ing accommodate the S-band operating and control equipment. Station addi-
tions also contain the ground support equipment used for primary control during
spacecraft missions.
Echo DSS 12 is the administration center and operations headquarters at
Goldstone. The communications building is the control center for Goldstone
communications.with SFOF and other deep-space stations, as well as for inter-
station communications at Goldstone. In the control building is the station control
and monitor console from which the station manager conducts station operations
during a mission. This console has special instruments to show the status of all
operating systems: antenna; receiver; transmitter; station instrumentation;
tracking data, telemetry, and command data handling; plus any special equip-
ment required for a mission. The 25.9-meter-diameter (85-ft) antenna at Echo
DSS 12 is equipped for receiving information from the spacecraft and transmitting
commands to it.
Venus DSS 13 is used as a research-and-development facility to develop
very-high-power RF transmitters and new systems for the DSIF and also serves
as a backup for other DSIF operations. Advances in DSIF techniques are proved
and prototypes of all new equipment are thoroughly tested at this location before
being duplicated for installation at overseas stations. The main 25.9-meter-
diameter (85-ft) antenna differs from the standard DSIF antenna in that it has
an azimuth-elevation mount. The position angles of spacecraft location relative
to the antenna are measured in azimuth and elevation coordinates with a tracking
rate of up to 2 deg/sec. The antenna uses a Cassegrain cone feed system, a power-
ful 100-kW transmitter, and an extremely sensitive narrow-bandwidth receiver.
Venus DSS 13 also has a 9-meter-diameter (30-ft) reflector antenna, a i/7-scale
model of the 64-meter-diameter (210-ft) advanced antenna system at Mars DSS
14 (under construction at the time of the missions). The 9-meter-diameter
(30-ft) antenna is used for testing the design and operation of the feed system for
the large antenna.

194
 TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION
t

3. Woomera DSS 41 and Tidbinbilla DSS 42. Operated and maintained by

the Australian Department of Supply through its Weapons Research Establish-
ment, these stations are each equipped with a standard DSIF polar-mounted
25.9-meter-diameter (85-ft) antenna. Woomera DSS 41 is located near Island
Lagoon, a normally dry salt lake about 22.5 km (14 statute miles) southeast of
the village of Woomera in the state of South Australia. Tidbinbilla DSS 42 is
located in the Tidbinbilla Valley about 40 km (25 statute miles) from Canberra,
Australia's capital city. The first assignment for Tidbinbilla DSS 42 was partic-
ipation in Mariner-Mars 1964 tracking operations.
4. Johannesburg DSS 5!. Johannesburg DSS 51 is staffed by personnel of
the National Institute for Telecommunications Research of the South African
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Equipped with a 25.9-meter-
diameter (85-ft) polar-mounted antenna, the station is located near the Harte-
beestpoort Dam in the foothills of the Magaliesberg, about 64 km (40 statute miles)
north of Johannesburg. Dual spacecraft coverage for the Mariner-Mars 1964
missions was to have been provided by means of an L- to S-band conversion system
covering one spacecraft and either a portable telemetry package or a modified
angle channel of the S-band receiver covering the other spacecraft.
5. Robledo DSS 61. Operated and maintained by personnel of the Spanish
National Institute of Aerospace Technology, the Robledo Station is located near
Robledo de Chavela about 64 km (40 statute miles) west of Madrid, the capital
city of Spain. Equipped with a 25.9-meter-diameter (85-ft) polar-mounted
antenna, the first assignment of this station was participation in Mariner-Mars
1964 tracking operations.
Standard DSIF equipment and operations. In order to overcome the great
loss of energy by a signal from a spacecraft that occurs because of the tremendous
distances the signal must travel, DSIF uses antennas designed for high gain, or
very high concentration of received signal power, and powerful transmitters that
send out a very strong signal. Standard DSIF ground transmitters operate at
power levels of 10 kW. An advanced capability for transmission at 100 kW is
available at Venus DSS 13. A spacecraft transmitter, on the other hand, is very
limited in power because of size and weight restrictions. Continuing development
will increase transmitter outputs for contemplated probes to the edge of the
solar system.
Until recently, the deep space stations operated at L-band frequency: 890
MHz for Earth-to-spacecraft transmission and 960 MHz for spacecraft-to-Earth
transmission. A changeover was made to a higher RF range called S-band: 2110

195
MARINER-MARS1964

to 2120 MHz for Earth-to-spacecraft transmission and 2290 to 2300 MHz for
spacecraft-to-Earth transmission. Major modification of equipment and proce-
dures was required at all stations. Approximately 2 hours is required to change the
operating frequency at any station.
The Doppler principle is well known for its use in determining the relative
speed with which a celestial body or star and the Earth are approaching or
receding from each other (radial velocity). The Doppler shift is the apparent
change in frequency of a signal reflected from or emitted by a moving object as
the object moves toward or away from the observer. This effect may be compared
with that of a train whistle which appears to sound high in pitch as the train
approaches and then lower in pitch as it passes. This principle was adapted for
use in determining spacecraft velocity. Early spacecraft used one-way Doppler:
i.e., measuring the difference between the frequency of a signal transmitted from
the spacecraft and the frequency as it is received on the ground, which is propor-
tional to the radial velocity between the Earth and the spacecraft. Because of
inexact knowledge of the transmitted frequency, the accuracy of the measurement
of spacecraft velocity using one-way Doppler was limited to about 27 m/sec (90
ft/sec). Two-way Doppler developed for the DSIF has increased this accuracy
to better than 2.54 cm/sec (1 in./see). In two-way Doppler, a signal is transmitted
from the ground to a "turnaround" transponder (receiver-transmitter) on the
spacecraft, where it is converted to a new frequency in an exact ratio with the
ground frequency, and the signal is then retransmitted to the ground. Since the
frequency of the signal sent from the ground can be determined with great preci-
sion, the resulting Doppler information and velocity calculations are very accurate.
By two-way Doppler calculations alone, the position of a spacecraft at a distance
of several million statute miles can be determined within 20 to 50 statute miles.
A JPL-developed electronic ranging system uses an automatic coded signal in
conjunction with Doppler information to provide range measurements with an
accuracy better than 13.7 meters (45 ft) at lunar and planetary ranges.
Because of the Doppler shift and other effects, the frequency of the signal
received on the ground from the spacecraft varies widely, which means that the
receiver tuning must be changed continually. Both the spacecraft and DSIF
ground receivers use a phase-lock method of signal detection, which maintains
an automatic frequency control and keeps the receiver locked with the received
frequency.
The performance of a receiver is measured by its capability to pick up the
weak signal from the spacecraft transmitter and separate it from surrounding
 TRACKlNG AND DATA ACQUlSlTlON

noises (static) originating not only in rhe Earth’s atmosphere, but from lunar,
solar, and gaIactic sources as well. DSIF receivers have a very low threshold (the
point at which the receiver can no longer detect the signal, just as in human
hearing the lower limit at which the ear no longer responds to a sound). And,
just as internal body sounds (such as that of blood coursing through the head)
interfere with the lowest external soiind discernible to the human ear, radio
receiver sensitivity is affected by internal electronic noise in the system itself. TO
help overcome this problem, advanced methods of ul tra-low-noise signal ampli -
fication have been developed. DSIF S-band receiver system use a traveling wave
maser amplifier. The maser is basically a synthetic ruby crystal immersed in
liquid helium to keep it at a very low temperature, and it operates with a
“pumped-in” source of microwave energy to augment the strength of the incom-
ing signal without generating much internal system noise.

5-3. -Standard
FIGURE DSIF25.9-meter-diameter (85-ft)
antenna.

197
 im

MARINER-MARS 1964

The standard DSIF antenna (fig. 5-3) is a 25.9-meter-diameter (85-ft)

parabolic reflector; i.e., a perforated metal mirror that looks like an inverted
umbrella and is often called a "dish." The antenna and its supporting structure
stands 10 stories high and together weigh approximately 272 000 kg (300 tons).
Various parts of the antenna can be seen in figure 5-4. About 3630 kg (4 tons)
of electronic and operating equipment are an integral part of the antenna struc-
ture. The antenna is steerable; i.e., its "beam" or major radiation pattern can

REFLECTOR SURFACE

ONE

REFLECTOR BACKUP

SUBREELECTOR

ELECTRONICS

GEAR WHE£L

SKID

FIGURE 5-4.--Skeletal diagram of standard DSIF 25.9-meter-diameter

(85-ft) antenna.

198
 TRACKINGAND DATA ACQUISITION

be readily shifted to follow a spacecraft. After a deep space probe "escapes"

from the Earth, it travels in an orbit or path similar to other celestial bodies and
"rises" and "sets" on the horizon like the Sun. The predicted or actual course
of the spacecraft is determined by the same methods astronomers use in locating
heavenly bodies; i.e., the angular position of the spacecraft relative to the star
background is defined by a set of imaginary circles (coordinates) corresponding
somewhat to Earth longitude and latitude. Each DSIF antenna is oriented to a
set of local coordinates that are used to measure the antenna pointing angles by
which the spacecraft is located. As the antenna follows the spacecraft in its path
across the sky, a system of polar coordinates is used to measure the hour angle
(representing angular direction referenced to a station's local meridian circle;
i.e., the angle between the antenna and the spacecraft measured westward from
the DSIF antenna in the 24 hours of one rotation of the Earth) and the declina-
tion angle (representing angular direction referenced to the celestial equatorial
circle; i.e., the angle, in degrees north or south, between the celestial equator
and the spacecraft).
The gear system that mo.ves the antenna is polar mounted (fig. 5-5) ; i.e., the
axis of the polar or hour-angle gear wheel is parallel to the polar axis of the Earth
and points precisely at the North Star. This gear sweeps the antenna in an hour-
angle path from one horizon to the other. The declination gear wheel, the smaller
of the two gears, is mounted on an axis parallel to the Earth's equator (perpen-
dicular to the polar axis), which enables the antenna dish to pivot up and down.
These wheels can be moved either separately or simultaneously. The arrangement
of the gears allows the beam of the giant reflector to be pointed in almost any
direction in the sky. The motion of the antenna is controlled by the servo system.
Separate servo systems "drive" the polar wheel and the declination wheel. (Like
the driver of an automobile, the operators of the servo system control and operate
elements equivalent to those of the automobile and, in that sense, _drive" the
antenna.)
The antenna receives the strongest signals from a point directly in front of it.
Therefore, it is necessary to keep the antenna pointed in the direction of the space-
craft to receive its signals. To accomplish this, the servo system normally operates
in what is called a slave mode: angle information for pointing the antenna at
specific times is supplied to the station by a computer printout from SFOF, and the
computer and the antenna servo system operate together in an automatic loop to
keep the antenna trained on the spacecraft. Pointing-angle information based on
computer-calculated, predicted trajectory data may be supplied to the station in

199
 B

MARINER-MARS1964

FIGURE 5-5.--Polar mounting of the DSIF antenna.

advance of the actual launch of the spacecraft, and this is then verified by actual
trajectory data from early passes of the spacecraft over the deep space stations.
Computer angle information may also be verified by nullifying error signals from
the receiver angle-tracking channels. (Error signals are voltages that indicate the
angle between the spacecraft and the exact center of the beam of the antenna.)
With accurate information on the time and position at which the spacecraft will
appear in the antenna field of view, no time is lost in locating the spacecraft.
(Tidbinbilla DSS 42 is also equipped with a broad-beam acquisition antenna and
receiver which may be used in the early phases of a flight to direct the narrow-
beam antenna onto the spacecraft.)

2OO
 ,L TRACKINGAND DATA ACQUISITION

All parts of the antenna are so precisely balanced and alined that, in spite of
its weight, the antenna can be rotated at rates up to 1 deg/sec. A collimation
tower, on which is mounted a test antenna, a transmitter-receiver unit, and optical
targets, is located 1.6 to 3.2 km (1 to 2 statute miles) from the antenna of each deep
space station for use in testing and adjusting antenna alinement and operation. A
collimation tower simulates spacecraft signals in this usage. Visual checking of
antenna boresighting (adjusting line of sight, similar to alining gunsights) is ac-
complished by using an optical tracking package mounted on the 25.9-meter-
diameter (85-ft) antenna. This package consists of a television camera, a 35-mm
film boresight camera, and an optical telescope. Radio stars of known position may
be tracked by the antenna to verify pointing accuracy and other performance
factors.
Tracking and telemetry data receipt.--The dish of the antenna collects the
RF energy fed into the sensitive DSIF receivers. The antenna, with an area of
almost 558 sq m (6000 sq ft), can detect extremely weak RF signals. (The signal
transmitted from Mariner IV as it approached Mars reached the DSIF antennas
at a calculated level of 10 -l° watts; the standard television signal reaches the
home receiver at a level of 10 -7 watts.)
In general, shorter RF connections between the antenna signal feed system
and the receiver mean greater antenna efficiency. Antennas designed for S-band
operation have a Cassegrain cone feed system (fig. 5-6) mounted at the center of
the reflector, which allows very short connections. This system is similar in design
to a Cassegrain telescope used in optical astronomy. Radio waves collected by the
main dish bounce up and hit a subreflector mounted on a truss-type support that
extends about 10.9 meters (36 ft) from the center of the dish. The subreflector
focuses the waves into a feed horn in the Cassegrain cone. The signal is then fed
directly from the feed horn to the low-noise maser amplifier, so maximum ampli-
fication of the weak signal occurs before it is contaminated by the electronic noise
of the rest of the receiver system.
The S-band phase-lock receiver has four separate receiving channels: two
reference channels (called sum channels) for Doppler information, spacecraft
telemetry, and television signals; and two channels that carry angle-tracking
signals for antenna pointing. The information in the sum channels is dispersed by
distribution amplifiers in the receiver system to proper destinations in the telem-
etry instrumentation and data handling systems in the control room.
Command transmission.--The accuracy of the trajectory of a deep space
probe is controlled by transmitting command signals that initiate roll, pitch, and

201
 h

MARINER-MARS 1964

SIHONI

202
 w

TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

yaw maneuvers, as well as propulsion, ignition, and timing sequences, which are
determined by computations made from tracking data. Signals are also sent to the
spacecraft to change data rates; to change the type of telemetry information being
transmitted; to turn the transmitter on or off or change its power; to reorient the
spacecraft or its antennas; or even to switch antennas, receivers, and transmitters.
Sending a command to the spacecraft is somewhat the reverse process of
receiving a signal from it. The transmitting station is equipped with a 10-kW
transmitter. The exciter and controls of the transmitter are in the control room;
the RF power amplifier and associated equipment are mounted on the antenna.
The power level of the signal put out by the exciter is very low (on the order of a
few watts). This is amplified in the power amplifier so that the signal radiated
from the antenna is very strong (at least 10 000 W). The transmitter is normally
used with a diplexer, a device which allows simultaneous operation of both a
transmitter and a receiver at different frequencies on a single antenna and feed
system.
The commands to be sent to the spacecraft originate in the SFOF control
center at JPL. The necessary information is sent over teletype link from SFOF to
the participating deep space station. Since an incorrect command could result in
possible damage to the spacecraft, extreme precautions are taken to insure ac-
curacy. Command information from the SFOF is usually sent three separate times
over the teletype link to the station and is also verified by telephone. Ground
command and control equipment at the station includes read, write, verify equip-
ment that carefully checks a command before it is sent and as it is being sent to the
spacecraft. This equipment reads and verifies the teletype message, transforms the
command into a signal for radio transmission, and monitors the transmitted RF
signal bit by bit. If any bit proves incorrect, transmission is automatically stopped
to make the necessary correction. Very often, especially if the command is to be
stored in the spacecraft memory equipment for later execution, the command as
received by the spacecraft is telemetered back to the ground and checked again
with the transmitted command. A special-purpose computer is used to execute
these check routines.
Data handling.--Signals processed by the receiver at a deep space station are
sent to ground instrumentation and data handling equipment in the control room.
This equipment includes paper-tape and magnetic-tape recorders and ultraviolet
oscillographs. The tracking-data handling equipment records angle measurements
of antenna position, Doppler frequency measurements, range measurements, and
time. These data are recorded on paper tape for immediate teletype transmission

203
 im

MARINER-MARS 1964

to the SFOF for use in determination of spacecraft orbit, calculation of maneuver

parameters, command decisions, and prediction of arrival time at the target.
Telemetry signals from the Mariner IV spacecraft came in on the receiver
sum channel time-multiplexed; i.e., the signals from the various measuring instru-
ments on the spacecraft were carried on one composite RF signal sequentially
(time multiplexed). This composite signal was "unscrambled" by decommutators
in the ground telemetry subsystem so that each signal was identified by a channel
number. A digital method of signal coding was used for transmission of data from
the spacecraft to the Earth. With the digital coding and phase-shift modulation
techniques employed, it was possible to increase the efficiency of data trans-
mission from the spacecraft and to simplify data handling at the ground station,
because digital signals can be formatted for direct inputs to computers and for
teletype transmission.
Detected unscrambled signals are recorded on magnetic tape so that complete
permanent records of all telemetry data from a spacecraft are available for later
data processing at SFOF. Certain selected spacecraft telemetry signals are dis-
played at the station as they are received for the use of operating personnel in
maintaining contact with the spacecraft. The Mariner IV digital data were
exhibited on special displays.
Because the quantities of data produced during a mission are enormous and
are constantly growing as space projects become more sophisticated, increasing
use is being made of onsite data processing in the DSIF to relieve the burden both
on the communications lines to the SFOF and on the SFOF data-processing sub-
system. Systems at the Goldstone Deep Space Communication Complex and
Tidbinbilla DSS 42, controlled by general-purpose digital computers, convert and
reduce some of the unscrambled spacecraft data to digital format for transmission
by high-speed data lines directly to the SFOF computers. Video data are split off
from the sum channel by the receiver and are sent to special video equipment in
the control room at the station for processing.
In addition to processing and recording spacecraft-telemetered data, each
station also processes and records data generated by ground equipment, on such
parameters as received signal strength, transmitted power, station-equipment
condition, and calibration voltages. This information is processed by the digital
instrumentation system, which uses general-purpose digital computers that accept
and process both analog and digital signals. All ground data are recorded on
digital magnetic-tape recorders, and certain selected data are recorded on
punched paper tape for transmission over teletype circuits to the SFOF.

2O4
 TRACKINGAND DATA ACQUISITION

All taped information sent to the SFOF is labeled and identified by data type,
time received, station, and spacecraft number. Because time reference is a critical
factor in tracking determinations and in other DSIF functions that depend upon
the timing of electronic phenomena, the time of receipt of telemetry data is
recorded to an accuracy of at least 0.01 see. All data received during a mission are
recorded on magnetic tape for a permanent record and for the use of scientists and
engineers in evaluating the results of a mission.
DSIF acquisition procedures, which include antenna pointing, receiver
tuning, transmitter tuning, ranging lock, and telemetry decommutation, are so
precisely timed and coordinated that it is possible to start recording data from I to
10 rain after radio contact with the spacecraft is established and to start trans-
mitting data to SFOF within 4 to 16 min.

Ground communicationsystem

Interstation communications and those with the SFOF are by telephone and
teletype through the DSN Ground Communication System. For the Goldstone
Deep Space Communication Complex, a multiplex microwave link is used to
facilitate the handling of the vast amount of data that must be transferred from
these stations to the SFOF. This link carries multiplex channels for voice and
teletype transmission, two circuits for high-speed digital data transmission, and
one video channel. Communications to and from Woomera DSS 41, Tidbinbilla
DSS 42, Johannesburg DSS 51, and Robledo DSS 61 include full duplex teletype
circuits, high-speed data circuits, and voice circuits. These stations are linked
directly to the SFOF by high-speed teletype for digital-data transmission by
means of the Australian COMPAC cable (both Woomera and Tidbinbilla), the
NASA Worldwide Communications Network (NASCOM, managed and operated
by the Goddard Space Flight Center), and the transatlantic telephone cable,
respectively. Communications to and from Woomera DSS 41 and Tidbinbilla
DSS 42 pass through the NASA switching center in Adelaide, South Australia,
and those to and from Robledo DSS 61 normally pass through London, England.
Data obtained by the deep space stations are transmitted to the SFOF in real
or near-real time by teletype and high-speed data circuits and are also recorded on
magnetic tape at each deep space station to be mailed later to the SFOF. Teletype
is the primary means of transmitting tracking and telemetry data to the SFOF and
of sending predictions and other data to the stations. Teletype transmission is at
the rate of 60 words/min. Analog and video circuits were also made available
during the encounter phase of the Mariner IV mission. Voice circuits are used for

205
 #

ii
MARINER-MARS 1964

transmission of high-priority communications other than data. Technical control

of all communications facilities throughout the DSN is exercised by the SFOF.
Onsite communications are handled by telephone, local paging system, and
closed-circuit television. In addition, high-speed data "hot" lines for fast, real-time
transmission of tracking information during critical periods of a mission and tele-
type transmission are also provided between stations of the Goldstone Deep Space
Communication Complex.
Communications capabilities between the various deep space stations and
SFOF are shown in figure 5-7 along with AFETR communications capabilities.
Although high-speed data lines were available for the Mariner-Mars 1964 mis-
sions, it should be pointed out that they were never considered fully operational
because of inherent anomalies in the system.

TIDBINBiLLA AFETR
DSS 42

SWITCHING NOTES:
CENTER, AFETR COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ADELAIDE, WERE USED ONLY PRIOR TO THE
AUSTRALIA MIDCOURSE MANEUVER

COMMUNICATIONS CAPABILITIES
WERE VARIED IN ACCORDANCE
WITH THE HIGH- AND LOW-ACTIVITY
WOOMERA m _ -- m PHASES OF THE MISSION
DSS 4i

SPACE
FLIGHT
ROBLEDO
OPERATIONS
DSS 6t
FACILITY,
LONDON. PASADENA, _ FULL DUPLEX
ENGLAND CALIFORNIA TELETYPE
(SIMULTANEOUS
JOHANNESBURG TRANSMISSION
OSS .51 IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS)

HALF DUPLEX

TELETYPE
(TRANSMISSION IN
ONE DIRECTION
ONLY ON ANY
ONE CIRCUIT)

GOLDSTONE
DEEP SPACE VIDEO
COMMUNICATION O
COMPLEX VOICE

-----I_ HIGH-SPEED DATA

-_oP,,ll_.----- FACSIMILE, FULL

DUPLEX TELETYPE

FIGURE 5-7.--GCS communications lines for DSN.

206
 TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

Space Flight Operations Facility

The DSN Space Flight Operations Facility (SFOF) at JPL served as the
command and control center for the Mariner-Mars 1964 space flight operations.
Various equipment and personnel were housed within this building for perform-
ance of the following operations:
1. DSN control of the deep space stations.
2. DSN ground communications operation control of the Ground Communi-
cation System and of the internal voice, teletype, and high-speed data circuits and
equipment.
3. Data processing, monitoring, display, distribution, and storage (library).
4. Space flight operations direction.
5. Space flight operations evaluation and spacecraft command analyses in
real and near-real time.
The equipment and personnel 1 within SFOF which were part of the Space
Flight Operations System for the Mariner-Mars 1964 project are discussed in
chapter 6.

MARINER IV TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION SUMMARY

At liftoff of the Mariner IV spacecraft, 15 metric, 32 engineering sequential,

and 8 documentary cameras were operating at Cape Kennedy. Nine land-based
radar stations and three range instrumentation ships provided tracking coverage
during the mission. Continuous coverage was obtained from liftoff until 11 rain 44
sec after liftoff. Continuous telemetry coverage was provided from 7 rain before
liftoff until 12 rain 8 sec after liftoff.
Cape Kennedy sites and DSS 71, the Spacecraft Monitoring Station, locked
onto the spacecraft at liftoff. Approximately 14 sec later, Patrick Air Force Base
acquired and began sending trajectory data to Cape Kennedy. Bermuda began
tracking approximately 3 rain after liftoff. Approximately 10 min later, Antigua
acquired Mariner IV and sent data for 1 rain. Bermuda data were then back on
the line. The flight trajectory was reported as nominal when Grand Turk began
transmitting data 21 rain after liftoff. The "suitcase" telemetry deep space station
at Fort Dauphine, Malagasy Republic, was locked onto the spacecraft for 4 rain,

1This includes both mlssion-dependent equipment and personnel (specifically for the Mariner-Mars 1964
project) and mission-independent equipment and personnel (for use on other projects as well as the Mariner-Mars
1964 project).

207
 ,m

MARINER-MARS 1964 o

and Pretoria maintained lock and sent tracking data for 4 min also. The range
instrumentation ship Twin Falls then acquired the spacecraft.
Woomera DSS 41 was the first deep space station to acquire the Mariner IV
spacecraft. This was accomplished approximately 49 min after launch at 15:10:48
GMT on November 28. At that time, a signal level of -120 dBm was reported,
and at 15:14:00 the level was -87 dBm. Spacecraft RF power was reported to be
up at 15:12:42. Sun acquisition began at 15:23:00, and the spacecraft was on solar
power 1 min later. Sun acquisition and two-way lock were confirmed at 15:30:57.
At 15:35:00, the signal level at Woomera DSS 41 was -90 dBm, and the near-
Earth trajectory phase of the mission was considered successfully covered.
Woomera DSS 41 continued tracking with normal received signal level and with
good two-way tracking data being obtained through the end of its view period at
00:46:56 on November 29.
Johannesburg DSS 51 acquired the spacecraft approximately 7 hr 10 rain
after launch at 21:31:40 GMT on November 28. A normal signal level and good
tracking data were received. Pioneer DSS 11 acquired Mariner IV at approxi-
mately 16 hr 20 min after launch at 06:41:41 on November 29. Passes over
Woomera DSS 41, Johannesburg DSS 51, and Pioneer DSS 11 during this period
lasted approximately 9.5 to 10.5, 10 to 10.5, and 11.5 to 12 hours, respectively.
The Earth track of the spacecraft is shown in figure 5-8.
On November 30, Pioneer DSS 11 transmitted three DC-21's to Mariner IV
during the second pass of the spacecraft over that station. These commands posi-
tioned the spacecraft in roll attitude to allow the first acquisition of the star
Canopus by the Canopus sensor. (The times that these and all other commands
were transmitted and the deep space stations which transmitted them were given
previously in table 4-I.)
On December 5 (after an abortive attempt at a midcourse maneuver the
previous day, when the spacecraft lost its lock on Canopus), the Pioneer DSS 11
receiver, demodulator, decommutator, and teletype encoder were in good lock
with a signal level of -143 dBm at 06:44:00 GMT. Two-way lock was reported at
07:00:30. With all stations and systems reported ready at 13:03:00, the initial
command of the midcourse-maneuver sequence was transmitted 2 rain later. The
midcourse maneuver was successfully completed at 16:54:57 on December 5.
Woomera DSS 41 acted as backup and tracked the spacecraft while Pioneer DSS
11 was sending the commands for the 20-sec motor burn.
On December 13, during the initial period of the cruise phase, Pioneer DSS
11 transmitted a DC-7 to Mariner IV to transfer the radio from the cavity

208
e

TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

_2

>

-IT -

u'3

b
i .......

L "

209
 o

MARINER-MARS 1964 .e

amplifier to the traveling-wave-tube amplifier in order to increase the signal level

received by the ground receiver. A DC-21 (roll override) and a DC-15 (Canopus
sensor gate override) were successfully transmitted by Woomera DSS 41 on
December 17, and the DC-15 condition remained in effect for the remainder of
the mission.
During the period beginning December 17 and ending at Mars encounter on
July 15, the DSIF engaged in extensive tests and exercises designed to optimize
operational procedures during the encounter phase of the mission. Some of these
tests and exercises were as follows:
1. Nominal encounter test (April 20). Using the proof test model (PTM)
spacecraft as a data source, this test Served to exercise the Track Chief and SFOF
personnel and procedures.
2. Command loop lockup exercises (between April 28 and July 15). This
series was performed to exercise command procedures and operations personnel
and to reaffirm continually the condition of the command subsystem on the space-
craft.
3. Data mode 4 data transmission test from Johannesburg DSS 51. This test
was conducted to ascertain whether a reasonable picture could be constructed
from real-time mode 4 data transmitted from Johannesburg DSS 51 to SFOF on
the partial RF communications link under specific conditions of radio propaga-
tion. Magnetic tapes containing recorded mode 4 data were played back at
Johannesburg DSS 51 as the data source.
4. Roll position simulation (May 5). A test was conducted to verify whether
or not spacecraft roll orientation data could be properly displayed and interpreted
at SFOF. Spacecraft movement about the roll axis was simulated by varying the
received signal level at the deep space station and SFOF. During the actual en-
counter, the primary source of the roll orientation data would be the spacecraft
signal strength received at the deep space station.
5. Alternate-plan encounter test. The alternate plans in the event of an
anomaly at encounter were exercised to evaluate response time with respect to
data analysis and command recommendations.
6. Nominal encounter test (May 18). Again using the PTM spacecraft, this
test was conducted to familiarize personnel with the proposed encounter sequence
and to determine the feasibility of the procedure with regard to command
response, timing, and data evaluation.
7. Two-way lockup tests. In preparation for the occultation experiment,
several two-way lockup tests were conducted to determine the time required to

210
 t

TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION

achieve two-way lock with the spacecraft and to determine the advantages and
disadvantages of using the 10-kW (versus the 100-kW) transmitter during the
period when the spacecraft left the occultation region at Mars.
8. Preliminary encounter readiness test (June 1). This test was conducted to
verify the readiness of the technical analysis teams in the SFOF.
9. Encounter backup-mode tests (June 15, 24, and 25). These three tests
served to verify the use and handling of the commands for the backup mode at
encounter.
10. Occultation experiment operational tests (June 16, 23, and 24). Three
tests were conducted to exercise: (a) generation and transmission of real-time,
exit-occultation predictions for Pioneer DSS 11 and Echo DSS 12; (b) real-time
computation and display in the SFOF of Doppler residuals; (c) use of open-loop
receivers and recorders at Pioneer DSS 11 and Echo DSS 12; (d) loading of track-
ing-data punched paper tapes at critical occultation periods; (e) tracking-data
sample rate changes during critical periods; and (f) transfer of spacecraft signal
lock between Pioneer DSS 11 and Venus DSS 13.
11. Operational readiness tests. Two such tests were conducted prior to en-
counter to verify readiness of all personnel, procedures, and equipment.
Tracking by the three prime stations was continuous during the early cruise
phase, except for 4 days in January and 16 days in February when Johannesburg
DSS 51 was released for Ranger VIII spacecraft tracking operations. Mariner IV
was unmonitored for about 7 hours during each of these 20 days. When, on
January 31, Woomera DSS 41 was also released for Ranger VIII operations,
Tidbinbilla DSS 42 assumed prime status for Mariner IV.
During the cruise phase in February, Pioneer DSS 11, Tidbinbilla DSS 42,
and Johannesburg DSS 51 were tracking the Mariner IV spacecraft. During the
pass of the spacecraft over the Goldstone Deep Space Communication Complex
on February 20, Venus DSS 13 tracked instead of Pioneer DSS 11, since the latter
was assigned to track the Ranger VIII spacecraft that day. Johannesburg DSS 51
was assigned to track Ranger IX during 16 days in March.
At the beginning of April, the same stations were tracking Mariner IV as were
tracking at the beginning of February. On April 27, Woomera DSS 41 began
sharing tracking operations with Tidbinbilla DSS 42, alternating with three passes
for Woomera and then four passes for Tidbinbilla. Tracking continued in this
pattern until, on July 29, Woomera and Tidbinbilla both tracked one pass.
Woomera DSS 41 then assumed tracking operations until the pass over Tidbin-
billa DSS 42 on July 6, when both stations tracked the spacecraft. On July 5, Echo

211
 U

MARINER-MARS 1964

DSS 12 also began tracking Mariner IV; on July 6, Robledo DSS 61 joined the
operations. Thus, during the Mars encounter phase, Pioneer DSS 11, Echo DSS
12, Woomera DSS 41, Tidbinbilla DSS 42, Johannesburg DSS 51, and Robledo
DSS 61 were all tracking the spacecraft. The actual encounter with the planet
Mars on July 15 was recorded by Pioneer DSS 11 and Echo DSS 12, with Venus
DSS 13 in a standby status to provide command transmission if needed. During
the encounter, the 100-kW transmitter at Venus DSS 13 provided the uplink
signal which enabled the spacecraft to establish successfully the uplink lock when
it left the occultation region.
Prior to the encounter sequence, 11 commands were transmitted by DSIF: 2
by Johannesburg DSS 51 and 9 by Pioneer DSS 11. All commands were executed
on time and functioned normally. The RF signal from Mariner IV was lost by the
DSIF at 02:31:12 GMT on July 15 because of the entrance of the spacecraft into
the occultation region at Mars. At 03:25:06 on the same day, the RF signal was
reacquired when the spacecraft left the occultation region.
The first picture data were received by the DSIF at 13:01:58 GMT on July
15. All picture data were recovered during the tirst picture playback, which was
completed at 19:26:33 on July 24. The second picture playback began at 21:21:53
on July 24 and ended at 03:36:02 on August 3.
Late on July 24, Echo DSS 12 ceased tracking and Pioneer DSS 11 continued.
Then, on July 29, Echo DSS 12 resumed tracking and Pioneer DSS 11 (:eased.
After the spacecraft pass on July 24, Woomera DSS 41 discontinued tracking for 4
days. Tidbinbilla DSS 42 and Johannesburg DSS 51 both ceased tracking on July
31. Although Robledo DSS 61 had discontinued tracking operations on July 24, it
resumed these operations on July 30. On August 3, Venus DSS 13 was responsible
for transmitting the commands which effectively turned off the transmission of the
second-playback television data from the spacecraft and resumed the transmission
of engineering and science data. Tracking operations during August and Septem-
ber were conducted by Echo DSS 12, Woomera DSS 41, and Robledo DSS 61.
On September 29, Johannesburg DSS 51 tracked for one pass because of
maser problems at Robledo DSS 61, which caused that station to cease tracking to
resolve the problems. Thus, on October 1, Echo DSS 12, Woomera DSS 41, and
Robledo DSS 61 were tracking the Mariner IV spacecraft. Echo DSS 12 recorded
the end of the mission at 22:05:07 GMT on October 1, when the spacecraft signal
was lost because of a DC-12 transmitted by Venus DSS 13 to switch the space-
craft transmitter from the high-gain to the low-gain omnidirectional antenna.

212
 t

CHAPTER 6

Space Flight Operations

The Mariner-Mars 1964 Space Flight Operations (SFO) system consisted of

the Earth-based mission-independent facilities and personnel of the DSN and the
AFETR specifically assigned to support the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions, and the
mission-dependent equipment, personnel, and procedures required to direct and
evaluate the space flight operations for the missions. The overall operational
organization for space flight operations is given in figure 6-1. The SFO system
was, in many instances, distinct from the mission-independent organization of
SFOF. The space flight operations organization for the Mariner-Mars 1964 mis-
sions is illustrated in figure 6-2. From the point of view of the Mariner-Mars 1964
project, the capabilities and facilities provided by the SFO system were under the
management and control of the SFO system manager. (The SFO management
organization is described in app. A.) The Mariner-Mars 1964 project manager
was in full charge of all activities connected with space flight operations, but the
SFO director had immediate primary control.

SYSTEM FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The primary objectives of the SFO system were to track the spacecraft,
evaluate the tracking (Doppler and antenna pointing angles) and telemetry
(engineering and scientific measurements from the spacecraft) data, process and
disseminate the data, determine appropriate commands to be sent to the space-
craft, and provide proper command transmission. Secondary objectives were to
evaluate and compare tracking and telemetry information with that obtained from
ground observations during the flights and to provide information and experience
on space flight operations and mission performance for use in future mission
planning. The following capabilities were required of the SFO system:
1. To determine the trajectory and perform any necessary corrections to it.
2. To receive, record, and interpret telemetry data continuously for the entire
flight so as to monitor spacecraft performance, detect any "alarm" conditions, and
perform any necessary command functions.
3. To describe spacecraft position and science sensor orientation in a variety
of coordinate systems; in particular, to generate a variety of geometrical relation-
ships between the spacecraft instrument sensors and the planet Mars.

213
 o

MARINER-MARS 1964 ,e

!!! ili ,;g.or_g:

_z
=wz
_c

ii iiiii C::

I :e_5_Ozw_
:_" _01
a
o -

_c =z uo_ 0

_-__ :.__ :: _
q:::
_z[z
-z _z
w ¢J
o _._. o _ o z._

z
o_

0. u:z z

.¢::

bO

,.g
Zz_
o_._

:z_z
I ,._ w o .,zo

'O_-z f::l,,

_w ©
z _
:_ _o
o_ .% -o I.
_z

._ P_ _ I--
_8_5 4 _ Z _ '.,.0
)oo- r_

z _ <z o
:_ z _.=2 I _. -<z z

< _, z =
o_o
- ec_
o w z:o
ZWz_ _zz _
g :.;g_- _o_
_ oz _

Z_OW_

_oo.!_

214
 SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

OPERATIONS
SFOF I
I MANAGER

--7
I S°PP°RT
I
I
PROCESSING I COMMUNICATIONS [ SYSTEM
PROJECT
• DATA
ENGINEER I COORD NATOR I I PERSONNEL
LEAD I

[
I I I I
._
OPERATORS
COMPUTER
I TECHN,CAL
I DATA
11
COORDINATOR DISTRIBUTOR

I COMMUNICATIONS

AREA
PROGRAMER
ANALYSIS _. L_I_ I
T.s ___
OPERATORS l TECHNICIANS OPERATORS

SUBSYSTEM TPS TELEMETRY PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM

COMPUTING
OPERATORS

FICURE 6-2.--Space flight operations organization for Mariner-Mars 1964 project.

4. To maintain sufficient communications between the SFOF and the DSIF

in order to obtain simultaneously telemetry data from two spacecraft and tracking
data from one spacecraft from each of the prime deep space stations.
These capabilities were incorporated in the SFO system design formulated by
the DSIF operations manager, the SFOF operations manager, the data processing
project engineer, the communications coordinator, and the directors Of each of
three technical analysis teams. The technical analysis teams assisted in the defini-
tion of the standard mission, recommended courses of action during nonstandard
events to optimize the value of the mission, and performed the intragroup and
intergroup technical liaison required to achieve these objectives. These teams were
as follows:
1. Flight Path Analysis and Command (FPAC) Team, whose responsibilities
were: (a) use of tracking and pertinent telemetry data to obtain the best estimate of
the actual spacecraft trajectory and, supported by DSIF, interpretation of the data
supplied by the deep space stations; and (b) generation of spacecraft commands

215
 P

,I

MARINER-MARS 1964 t

affecting the flight path, using the support of other technical analysis teams to the
degree required. Functions included computation, maneuver analysis, orbit deter-
mination, tracking data analysis, and trajectory calculation.
2. Spacecraft Performance Analysis and Command (SPAC) Team, whose
responsibilities were: (a) determination of spacecraft performance, and (b) sub-
sequent recommendation of the required commands to be sent to the spacecraft to
achieve mission success. Functions included those related to engineering me-
chanics (such as monitoring of spacecraft temperature, pyrotechnics, scan actuator,
and science cover) and propulsion analysis.
3. Space Science Analysis and Command (SSAC) Team, whose responsi-
bilities were: (a) representation of the experimenters in the mission operations; (b)
examination and analysis, to the extent necessary, of the data from the spacecraft
science instruments and any other sources to keep appropriate personnel informed
as to the status of the science instruments and to recommend appropriate action to
improve the scientific worth of the mission; and (c) control of the flow of, and the
mathematical operations performed on, the data pertinent to the experiments
during the period between data acquisition and data transmission to the appro-
priate scientists.

A full complement of personnel was continuously maintained in the SFOF during

the high-activity phases of the missions, such as operational tests, launch, mid-
course maneuver, and encounter; during normal cruise-phase operations, moni-
toring was still continuous, but a minimum staff was maintained.
The central point of the SFO system during the missions was the mission
control room in the SFOF. Here all elements of the SFO system were brought to a
single focus. Two communications and control consoles provided voice contact
with any of the deep space stations and with any of the operational areas in the
SFOF. Two closed-circuit television monitors in each console displayed pictures
from any of approximately 60 closed-circuit television cameras located in the
SFOF. The mission control room is contained within the SFOF operations area,
as is a mission status board displaying current significant facts about the progress
of a mission.

DATA PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM

After elaborate routing through the various communications lines, the

Mariner IV telemetry and tracking data were sent to the SFOF for final process-
ing and display to the science and spacecraft performance analysts. Tracking

216
 SPACE FLIGHTOPERATIONS

data from the AFETR were processed, and spacecraft look angles and prediction
data were transmitted to the appropriate deep space stations in accordance with
established procedures. The tracking data from the deep space stations were
processed to establish the orbit of the spacecraft, and additional prediction data
were then transmitted to the appropriate deep space stations. These data estab-
lished the orbit of the spacecraft and determined the requirements for the mid-
course maneuver. Midcourse-maneuver commands were prepared and trans-
mitted to the appropriate deep space station (Pioneer DSS 11) for transmission
to the spacecraft.
The mathematical processing of incoming data constituted the major effort in
data handling in SFOF. The type of incoming data (whether telemetry or track-
ing) and the ultimate users determined the type of computation required. The
principal groups which used spacecraft or spacecraft-related data and the type of
data each used were as follows:

SPAC Team: engineering telemetry Mission and operations control

SSAC Team: science telemetry group: summary of all data and
FPAC Team: tracking their status
DSIF net control group: DSIF status

Two parallel multicomputer systems (strings) were incorporated to provide

on-line data processing, display, and command/control functions for the Mariner-
Mars 1964 missions. Each string contained an IBM 7040 input/output processor,
an IBM 7288 multiplexer, an IBM 7094 main processor, and two IBM 1301 disk
files. Teletype data received at SFOF were entered directly into the IBM 7288
multiplexer. Raw telemetry data received over microwave link or by telephone
(high-speed data) underwent preliminary processing in the telemetry processing
subsystem and were then entered into the IBM 7288.
The telemetry processing subsystem (fig. 6-3) converted the telemetry data to
a format compatible with the IBM 7288 high-speed subchannel and with the IBM
7094-compatible magnetic tape. The conversion process was accomplished either
in real time using the high-speed-data communications system or in nonreal time
using data recorded on magnetic tape. Data from all sources were then converted
by the IBM 7288 into the proper format for the actual data processing, which
included data identification, conversion to engineering units, data alarm monitor-
ing, and conversion to the proper format for printing and plotting.
The following were fed into the IBM 7040 input/output processor: all data
from teletype, telephone lines, microwave channels, and the telemetry processing

217
MARINER-MARS 1964
,e

I
I I
I
I j.A.,..._

,]
: _ MARS 1964

I FORMATTER

I
HIGH-SPEED I

DATA I

TELEMETRY
MAGNETIC DEMODULATOR
TAPE I

i , i'
[ POP PROGRAMED DATA PROCESSOR ]

FIouR_. 6-3.--Telemetry processing subsystem.

subsystem, as well as all requests, parameters, and data from the user areas by way
of an inquiry station or card readers. The inputs were identified and separated by
mission number and data type,, including tracking, telemetry, and administration
data. All incoming data were written on raw data tape in a sequential mode, with
proper identification to allow separation and processing in the IBM 7094 in non-
real time. If overlaps occurred in DSIF coverage and two stations sent identical
telemetry data to SFOF, the choice of transmission to be inserted in the IBM 7040
was determined by use of the data-processing control console. The transmission
from the rejected station was recorded, but was not available for further real-time
processing.
The IBM 7094 then performed functions in both on-line and off-line modes.
The raw data table was sorted into a master data table for analysis routines. Final
reduced data prints and plots of all data were stored in disk files for immediate
processing during the operational phase and for later retrieval for subsequent
analysis and processing. Forms and tabulations for user groups and selected
parameters for status display were distributed. Thus, through the use of the IBM
7094, telemetry data from the telemetry processing subsystem and raw data tapes
recorded by the IBM 7040 were processed, and the midcourse-maneuver com-
mands and DSIF predictions were computed and generated for transmission to the
deep space stations.
System tests of the data processing subsystem were conducted by using a
Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft model. In one such test, the spacecraft, monitored
by the system test complex, transmitted telemetry data in real time for the DSIF
ground telemetry subsystem (demodulator, decommutator, and teletype encoder)

218
 Q
SPACE FLIGHTOPERATIONS

in the system test complex. The ground telemetry subsystem processed the data
and produced a teletype paper tape record of the spacecraft telemetry according
to a defined format. On a non-real-time basis, the teletype paper tape record was
hand carried from the system test complex (at the JPL Spacecraft Assembly
Facility) to the SFOF for processing by the data processing subsystem. This sub-
system, using SPAC and SSAC basic IBM 7040 telemetry computer programs,
processed the spacecraft telemetry data by using the teletype paper tape record
inputs. Video pictures were processed by the IBM 7094, a film recorder, and the
JPL photography laboratory.

DATA FLOW

Real-Time Data

The nature of the Mariner IV space-flight operations was such that real-time
data flow was of primary concern. Control of this flow and of data processing was
necessary so that the proper data were received and processed at the proper inter-
vals. These data were received in real or near-real time and were automatically
entered in the data processing subsystem. These data were then operated upon and
displayed online in the user areas as rapidly as operational priorities and user pro-
grams permitted. Data were classified as real time if they were transmitted by
microwave, telephone line, or teletype within 5 rain (from the Goldstone Deep
Space Communication Complex) or 10 min (from the other deep space stations)
from the time of receipt at the deep space station. If buffered in a link (including
the data processing subsystem) for more than 5 min but less than 30 min, data
were classified as near-real time.

Non-Real-Time Data

Data received by the data processing subsystem in the form of either magnetic
tape recordings or delayed transmission from a communications link (more than
30 min after receipt of the data at the deep space station) were classified as non-
real-time data. The main characteristics of these data were that their processing
was delayed and the results were prepared off-line from the data processing sub-
system. There was no necessity for a feedback path from the analysis area or for
very rapid throughput and display. Data from all of the sources were entered
directly or by magnetic tape in either of the two available IBM 7040 input/output
processors, which performed the same input functions on non-real-time data as
performed on real-time data, but which recorded the collected and formatted

219
 o

MARINER-MARS 1964 e

input data on magnetic tape only. These tapes were then processed collectively on
the IBM 7094 main processor at prescheduled intervals, and magnetic tapes were
generated to drive the off-line display devices.

General Paths

The typical data flow to, within, and from the SFOF is shown in figures 6-4
to 6-6. The flow from the SFOF was comprised of acquisition and tracking infor-
mation as well as commands for the DSIF, general status information, and space-
craft performance data. The incoming data circuits were routed through the
SFOF communications terminal to the IBM 7288 for processing by the IBM 7040.
These data were also made available on teletype machines and closed-circuit
television in the user areas.

OPERATIONAL MODES AND COMPUTER PROGRAMS

Flight status and data type determined the data-processing-subsystem mode

of operation and the control programs. The six operational modes available (table
6-I) provided different data throughput and failure recovery times as required for
various mission conditions. The flow of data was controlled from the data process-
ing control console. All switching of computer subsystem and input/output
equipment and control of computer program priorities were initiated at this con-
sole. Control functions were based on equipment performance and on operational
requirements as specified by the SFO director. The IBM 7094 computer programs
were controlled by a percentage time-sharing scheme. The percentages were fixed
by the SFO director and were based on user preflight requests and the standard
sequence of events. The seven user areas in SFOF contained computer input/out-
put equipment for performing data analysis and/or command/control functions
in the data processing subsystem. Typical user area equipment is shown in figure
6-7.
The computer programs described in table 6-II provided the required data
in the proper format in the areas of flight-path analysis, telemetry monitoring,
spacecraft performance analysis, science analysis, command generation, and con-
trol and operational information. The data processing programs included those
necessary to accept and log incoming data, to monitor spacecraft telemetry and
tracking data, and to perform alarm functions in real time. Real-time analysis
programs were necessary in the determination and analysis of spacecraft perform-
ance, the evaluation of science experiments in nonreal time, and the analysis of

22O
 SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

I It
'iii I
I
I' 0 I II I I
I I I_l
I
I
I
I
o_ I
_o i._ _ o I
)O'-I O_ w
I i I

r d,-

i I I
Q <,_. I I I,
|
I
0 Z i.- ,
I , I o
!

.J

.J >.

I _ _ _1_ 0

i _ _ "'
>_
w
i i _ _I_ _1_ _>
_ o _bJ

i
Z_
_J
w i
t- _'-I

--_-_
i ° O O_ ' _l-i-i r--.
II --,-I ....
_ !,_
I.)

I I_
I i ,o_.
I, I_-_
L.., ,,. J _: i.-
,!1
i! I J i IIIII , 'i _ _i
I _

'_ _4' i II e

_ !I

u. ,.

_ I_
_c I_ 3_, 0

_ I_ 3_

II I i II1_-

I
,/
o I

l"
w

I-
I [_ I_
@

,)-

_: ',_
ni__
I I_ _ m

II_,
m
I
J12

221
 4

MARINER-MARS 1964 t

0
r_

II
I I
I I
I
& •
I

w_

m
 6

SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

Z
0
Z
O

¢jn., .z- _
¢..,, _ : ZZ
a I _O
_E'O
u¢,.)

O
-'m < o
(3.

Z
O

OZ
at.<[

O
©
r_

I-'-

O
G.

¢lr

(1)
D
o
i.I
.{f}
I
,,5
I

S/S3_O3_1 GNVIAllAIO3

£NOIJ.Ol03_ld ...IIS(]]
£n±v.l.£
IAI3J.S),S

.m, I
L.;J -J

ono ol o

I
D
I,.-

I--

R II
W
h

223
 #

MARINER-MARS 1964

t-.- _ "0

•_ _._

_'_'_ o _
_'_

E 0 _ 0
0

>. ,_
_i
o_
_ r; _'£

I=
.m _0
U
o
O.

6
.t-
O i
"D

@ _ __ 0

o_o
0
..c:
= ==
._

_ __.
b_0

o -_
o _
•= r--- _

0
Q.
._o• _ _ i
0 0 0
I.

-ID "3
o
_0

==
0

0_

0 .<

224
 SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

_ _o._

_ __ _
=_ pj
C_ Ca

-_=_'_

_= _'_

_0 , 0

_ o

r_ °_ "_

_'_ _0
_'_
"0 "0 ¢_
_._ _. • c_
•_, __

225
 o

MARINER-MARS 1964

.. "3 = = = _ _ _ _ o

r_

c u
0

.B

u
0
-0 _-o _ _ _ = ._ _3 ._C_ _ _.=
='__'_
_ _ _
E _"__ ___o
u
O) •_ '-' _ _ _ _._ &,. _ ___ _ _,
0

3
"S
D.
E
0

'a
0
e.
u
0
O.
0

._ _
0
U
0
n

$
J
.,D.
0

o
:X
cD v

[D _D

_6
 SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

,._ 0 _, _ 0 "N ,, _ _ .o

"_, _n ._ _ _. _ 0 _=
_'_.,_

._ __"
-_ .__
0 _.

_!__
•-'_ _ *d __ _ e._ o ,_ _._ ,. _ _

_ :> _ ¢_ ca 0

__ __ _ _._
___ _o _._ ._ _. 0 "0 _ 0

_ _ o .._ _ ._

r_

•". __ _ _ _.
b 2 _

c¢

6
6
r_

227
MARINER-MARS 1964

I
INQUIRY I I T° I BM 7288

¢J
STATION

INPUT-OUTPUT
CONSOLE

CARD
READER

IBM :5070 ADMINISTRATIVE

PRINTER PRINTER

FROM
IBM 7288

_OX30 IlX17
PLOTTER PLOTTER

KEY/SEND DSIF I I TTY OUT

TTY IN r
RECEIVE ONLY NET CONTROL

I
PRINTERS
TTY I
ROOM
TTY
AND
I
I -
MCR m ONLY
I
_MISSION CONTROL ROOM
I
TTY TELETYPE I
FmURE 6-7.--Typical user area equipment.

the flight path in near-real time. Non-real-time analysis programs were not re-
quired in the actual space flight operations, but complemented the detailed
analyses. The latter category included those programs which determined physical
constants and locations from tracking data and performed detailed analyses and
reconstructions of video data. Inputs from non-real-time analysis programs into
the real-time analysis programs may be used during a mission, provided such
input or substitution of parameters is deemed necessary and appropriate to the
fulfillment of mission objectives.
The Mariner-Mars 1964 mission-dependent data-processing programs were
divided into the following categories:
1. Real-time operational monitoring and processing programs including all
IBM 7040 computer programs.

228
 W

SPACE FLIGHTOPERATIONS

2. Near-real-time operational space-flight analysis programs processed in the

IBM 7094 computer for operational flight-path analysis and spacecraft and science
instrument performance analysis.
3. Non-real-time space-flight analysis and research programs having mul-
tiple options and functions.

TELEMETRY DATA FORMS AFTER PROCESSING

Mariner-Mars 1964 telemetry data appeared in the following forms after

processing:
1. Raw data. Although a somewhat inconvenient format for data analysis,
raw data were thought to be a readily available, reliable source of real-time data.
2. IBM 7040 formatted data. Use of the IBM 7040 computers permitted the
telecommunications system telemetry channels to be displayed on a separate
format and to be converted to data number, by far the most convenient form. It
:*.,as decided to display the IBM 7040 data as data numbers instead of engineering
units to allow easier real-time evaluation during the flight.
3. JPEDIT. JPEDIT was designed to be a non-real-time output of the total
data stream in a convenient format for performance analysis, data records, etc.
Its information content was supposed to be the same or better than that of the IBM
7040 formatted data.
4. EDPLOTM. This program was designed to take the data used for
JPEDIT and plot them in the form of data numbers as a function of time for per-
formance analysis, data records, etc.
5. SSDM. The output of this program, a condensed version of JPEDIT, was
designed to give an output only when a data number changed in a specific
channel.
6. MDL. The master data library (MDL) was implemented so that a list of
the best data available from all sources, including selected tracking station func-
tions as well as spacecraft data, would be available at one location. The MDL is
described in detail later in this section.
Raw data displayed on 60-word/min printers proved to be the most reliable
source of real-time data during the mission. The raw Teletype data could be con-
verted to a usable form in a matter of seconds. These data, usually available
several seconds ahead of the IBM 7040 formatted data output, were sometimes
used even when the formatted data (converted to data number, the most con-
venient form) were available. It was found that the JPEDIT data contained
consistently more erroneous indications than the IBM 7040 formatted data, and
thus this type did not play a significant role in mission operations. Since their data

229
 0

MARINER-MARS 1964

source JPEDIT did not meet expectations, EDPLOTM and SSDM data were not
effectively used either.

MARINER-MARS 1964 MASTER DATA LIBRARY

In August 1964, a program was initiated to design, develop, and implement a

system to produce a master data library (MDL) of all data received and recorded
during the Mariner-Mars 1964 missions. The MDL would provide the best source
of tracking and telemetry data received and recorded by DSIF, as well as discrete
DSIF instrumentation performance parameters, thus producing a history of the
missions from which postflight analysis could be accomplished on the spacecraft
subsystems, the scientific instruments, the spacecraft trajectory, and the perform-
ance of DSIF.
As implemented, MDL was comprised of three types of data "tables": telem-
etry, tracking, and comment. The telemetry data table was a series of two types o
digital recorded magnetic tapes generated by the IBM 7094 computer programs:
station master merge tapes and composite master merge tapes. The station master
merge tapes, generated by the "merge" program for each station, contained the
best telemetry data and ground instrumentation performance parameters re-
corded during each station's tracking. These telemetry data were derived from the
three data sources processed: the demodulator input, the demodulator output, and
the Teletype output. The selection of the data source was made by the merge pro-
gram, based upon the data quality and continuity of each data stream within a
recorded source.
The composite master merge tapes, also generated by the merge program,
contained a continuous and sequential stream of the best telemetry data derived
from the composite of deep space stations receiving and recording telemetry data
(station master merge tapes) during each day of the mission. The overlap of telem-
etry data between deep space stations was eliminated by data source selection,
based upon data quality and continuity of each recorded source. Ground instru-
mentation performance parameters were not contained on these tapes.
The tracking data table was developed from both real-time and non-real-time
data. Real-time data (sampled only at low rates) were received from the deep
space stations by Teletype communications into the SFOF and processed through
the data-processing subsystem in real time. Non-real-time data (sampled at both
low and high rates) were received from the deep space stations and were also proc-
essed through the data-processing subsystem. Both types of data were maintained

230
 SPACE FLIGHTOPERATIONS

on digital recorded magnetic tapes in formats compatible with the tracking-data-

processor/orbit-data-generator programs, which were in themselves user com-
puter programs. The raw tracking data as recorded on Teletype paper tapes were
maintained as part of the MDL.
To explain peculiarities and/or anomalies which occurred in both the telem-
etry and tracking data tables, the supporting space-flight operations logs, DSIF
operations logs, and MDL data-processing logs were microfilmed and maintained
in the comment data table. Actual tracking and telemetry data were printed in
tabular outputs and, together with the MDL data processing logs, provided a
history of the MDL processing.

MARINER iV DATA PROCESSING AND RECOVERY SUMMARY

Data Recovery Summary

Basically, two types of data were recovered during the Mariner IV mission:
tracking data and telemetry data. The spacecraft transmitted approximately
3×108 bits of data to the Earth: 107 bits of television data, 97×106 bits of
engineering data, and 193×106 bits of science data. The number of telemetry
measurements as a function of time is presented in figure 6-8.
During the 307 days which elapsed from the first day after launch (November
29, 1964) to the antenna switchover (October 1, 1965), approximately 9500 hours
of tracking were performed at about 10 hr/day/station for three stations on the
average. Horizon-to-horizon two-way data for two passes were taken each week by
each station. Approximately 550 000 points of 60-sec data, 320 000 points of 10-see
data, and 3 200 000 points of 1-sec data were taken. The 60- and 10-sec points
were sent in real time to the data processing subsystem at SFOF. The 1-sec points
were sent in non real time for Mariner IV MDL postprocessing. Of the estimated
total of 106 points transmitted in real time, about 300 000 were precision two-way
points.
Approximately 98 percent of the real-time data was processed and logged by
IBM 7040 computers, and approximately 90 percent of the non-real-time data was
recovered by IBM 7094 postprocessing. The 2 percent loss in real-time processing
was due to communications outages and computer outages, and the 10 percent
loss in non-real-time postprocessing was due primarily to the assignment of time
with data and the inability of the JPEDIT program to identify preambles. Of the
data received at the deep space stations, from 99.5 to 100 percent has been
recovered for the Mariner IV MDL.

231
MARINER-MARS 1964

60.0 I I i I

40.0 TOTAL MEASUREMENTS --_ /

SC,ENCE
I _'l _--
MEASUREI_ENT_,_.._ _ ''''_ _'''''_ _
20.0

I0.0

_0 8.0

X 6,0

_ 4.0

MEASUREMENTS
/ _ - ENGINEERING

AND STATUS

| //_y _-- SYNC IDENTIFICATION

z 011

0.6

If/rll _.--..I---'---
0.4
PICTURE AND

_b_ STORED DATA

G2 I
1964 1965

0.1
P.SNOV 240EC 2FEB 14MAR 23APR 2JUNE 12JULY 21AUG 30SEIDT 9NOV

OATE

FIGURE 6-8.--Number of telemetry measurements as a

function of date.

Data Processing Summary

During the high-activity phases of the mission (launch, midcourse maneuver,

and encounter), redundant systems were used wherever possible. At SFOF, all
operational computers were put in use in two computer strings. One IBM 7094
computer was used primarily for flight-path programs, and the other was used for
engineering and science programs. All programs were loaded into both strings so
that an immediate backup was available for any given program.
Because of certain anomalies in handling tracking data during the early hours
of the mission, it was decided to back up the data processing subsystem by punch-
ing cards with tracking data information to be read directly into the IBM 7094
tracking data processor and merged with data coming into the IBM 7094 by way
of the IBM 7040. During the first 30 days of the mission, only about 10 to 15 per-
cent of the data was processed through normal channels (IBM 7288-IBM 7040-

232
 SPACE FLIGHTOPERATIONS

IBM 7094). When the punched card information was added, this figure increased
to about 85 to 90 percent. Modifications made to the mission-independent editor
in the IBM 7094 increased data recovery to about 85 to 90 percent through the
data processing subsystem, and it remained at that level or better throughout the
rest of the mission.
During the cruise phase, only the IBM 7040 computer was used in real time.
The output consisted of "quick-look" formats for science and engineering data,
high-speed teleprinter formats of selected engineering measurements, and 76.2- by
76.2-cm (30- by 30-in.) plots of selected science and engineering measurements.
During that time, the IBM 7040 also generated a log tape consisting of all incom-
ing raw data. No real-time processing of tracking data was performed. One of the
IBM 7040 computers was replaced with an IBM 7044 during the cruise phase.
The IBM 7094 user programs were run on a production-type schedule. The
IBM 7040 log tape was removed each morning and edited by the IBM 7094.
..............
_e { ..... nrt
o--ee .... _ v-_
onerln rlnff nro_rnrn_
....................
were then rim on the edited data. The com-
puter printout was duplicated by document control and then delivered to the user
areas. User program output for a 1-day period was delivered to the user areas by
noon of the following day.
During the encounter and the beginning of picture playback, full data process-
ing capabilities were used. Both computer strings were exercised: one for flight-
path programs and the other for engineering and science programs. After playback
of the first picture, the computer coverage was reduced to two IBM 7040 com-
puters making redundant recording tapes. IBM 7094 video processing, performed
each morning, produced two outputs: a computer printout and a magnetic tape.
The computer printout consisted of a number of formats which displayed picture
data as well as summary data concerning the picture. The picture data were dis-
played in a 200- by 200-decimal element matrix and a printout of the binary
serial bit stream. The magnetic tape produced by IBM 7094 video processing was
made to be compatible with the film recorder.
Continuous orbit runs were made on one computer string, and periodic orbit
runs were made on the other computer string from 12 hours before closest ap-
proach to the exit of the spacecraft from the occultation region. From 30 rain
before the spacecraft entered the occultation region until it left the region, residual
data were generated by determining the difference between the incoming data
and the predicted data. These were then transmitted to the SFOF from Echo DSS
12 and plotted in near-real time on the FPAC team's 76.2- by 76.2-cm (30- by 30-
in.) plotter. Unexpectedly large residuals resulting from difficulties with orbital

233
 #

MARINER-MARS1964

calculations at encounter caused part of the plotting exercise to be of limited value;

however, it was possible to verify the existence of the planet's atmosphere and
make some preliminary estimates of its character in near-real time from observa-
tion of the plots. A delay in locking up the closed loop at Echo DSS 12 when the
spacecraft left the occultation region made it impossible to plot residuals at that
time.
 6

CHAPTER 7

Scientific Results and Conclusions

FIELDS AND PARTICLES EXPERIMENTS

Introduction

The Earth and other inner planets are immersed within clouds of plasma
(ionized gas), magnetic fields, and a flux of high-energy particles and electro-
magnetic radiation that come primarily from the Sun. Even though not all the
accelerated particles that fill the space between the planets are derived from the
Sun, most are accelerated to high energy by solar processes. The magnetohydro-
dynamic and high-energy particle flux in interplanetary space accounts for a host
of terrestrial phenomena, including magnetic storms; auroral displays; u,_rup
-_:.... t,on:
of radio, telephone, and telegraph communications; and the Van Allen belts.
The Sun itself generates the full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. Of
the solar particles, the most energetic are protons (hydrogen nuclei) and electrons
in the million-electron-volt (MeV) energy range. These are born in great ex-
plosive outbursts of energy from the Sun known as solar flares. Even an ordinary
flare expends energy equivalent to millions of hydrogen bombs exploding all at
once. A major flare can release a flood of energy equal to more than a billion
hydrogen bombs exploding over a 30-min period: the equivalent of about 1019
kW-hr of energy. Exposed to such energy, particles reach relativistic velocities
that exceed one-tenth the speed of light, and masses of ionized gas or plasma are
ejected to travel across interplanetary space with velocities reaching 1126 km/sec
(700 statute miles/see).
The Sun's corona (which extends for unknown millions of miles into space) is
made up chiefly of hydrogen gas, which, at a temperature of 1 000 000 ° K (about
1 800 000 ° F) near the Sun, is mostly ionized into protons and electrons. A few
alpha particles (helium nuclei) may also be present in the corona. The density of
the Sun's corona starts at about 3× 107 protons and electrons/cm a (4.9 × 108/in. _)
near the Sun and decreases to a value of 5 to 20 protons and electrons/cm _ (82 to
328/in. 3) in the vicinity of the Earth. There is an almost continuous, high-velocity
outflow of extremely hot ionized gas caused by solar activity which results in
magnetohydrodynamic expansion of the corona itself. This outflow, the so-called
solar "wind" or solar plasma, has continuously varying energy, and the changes in

235
 *

MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-1 .-Configuration of magnetic field lines of force in interplanetary space.

its density, velocity, and direction account for variations in the “weather” in inter-
planetary space.
When the solar wind or the plasma ejected as a result of solar flares travels
across space, it “drags” the Sun’s magnetic-field lines of force along with it. These
lines of force are endless, each drawn through interplanetary space in a roughly
spiral configuration radiating from the Sun for as far as the solar wind blows. The
more-energetic particles from solar flares move along these magnetic-field lines
of force. Therefore, as may be seen in figure 7-1, the Mariner IV spacecraft
detected these particles only when crossing the magnetic-field lines of force that
connect to the position of the flare on the Sun. Even the energetic particles called
cosmic rays, which come to Earth from outside the solar system, move along paths
which are determined by the configuration of interplanetary, magnetic-field lines
of force of solar origin. The strength and direction of the solar magnetic-field lines

236
 SCIENTIFICRESULTS
AND CONCLUSIONS

of force across space are also important factors affecting the "weather" in inter-
planetary space.
When the solar wind arrives in the vicinity of tile Earth, it encounters the
Earth's magnetic field. The airfoil-shaped region created by the solar wind's inter-
action with the Earth's magnetic field, compressing it and confining it, is called the
Earth's magnetosphere. Its boundary is called the magnetopause. Since the
Earth's magnetic field deflects all particles, a disturbance is created in the smooth
flow of the solar wind, just as a rock protruding out of a stream will disturb the
smooth flow of the water. The deflected particles, beginning at a distance of about
64 400 km (40 000 statute miles) on the sunward side of the Earth, form a kind of
half-sphere around the Earth on the sunward side. This is termed the bow shock or
shock front. It is thought that the Earth actually leaves a "wake" in the solar wind,
streaming out into space away from the Sun. This, the so-called magnetic tail, is
believed by many to be quite long, possibly 1 astronomical unit (i.e., the distance
lrom the _,tc_ of the Sun to the oo,,ter of tho Enrth) The theoretical configllr_-
tion of the interaction of the solar wind with the Earth's magnetic field is illus-
trated in figure 7-2.

DIRECTION OF
EARTH'S TRAVEL

SHOCK FRONT MAGNETOPAUSE

FIGURE 7-2.--Effects of interaction of solar wind with Earth's magnetic field.

237
 4_

,iP

MARINER-MARS 1964

Actually there is not much material in interplanetary space; densities of as

few as 20 protons and electrons/cm 3 (328/in?) seem to be the rule, and at this
value it would take a volume the size of the Earth to make up 3.6 kg (8 lb) of
matter. But, despite the fact that this density of material is almost 1 million
times less than that in the best vacuums available in the laboratory, this exceed-
ingly tenuous matter and the electromagnetic fields and radiations associated with
it could have very serious consequences in future planetary and interplanetary
space travel. Therefore, instruments which could help in determining these possi-
ble consequences were considered essential for the Mariner-Mars 1964 payload.
The particles and fields in space and in the vicinity of Mars were thought to
be particularly significant for study, as was the cosmic dust distribution on the way
to Mars. The possibility of radiation belts near Mars had been hypothesized, and
the proximity of the planet to the asteroid belt made it seem possible that particu-
late matter might exist in greater quantity near the orbit of Mars than near the
orbit of Earth. Since the Sun is the dominating factor in the planetary and inter-
planetary environments, measurements of its effects throughout the mission were
considered especially important.
All six instruments chosen for the Mariner-Mars 1964 fields and particles
experiments--helium magnetometer, cosmic dust detector, ionization chamber,
cosmic ray telescope, trapped radiation detector, and solar plasma probe--were
capable of providing data on interplanetary space and on the near-Earth and
near-Mars environments as well. The instruments were carefully positioned on the
spacecraft to survey space and obtain the maximum amount of useful information
during the mission. Their locations and "look" angles are shown in figure 7-3. The
scientific investigators for the experiments are listed in table 7-I, and the measure-
ments made by the instruments during the Mariner IV mission are discussed in the
following paragraphs.

Helium Magnetometer

The helium magnetometer was included in the Mariner-Mars 1964 science

payload in order to measure the variations in magnitude and direction of the
planetary and interplanetary magnetic fields. It operated on the principle that the
presence of magnetic fields would modify the transparency of a plasma of meta-
stable helium ions to infrared radiation of 1.083-micron wavelength. The instru-
ment, weighing 3.07 kg (6.77 lb) and requiring 7.3 watts of power, basically con-
sisted of an infrared source, a helium cell, an infrared detector, and a set of coils
around the helium cell. In order to minimize the effects of spacecraft fields, it was

238
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

mounted in a remote position high on the low-gain antenna waveguide of the

spacecraft.
The coils produced a rotating magnetic field in the helium, resulting in a
synchronous modulation of the infrared intensity sensed by the detector. An

SOLAR PLASMA PROBE +x

C = DIRECTION TO CANOPUS
Z=DIRECTION TO SUN
M=DIRECTION OF MARINER 2_" TRAVEL
X,Y=AXES OF MARINER 2_ THROUGH SOLAR PANELS IONIZATION CHAMBER

FIGURE 7-3.--Locations and "look" angles of the Mariner IV interplanetary instruments.

239
 ,p

MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 7-1.--Scientific investigators for Mariner-Mars 1964 science experiments

Experiment Investigators Affiliation

Television ...................... R. B. Leighton a California Institute of Technology

B. C. Murray California Institute of Technology
R. P. Sharp California Institute of Technology
R. K. Sloan Jet Propulsion Laboratory
J. D. Allen Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Helium magnetometer ........... E.J. Smith a Jet Propulsion Laboratory
P. J. Coleman, Jr. University of California, Los Angeles
L. Davis, Jr. California Institute of Technology
D. E. Jones Brigham Young University and Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory
Cosmic dust detector ............ W. M. Alexandera NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
O. E. Berg NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
C. W. McCracken NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
L. Secretan NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
J. L. Bohn Temple University
O. P. Fuchs Temple University
Ionization chamber .............. H. V. Neher a California Institute of Technology
H. R. Anderson Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Cosmic ray telescope ............. J. A. Simpson a University of Chicago
J. O'Gallagber University of Chicago
Trapped radiation detector ....... J. A. Van Allena State University of Iowa
L. A. Frank State University of Iowa
S. M. Krimijis State University of Iowa
Solar plasma probe .............. H. L. Bridge a Massachusetts Institute of Technology
A. Lazarus Massachusetts Institute of Technology
C. W. Snyder Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Occultation .................... A.J. Kliorea Jet Propulsion Laboratory
D. L. Cain Jet Propulsion Laboratory
G. S. Levy Jet Propulsion Laboratory
V. R. Eshleman Stanford University
G. Fjeldbo Stanford University
F. Drake Cornell University

a Principal investigator.

external field disturbed the normal detector output signal, producing an error
signal that was fed back to the coils as a current of sufficient magnitude to nullify
the external field. The measurement of this current provided the output signal of
the helium magnetometer. The dynamic range of the instrument was 4-360 gam-
mas along each of the three spacecraft axes, with a 0.35-gamma resolution per
axis? The magnetometer made four vector measurements during every 12.6 see at
the high (331_-bits/sec) data transmission rate and every 50.4 see at the low (81/_ -
bits/see) data transmission rate.

t 1 gamma = 10 -5 gauss; the magnetic field of the Earth at the equator is about 0.5 gauss or 50 000 gammas.

240
 t

SCIENTIFIC RESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

For the first 162_ hours of flight, the Mariner IV spacecraft was programed to
roll at a rate of about 1 revolution every 30 rain. Since the magnetic field of the
Earth was known, it was possible to correct the magnetometer data for any bias
caused by the small remnant field of the spacecraft itself. The roll calibration
insured that later data taken from the instrument in the very small field of inter-
planetary space could be assigned absolute values.

As Mariner IV began its journey into space, it first passed through the mag-
netosphere of the Earth. The power spectra of the magnetic field variation in the
region of turbulence behind the shock front were determined for variations with
25-sec to 30-min periods and an average total energy density of about 5 gammas_/
cm _. Pronounced oscillations with periods near 3 rain were detected; they
appeared to have been caused by hydromagnetic waves associated with fluctua-
tions in the position of the magnetopause.

Through a fortunate circumstance, Mariner IV passed through the shock

front several times. After the spacecraft had passed through the front once, con-
ditions apparently changed, causing the front to move outward and overtake the
spacecraft from the rear. Later, Mariner IV caught up with the front at its new
location and passed through it again. There were approximately seven transversals
between 36.6 and 38.6 Earth radii (i.e., between approximately 233 300 and
246 200 km (145 000 and 153 000 statute miles), after which no further evidence of
Earth-related phenomena was obtained. A portion of the helium magnetometer
data taken during the passages of the spacecraft through the shock front is shown
in figure 7-4.

The average magnitude and direction of the interplanetary field were con-
sistent with values taken during the previous missions of Mariner II in 1962 and
the first interplanetary monitoring platform IMP I (Explorer XVIII) in 1964.
Throughout the mission in interplanetary space, the magnetometer data showed a
pattern of alternating disturbed and quiet intervals related to daily changes in
solar activity. Apparently because the Sun in late 1964 and in the first half of 1965
was slightly "quieter" (i.e., less active) than in 1962, the fluctuations in the inter-
planetary magnetic field during the Mariner IV mission were not quite as large as
the fluctuations observed during the Mariner II mission. Several times, however,
Mariner IV recorded abrupt changes in the magnetic field coincident with the
arrival of plasma thrown out by solar flares. Large irregular fields were observed
2 days after the solar flare of February 5. On one occasion, the magnetic-field
value reached 35 gammas, or more than 7 times the typical average daily value.

241
MARINER-MARS 1964

SHOCK
SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK
FRONT
FRONT FRONT FRONT FRONT FRONT

REGION
INTER - REGION OF INTERPLANETARY
REGION OF INTERPLANETARY REGION OF
SPACE OF
TURBULENCE SPACE TURBULENCE PLANE- TURBU-
LENCE TURBU-
TARY
LENCE
SPACE

X-AXIS

,% •.

• . :_::.::.::.•._
.... ":" " _ ... --7-._-'_.
: .: .....:= %.:..• .w,-_, -.._..-.._._.. .: .... .: 4. _- a.." :-'-: • ' ":'..J"_.'..

-_"F --"_•:'"_ " °.

_ " --

°+ °°

I I I I I I
, I l I

Y-AXIS
w ;

"" i
I .-:---.-- • ...". , :. _ -.. _

'"..-.'" . . ." - .. :.. '.:|.." ..... ,.-". "'-_" ..._.

I " .'. ::'4: "•" .i "-'-"'-.

....
• "....'....:,:':."
". "':: ".T.:
,.
7..:...
":--
:.'.,."
•', "
." ..:
•,. " : =..... ..-.-;
: "-':" • i i
'..:!-:"
p-

i
i I __A._ . J_ L---- -.L-- ............. -.--J

Z-AXIS

1! _ --.:
i "
• - i". ::"
.: i "t -:
L
• . ": . .: . i ...... "'_
•:,..... -.-.:.,_...- --'- •. • _ •. _._L ," ." ._'...--L--.:."..'..:'"';--'_" "._'
-...-._....:.:
: .. L+..:.. !-:.,.....
: .-....._.
::-- .:_; ..::..-... :. :':':'. I:'" " '

: "_:'" : " i
• I i
J_.----__l l i, I : L l J--;.
i ............... J-
06:10 06:20 06:30 06:40 06:50 07:0_
+ 06:00

GMT, NOVEMBER 29, 1964 •

i I
I 37 _'_
36

GEOCENTRIC DISTANCE, Eorth rodli

FIGURE 7-4.--Helium magnetometer data taken during Mariner IV's passages through shock
front of Earth•

242
 SCIENTIFICRESULTS
AND CONCLUSIONS

The Mariner IV helium magnetometer data corroborate the previous obser-

vations that the interplanetary magnetic field lies near the plane of the Sun's
equator but is strongly disordered. The average magnetic vector pointed away
from the Sun at an angle of about 45 ° to the direction of the Earth's orbital motion
and nearly parallel to the plane of the ecliptic. There was a tendency for the inter-
planetary field to exhibit a polarity pattern that rotated with the Sun. The specific
patterns during the Mariner IV observations were generally different from those
observed by Mariner II and IMP I. The Mariner IV data also revealed an evolu-
tion in the polarity pattern from one solar rotation to another; in fact, there were
long intervals where the pattern became difficult to recognize.
Because Mariner IV was moving outward from the Sun far beyond the orbit
of the Earth, it provided the first opportunity to investigate whether or not the
Earth had a long magnetic tail streaming out into space away from the Sun.
During late January and early February, Mariner IV passed through the pre-
sumed region of the ..... ,;o ,a;1 _f ,h o 12_rth (hehlnd the l¢.arth a_ viewed from
the Sun). At this time, the geocentric distance of the spacecraft was approximately
3300 Earth radii (approximately 21 million km (13 million statute miles)). During
7 days of flight within a geocentric angle between 1° and 5° from the presumed
centerline of the magnetic tail, the helium magnetometer data revealed no change
in the interplanetary magnetic field that would be associated with the Earth's
magnetic tail, if it existed. Although a negative result, it is considered particularly
significant as evidence against conjectures that the Earth's magnetic tail might be
very long. There is a possibility, of course, that such a tail exists and that it was
bent considerably above or below the route traversed by Mariner IV.
Theorists had predicted that the strength of the magnetic field of Mars was
probably quite small: no stronger than one-tenth that of the Earth. This prediction
was based on Mars' mass and its rate of rotation (virtually the same as the
Earth's). Predictions had been generated as to what distance from Mars the
helium magnetometer would detect or show the effect of having encountered a
magnetic field at Mars, assuming various values for the strength of the field. If the
field were strong, the instrument would have shown an effect several hours before
closest approach to Mars. The most sensitive point for detection was shortly after
closest approach and just before the spacecraft entered the Earth occultation
region at Mars (i.e., before the spacecraft passed behind Mars as viewed from the
Earth). No conclusive evidence for a magnetic field was noted on the output of the
instrument.
Figure 7-5 shows the calculated shock-front locations for Mars, assuming

243
MARINER-MARS 1964

magnetic moments of 10 -a (0.1 percent) and 10 -4 (0.01 percent) of the value for
the Earth. The trajectory of Mariner IV was such that it should have encountered
the shock front at these locations, if such a front existed. The data from the helium
magnetometer which were obtained as Mariner IV flew past Mars are given in
figure 7-6. The only effect which might be interpreted as representing a shock
front occurred at a distance of about 15 000 to 20 000 km (9300 to 12 400 statute
miles) from the center of Mars slightly after the closest approach of the spacecraft
to the planet. On the basis of these measurements, the upper limit of the magnetic
moment of Mars may be set at 0.03 percent of the value for Earth.

Cosmic Dust Detector

The cosmic dust detector was designed to measure the mass and flux distri-
bution of interplanetary dust particles in the vicinity of the Earth, between the
orbits of Earth and Mars, and in the vicinity of Mars. The detector consisted of a
square (approximately 22.1 cm (8.7 in.) on each side) 0.08-cm-thick (0.03-in.)

MARS' MAGNETIC MOMENT

EARTH'S MAGNETIC MOMENT =

MARS

120° MARINER

TRAJECTORY

20 000

FIGURE 7-5.--Theoretical shock-front locations at Mars, assuming magnetic moments of 0.1

percent and 0.01 percent of the value for Earth.

244
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

15 v v i ! t I V 1 u v 1 _ v v v T V !
I0 FIELD INR DIRECTION (NORMAL TO ECLIPTIC PLANE) CLOSEST APPROACH:
OI:O0:SBGMT, 13 196 km
h..

CCULTATION IIW, t
05 .,,,.+.','" ' .................. , .................... "',.,.,,. ...... .,, ..................... , ............. ,.+.., . ....... ,,I ,'r},,.,, ,,. O jalOt,ll I'
i*t'11

-5

-I0

-15 i _, £ : L _ , , , l _ A t l l i l I A J

15 l I 1 l ; I r i v v i r r y i i ! ! i

I0 FIELD IN T DIRECTION (PARALLEL TO ECLIPTIC PLANE)

5
EE _''h_''_''''1_'h''i_I_'_h_'_"'r''_m_'om''_I+''"'i'''_'¢''_'_'"i'_'P''_'h"h'_'*_`h_"i ......
'"'""h',Hl+l '",i°'"'OCCULTATION ,'0,.[h,+'"",',,,',h,
o 0

o" -5
.J
_uJ -tO
b._

_L_ -15 * _ * _ ' I i _ I I I I I I i I I I I

_5_ , t , , , t , t , , , , y , , , , ; ,

LO I0 t FIELD tN MARS' NORTH DIRECTION

-5 o ............... ' ......... ' ............ ....... " '..' "' " "' ................ ,............... It ,,,,l'" t,l,,, ',l ,',' t
-u0 ul,rht',".'"'" OCCULTATION

!
-15 i , I I i I I I i A I i I i i i I i I J

15 l t l 1 t l r ! , _ v t 1 ! , t I ! r

IO ABSOLUTE FIELD "I' .,, 1

"' , OCCULTAT ON l

5 ,",'I",'""..., III ........ ,'+'Flu '"..' ....... +, ............. ""'"'"""'""d, ....... It_, +++_IIO'""",,'I+,HI .,,,,I,....'H ' ql ll''+,.'l *++,''II''.'*'''_

0 _. l i I I I l I i I I I i I I i A l I ]

I00 021 B4 007 6B OIB 5`2 I01 36 424 '21 745 13 205 `21 314 35 926 51 590 67 `203

DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF MARS, km

I I
,9:00 20100 ' `2,1oo' `2,1oo' _,+':oo' 00100 ' o/:oo ' 02':00 ' 03':00' o,,Ioo ' 05:00 '
JULY 14 _,, JULY 15 _-',

GMT AT SPACECRAFT

FIGURE 7-6.--Helium magnetometer data taken during encounter of Mariner IV with Mars.

aluminum sensor plate mounted perpendicular to the velocity vector of the space-
craft. To this plate was attached a sensitive microphone (threshold sensitivity
= 6.04-0.7 X 10-5 dyne-sec).
The sensor plate of the cosmic dust detector was coated on both sides with a
thin film of insulating material, over which was deposited a thin film of metal. A
voltage was applied between the outer conducting film and the aluminum plate,
thus making it a capacitor. When a particle of solid matter from space penetrated
the metallic outer film and the insulator, it discharged the capacitor and gave rise

245
 b
t

MARINER-MARS 1964

to a pulse. The microphone produced a signal related to the mechanical acoustic

pulse of the sensor plate. The electronic instrumentation contained a storage sys-
tem which recorded all dust-particle impacts and provided eight levels of pulse-
height analysis to each signal from the microphone. The dynamic range of the
pulse-height analyzer extended to 1.96×10 -_ dyne-sec. The storage system also
provided information concerning the occurrence of coincidences between signals
from the microphone and the capacitor sensor. A calibration device contained in
the instrumentation performed a calibration approximately three times a day
when the telemetry data transmission rate was high (331_-bits/sec) and approxi-
mately once each day when the data transmission rate was low (8a/_ bits/see). The
cosmic dust detector weighed 0.95 kg (2.1 lb) and required 0.23 watt of power.
On its trip to Venus in 1962, the Mariner II spacecraft reported that the
number of dust particles in free space was very small: only about 1 for every
10 000 in the vicinity of the Earth. However, Mariner IV was expected to en-
counter larger numbers of particles for two reasons:
1. It would pass close to several known meteoroid streams, two in December
and' one in March; these streams are presumably composed of particles that once

tG

DISCRETE
INTERVAL COUNT

to

R APHELION

ENCOUNTER
I
t.2 1.3 1.4 15 1.6

HELIOCENTRIC RANGE, astronomical units

FZGURE7-7.--Number of cosmic dust impacts during mission of Mariner IV as recorded by cosmic

dust detector.

246
 SCIENTIFICRESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

belonged to the nuclei of comets that gradually dispersed in space, as small comets
are known to do.
2. Just beyond the orbit of Mars is the so-called asteroid belt, an area in
which many large asteroids and many thousands of small asteroids orbit the Sun;
collisions between the smaller asteroids would produce dust that would then grad-
ually approach the Sun.

Thus, Mariner IV flew toward a suspected source of cosmic dust.

Approximately 235 impacts were recorded during the mission. The number of
impacts for each 5-day interval is plotted as a function of heliocentric range in
figure 7-7. A comparison of the cosmic dust recordings of Mariner IV with those
of Mariner II gave the following results: Out to about 1.2 AU (i.e., 1.2 times the
distance from the center of the Sun to the center of the Earth), the flux of dust
recorded by Mariner IV was almost identical to that recorded by Mariner II in
traveling to 0.72 AU. Beyond 1.2 AU, the flux increased more or less steadily,
reaching a maximum at 1.38 AU, which corresponds to the perihelion, or near
point, of Mars' orbit to the Sun. The decline in flux beyond that distance suggests
that some of the dust once present has been swept up by the planet. No statistically
significant evidence of any well-defined streams of dust particles was found.

Ioniza)ion Chamber

A duplicate of an instrument flown to Venus by Mariner II, the Mariner IV

ionization chamber was designed to measure the average total ionization of fast-
moving particles that could penetrate a stainless-steel shell 0.025 cm (0.01 in.)
thick. To penetrate the shell, electrons had to have energies above 0.5 MeV, pro-
tons above 10 MeV, and alpha particles above 40 MeV. The chamber itself con-
sisted of a sphere, 12.7 cm in diameter (5 in.) filled with argon gas at a pressure of
4 atm. Particles that entered the sphere and passed through the gas knocked elec-
trons out of the argon atoms. The loss of one or several electrons meant that the
atom which was normally electrically neutral became ionized. The time required
to collect a preset amount of electrical charge resulting from this ionization was
telemetered to Earth, giving a measure of the ionization capability of space
radiation. A GM tube mounted nearby counted the number of ionization-causing
particles. By combining the time measurement with the particle count, much
could be deduced concerning the ionization capability of the average charged
particle that passed through the instrument. The weight of the instrument was 1.3
kg (2.9 lb), and 0.46 watt of power was required.

247
 m

MARINER-MARS 1964

The intensity of radiation within the Earth's magnetosphere and near the
equatorial plane was found to vary steadily with distance out to 8.2 Earth radii
(approximately 52 300 km (32 500 statute miles)); from 8.2 to 15.3 Earth radii
(approximately 97 500 km (60 000 statute miles)), the intensity varied complexly;
and, at greater distances from Earth, only interplanetary radiation levels were
observed. After a solar flare on February 5, the GM tube measured an 80-fold rise
in the number of interplanetary particles, and the ionization chamber readings
were 200 times larger than the normal value. The general variation of intensity
with time after the flare can be described by diffusion of particles in the inter-
planetary medium. In addition, there were later fluctuations which were ascribed
to the subsequent ejection of particles from the Sun or to modulation of particles in
the interplanetary medium.
The solar flare radiation of February 5 was apparently the cause of damage to
the GM tube; after February 10, this damage caused data from the tube to become
unusable. This failure, in turn, affected the power supply of the instrument which
was common to both the GM tube and the ionization chamber. After February 5,
the counting rate failed to return to the normal background level. Then, after
approximately 10 days of operation at a level 30 percent higher than normal, the
counting rate rose sharply from 40 counts/sec to 18 000 counts/sec and fluctuated
between 18 000 and 6000 counts/sec until March 17. On that date, the counting
rate dropped to zero and remained there permanently.
Since the same detectors were flown on both the Mariner II and Mariner IV
missions, it was possible to compare the data collected near Venus in 1962 with
those collected in 1964-1965. The omnidirectional flux and ionization rate
recorded by Mariner IV were about 40 percent higher than those recorded by
Mariner II. The variation of cosmic ray flux with time, as measured by Mariner
IV, correlates very well with similar observations made with high-altitude bal-
loons during the same 2-year period, as shown in figure 7-8. The somewhat lower
increase (24 percent) in flux given by the balloon measurements may be explained
by assuming the increase to be largely composed of low-energy particles which
were able to penetrate and thus were registered by the Mariner IV instrument,
but which were unable to penetrate the residual atmosphere above the balloon-
borne instruments.
It also appears that cosmic ray intensity was greater during 1954 than during
1964-1965, both periods being of low solar activity. This is presumably because of
lower solar activity during the 1954 period, with the consequent production of
more low-energy particles.

248
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

575

I1_ ESTIMATED FROM MARINER £_" DATA OF FEB 16, 1965

550

=E------ --ESTIMATED FROM MAR/NER.Z_ DATA OF DEC 3, i964

525

_9ALLOON DATA

5OO

o
THULE, GREENLAND
o

E 475

f AUG I0_ 1954

'_w 450
.__ APR 16, 1965

Z FEB 16, 1965

0
7- 425

Z
_o
DEC 3, 1964

400

JULY 28, 1963

B, 1962
375

350

325 I
0 50 I00 150

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, g/era 2

FmURE 7-8.--Comparison of ionized particle counts taken by Mariner IV ionization chamber

experiment and those taken during high-altitude balloon flights.

249
 II

t,

MARINER-MARS 1964

Cosmic Ray Telescope

Similar to instruments previously flown on the IMP satellites, the cosmic ray
telescope measured charged particles in the interplanetary environment and in
that of Mars. It could detect the cosmic rays which were also detected by the
ionization chamber and, in addition, particles which were not energetic enough to
cause ionization in the chamber. Weighing 1.17 kg (2.58 lb) and using 0.598 watt
of power, the instrument was composed of three solid-state detectors and absorbers
placed one above the other (like lenses in a telescope) to accept incoming particles
within an acceptance cone of 40 °. The depth of penetration of a particle and its
energy loss in the detectors determined the energy of the particle and identified
the particle. The measurement of these quantities was made by a 128-channel
analyzer.
Looking in the direction away from the Sun, the instrument was on the
shadowed side of the spacecraft during the cruise phase of the mission. It detected
protons in three ranges from 0.8 to 190 MeV and alpha particles in three ranges
from 2 to more than 320 MeV. The average observed cosmic ray intensity (protons
and alpha particles greater than 1 MeV) was 3 counts/min. The instrument re-
ported a complete absence of trapped electrons and protons at Mars and sub-
stantiated the magnetometer and trapped radiation detector data in setting an
upper limit on the Mars magnetic moment of 0.1 percent of the value for Earth.
Since the energy ranges for this experiment were the same as those of previous
experiments flown on IMP satellites, an excellent space-time correlation of events
was possible. During the Mariner IV mission, one moderately large solar-proton
event and several much smaller events associated with solar activity (i.e., solar
flares or 27-day recurring regions on the Sun) were observed by the cosmic ray
telescope. Almost all these events were observed simultaneously by IMP satellites.
The analysis of the time and space relationships between these simultaneous obser-
vations made possible several conclusions that would not have been evident from
measurements at a single point in interplanetary space. Among these conclusions
were the following:
1. Solar particles are strongly guided along, rather than across, the spiraling
interplanetary magnetic-field lines of force, as was shown in figure 7-1.
2. These particles are sometimes stored and carried around the Sun within
magnetic field structures rooted in the Sun.
New information on the spatial variation of galactic cosmic ray intensities
was also provided. This new information showed a much larger radial gradient
during solar minimum than had previously been anticipated. Therefore, very

250
 SCIENTIFICRESULTS
AND CONCLUSIONS

significant changes were made in our understanding of the relative importance of

intergalactic magnetic fields and cosmic ray particulate energy density.

Trapped Radiation Detector

The trapped radiation detector on Mariner IV was designed to measure the

electron and proton radiation belts (Van Allen belts) around the Earth, similar
formations around Mars if they existed, and particle phenomena in interplanetary
space. The radiation belts consist of protons and electrons that are "trapped" by
the Earth's magnetic field. The trapped radiation detector instrument, weighing
0.98 kg (2.17 lb) and using 0.44 watt of power, consisted of four detectors and
associated shielding and electronics circuitry. The detectors comprise two GM
tubes (detectors) and one silicon solid-state surface-barrier proton detector which
pointed 70 ° away from the Sun-spacecraft line, and one GM tube which faced
135 ° away from the Sun-spacecraft line. All the detectors had acceptance-cone or
"look" angles of 60 ° . Since the instrument was very sensitive, electrons and pro-
tons of the energies shown in table 7-II could be detected. Each of the five record-
ing channels reported in rotation the total counts in a 45-see period.
Data taken near the Earth with the GM tubes clearly show effects during
traversal of the Earth's magnetosphere. These data, displayed in figure 7-9, pro-
vided a calibration of the capabilities of the system and a basis for the interpre-
tation of observations obtained later during the encounter of the spacecraft with
Mars. At a radial distance of 10.5 Earth radii (approximately 66 930 km (41 600
statute miles)), protons in the range of 0.5 to 11.0 MeV were no longer detectable.
Electrons with energy greater than 40 keV were detected continuously out to 23
Earth radii (approximately 146 400 km (91 000 statute miles); the fringe of the
magnetosphere), with an outlying intensity "spike" at 25.7 Earth radii (approxi-
mately 164 100 km (102 000 statute miles)).
During 7 days of flight in the presumed region of the Earth's magnetic tail
(at a geocentric distance of approximately 3300 Earth radii), the trapped radia-
tion detector failed to show any increase in electron density.
The average count rate during the Mariner IV mission for electrons with
energies greater than 40 keV and protons with energies greater than 550 keV was
0.7 count/see. For protons with energies between 0.5 and 11.0 MeV, the rate was
0.1 count/see. During the February 5 solar flare, the maximum count rate oc-
curred: 60 counts/see for electrons with energies greater than or equal to 40 keV
and for protons with energies greater than 550 keV; and 9 counts/see for protons
with energies between 0.5 and 11.0 MeV.

251
MARINER-MARS 1964

Table 7-11.mTrapped radiation detector energy range

Energy range, keV

Detector
Electrons Protons

GM tube A (1 recording channel) ............... > 45 670 _30

GM tube B (1 recording channel) ............... > 40 > 550 ±20
GM tube C (1 recording channel) ............... > 150 3100
Surface-barrier proton detector D (2 recording None 500 to 11 000; 880 to 4000
channels: D1 and D2)

The data shown in figure 7-10, obtained during the approach and encounter
with Mars, contrast sharply with those obtained in the vicinity of the Earth just
after launch. The same detectors which were able to detect electrons of energy
greater than 40 keV out to a radial distance of 23 Earth radii failed to detect any
such electrons during the close approach to Mars at a radial distance of 13 270 km
(8250 statute miles) from the planet.
A new type of energetic particle event was reported; namely, the impulsive
emission of _40 keV electrons from the Sun. These electrons were actually
observed on three occasions. They had a steeply falling energy spectrum, isotopic
angular distribution, and (as seen from Earth) they seemed to be associated with
radio bursts and X-rays from the Sun. Because of the low relative mass of the
electrons compared with that of protons, this may become a new tool for investi-
gating the interplanetary medium since the electron gyroradius is only about
10 -_ AU.
Figure 7-11 is a special polar projection showing the encounter geometry of
Mariner IV in relation to the hypothetical magnetopause and shock front and
assuming that Mars had a magnetic moment 0.1 percent that of the Earth. The
crossed circles on the diagram are the points in space where electron intensities
should have been the same as those at 23 and 25.7 Earth radii from Earth, if the
magnetic moment of Mars were 0.1 percent that of the Earth (provided it is
assumed that the same physical processes leading to acceleration and trapping of
electrons in the Earth's magnetic field would be found in Mars' magnetic field).
Since no electrons of that intensity were detected, it may be concluded that the
magnetic moment of Mars is surely less than 0.1 percent that of the Earth and
probably less than 0.05 percent. Corresponding upper limits on the equatorial
magnetic field at the surface of Mars are 200 and 100 gammas, respectively, as
contrasted with a field at the Earth's surface of about 50 000 gammas. These find-
ings indicate the possibility that the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian

252
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

io5

10 4

10 3

io2

ioo

io s

io4

io3 " I I
" A,'_RENT
CO_N_rS_
102

e,,
i.- I0 I
z

§
I0 o

IOa DETECTOR C 1 I

103104 _l _ COUNTS
I0 z

I0 "1 I I I I I I I I
I
I I I 1 I I I 1 I I I I 1 I
O IO 15 20 15 30

GEOCENTRIC DISTANCE, Eorth rodii

FIGURE 7-9.--Trapped radiation detector data taken during passage of

Mariner IV through magnetosphere of Earth.

253
MARINER-MARS 1964

DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF MARS, km x 105

2:50 200 170 140 I10 80 50 20 13 20 50 80 I I0 140 170

i i, • i
= " = = CLOSEST' APPROACH OC_CULTATI(31_I = • •
1.0 DETECTOR =A • I •

0,5 %
. •
"° ":*
Oo,}_ .;•,'.-°"
" _I""
•...o °°° o?
-' .:._::
£,_ •° °•_ t ,-"• ....
.o •.. I,Zo•.O° N-i
.o _• ..
." °o°° °°• .. .o ' :' '

DETECTOR C • •. . ,. ,.. • •
1.0 I • • * '• ° °_ .... i .
o_ ""'" ""_"""
......... " "" ":"" ......
':-"
" -._° • .=

0
@

u_
"E

(2:
I-

.'.... : .
I0° - DETECTOR O i .,, .. • .. ....... %

. °
-
i0-o _.._.'.V. ,,, ,; ...._
,_ ° • °

=. ,°

10-2

I00 :.- DETECTOR D2

I0 -t ._.:..'. . . I
. . ".. .... .-'-.--.
_.:-_.: - - :- ":," ,.r ".." • . ..;.'. " . ..., .'-- ...'. -]

I0 -2
I0:00
°°_°o

Jl
......
I
13:00
|
° .

I
16:00
l I
19:00
l l
22:00
,i.° 01:00 04:00
I t
07:00
I I
I0:00
I I
13:00

JULY 14 _ JULY IS

GMT AT EARTH

FmuRE 7-10.--Trapped radiation detector data taken during encounter of Mariner IV with Mars.

atmosphere and that the production of secondary particles by high-energy cosmic

rays occurs below the surface of the planet.

Solar Plasma Probe

The solar plasma probe was included in the science payload to measure the
density, velocity, and direction of the charged particles making up the solar wind.
In the instrument, the energies of protons and alpha particles were assigned to any
of 32 energy bands (logarithmically related), ranging from 30 to 10 000 eV.
Weighing 2.91 kg (6.41 lb) and using 2.65 W of power, the instrument was

_D4
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

_km X IO 3

_UN- _o ,4/ ," _ ,o _o _o ,o _o _o _o

- , \\,,, J , , , , , , ,

,o--<.. FRONT
TOPAUSE

_MARINER J_'SHOCK

3o __
4O
POINTS WHERE ELECTRON

EOUAL THOSE SHOULD

AT 23
INTENSITIES
AND 25.7 Eorth rodil
50 FROM THE EARTH, ASSUMING
MAGNETIC MOMENT OF MARS IS
0.1% THAT OF THE EARTH

FIGURE 7-11.--Relationship between Mariner IV trajectory and hypothetical

magnetopause and shock front at Mars, assuming magnetic moment of Mars

to be 0.1 percent that of the Earth.

mounted on the spacecraft facing 10 ° from the Sun-spacecraft line with a conical
field of view of 60 ° . Three equal pie-shaped sectors were designed to provide direc-
tional information on the flow of the solar wind.
During Mariner IV's first day in space, the solar plasma probe recorded the
passages of the spacecraft through the Earth's shock front; good correlation with
the magnetometer data was obtained. From November 29 to December 4, the
solar wind density ranged from about 2 to 12 parficles/cm3; the velocity of the
solar wind during this period ranged from approximately 275 to 425 km/sec (171
to 264 statute miles/sec).
Unfortunately, because of failure of a high-voltage resistor in the power
supply 8 days after launch (which caused the solar plasma probe to sweep the

255
MARINER-MARS 1964

energy spectrum in an unknown way), the data obtained at the high data trans-
mission rate (33x/_ bits/sec) during most of December were impossible to interpret.
Analysis of the failure allowed some recalibration of the instrument, and, when the
low data transmission rate (81_ bits/sec) began in January, it was again possible
to obtain meaningful measurements.
Solar winds observed during the first 3 months of 1965 varied in velocity from
a little less than 300 km/sec (186 statute miles/sec) to a maximum of about 550
kin/see (342 statute miles/sec). The 3-hour averages of proton flux, density, and
bulk velocity in the data sampled from January 18 to 26 are shown in figure 7-12.
This sample exhibits a general feature noticed throughout the flight: the tendency
for density increases to precede velocity increases. The same effect was noted
using data from the solar plasma probe carried on the Mariner II spacecraft to
Venus. Longer periods of the data show a repetitive structure in plasma flux,
density, and velocity.
The solar plasma probe data obtained during the Mariner IV encounter with
Mars agree with the results obtained by the helium magnetometer and the trapped
radiation detector: there was no clear indication that any magnetic fields from
IO

a. " o I

z).'E

Zo_
_0_ E

a.
I$ iS 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26

DAY OF JANUARY 1965

FIOURE 7-12.--Solar plasma probe data from January 18 to 26, 1965.

 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Mars were influencing the plasma flow. At encounter, the velocity of the solar
wind was 330 km/sec (205 statute miles/see), with a density of 0.8 particle/cm 3.

TELEVISION AND OCCULTATION EXPERIMENTS

Introduction

Certain physical properties of the Earth and Mars are listed for reference in
table 7-IIi. Mars approaches close to the Earth every 25 months at opposition
(when the Earth and Mars are in line with the Sun in the same direction from it).
Even at opposition, Mars may be as far as 99 million km (62 million statute miles)
away from the Earth. It is never closer than about 56 million km (35 million
statute miles), at which time the diameter of Mars appears to be about one-
seventieth of the diameter of the Moon as seen from the Earth.
On Mars, it is possible to perceive permanent surface markings. Bright areas
are concentrated in the northern hemisphere; dark areas, in the southern hemi-
sphere; and white areas near the poles. The material covering the bright areas is
thought to be fine dust, since dust storms of the same color are frequently observed.
Concerning the white areas, photographs show clearly that something re-
sembling an ice cap first forms on one pole and then on the other as the inclination
of the axis of the planet to the plane of its orbit around the Sun produces winter
and summer seasons (scaled to the 687-Earth-day Martian year). The polar caps

Table 7-111.--Physical characteristics of Earth and Mars

Characteristic Earth Mars

Mass:
kg ................................................ 0.64X1024
Ib .................................................
0.14X10_8
Diameter:
Km ................................................ 12 870 6840
Statute miles ........................................ 8000 4250
Average density:
g/cm s .............................................. 5.54 3.88
lb/in, s ............................................. 0.20 0.14
Surface gravitational acceleration:
cm/sec 2............................................ 980 371
in./sec 2............................................ 386 146
Mean distance from Sun:
Km ............................................... 151X106 229 XIO n
Statute miles ....................................... 93.75;<106 142.5X10_
Angle between rotational axes and orbital plane, deg ......... 23.5 24.5
Length of year, Earth days ............................... 365 687
Length of day, hr ....................................... 24 24.6

257
MARINER-MARS 1964

slowly disappear with the coming of spring on Mars. The atmosphere of the planet
is exceedingly rarefied (as verified by the Mariner IV occultation experiment
discussed later in this section), and scientists do not believe that the planet can
contain enough water vapor to give rise to polar caps of this nature. These polar
caps may consist of frozen carbon dioxide.
The dark areas are probably of most interest, since their appearance and
behavior have prompted many to propose that there is life on Mars. They consist
of three distinct regions: maria (seas) ; canals; and oases (where several canals may
intersect). (These designations are still in popular use, even though they are not
applied in the same sense to Mars as they are to Earth.) The most prominent
surface feature is a mare called Syrtis Major, which in shape and location some-
what resembles the terrestrial subcontinent of India. With the changing seasons,
there are also apparent changes in the coloration of the dark areas such as Syrtis
Major. The coloration of these areas has been debated at considerable length.
Temperatures in the dark areas are believed to be somewhat lower than those in
the bright areas.
The canals, appearing as straight-line markings on observational maps, are
undoubtedly the most widely discussed features of Mars. Two and one-half cen-
turies after Galileo had been barely able to distinguish the disk of Mars in the first
astronomical telescope, Schiaparelli, working at Milan Observatory in 1877,
noted these surface features and called them "canali" ("canals" or "channels")
since they were dark and seemed to reach across the "lands" from "sea" to "sea."
Figure 7-13 shows Schiaparelli's map of the canals he saw on Mars. However, not
everyone saw the canals to which Schiaparelli and later an American, Percival
Lowell, referred. Lowell was so convinced of the implications in the word "canal"
that he founded an observatory where initial activity centered on these "inland
waterways" of Mars. Lowell's map of Mars showed what de Vaucouleurs de-
scribed as a "veritable cobweb" of canals. Books published by Lowell contained
speculations about irrigation from the polar caps and led to considerable reaction
both by the scientific community and by the public as well. Although recent
photographs have helped resolve some of the questions by apparently showing
some large-scale canallike features, these photographs are subject to interpretation
and discordant views persist.
Important properties of the atmosphere of Mars include pressure, composi-
tion, particulate content, and the presence of clouds. Early estimates of the
surface pressure were drawn principally from photometric and polarization obser-
vations after making certain assumptions about the composition of the atmosphere

258
 b

L SC/ENT/F/C RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

259
MARINER-MARS1964

and the reflecting properties of the planet's surface. After evaluating various
estimates, de Vaucouleurs gave a value for the surface pressure of 854-4 millibars
(as compared with the Earth's sea-level pressure of about 1013 millibars). This
value was in general use until 1963, at which time a new technique, based on
infrared spectroscopy, was applied to the problem. According to the theory used
in this technique, the spectral absorption lines of the carbon dioxide on Mars are
broadened or smeared as a function of gas pressure. Therefore, comparison of the
spectra obtained on Mars with carbon dioxide spectra obtained at various pres-
sures in the laboratory should give, after much analysis, the pressure value for
Mars. This technique produced a value of 254-15 millibars. Several programs to
confirm and refine this low value produced other values, but all were of low
magnitude when compared with de Vaucouleurs' value.
The atmospheric pressure at the surface is a function of the total amount and
kinds of gases in the atmosphere (given Mars' gravitational field, which is 38
percent that of Earth's). The first molecule to be identified in the atmosphere of
Mars was carbon dioxide. The only other molecule detected in the gas phase was
water. For the other possible constituents (e.g., argon and nitrogen), only upper
limits are available.
The existence of a somewhat permanent load of particles in the atmosphere of
Mars was suspected from the study of photographs. The most likely particles were
ice or carbon dioxide crystals and dust particles with diameters in the submicron
range. As the estimated amount of carbon dioxide on Mars has increased over the
years, the probability that the particles are composed of carbon dioxide has also
increased.
With Mars' small gravitational field, the decrease of atmospheric pressure
with height is less rapid than that for the Earth. Three cloud colors have been
observed: blue, white, and yellow. Yellow clouds, almost certainly due to dust
storms, are frequently observed at altitudes from 4.8 to 9.6 km (3 to 6 statute miles)
and occasionally much higher. These clouds have been observed to move as fast as
137 km/hr (85 statute miles/hr), though more often in the 32- to 48-km/hr (20- to
30-statute-mile/hr) range. Wind velocities necessary to pick up the dust may
range as high as 201 km/hr (125 statute miles/hr) at a 91-meter (300-ft) altitude.
There seems to be little doubt that the blue and white clouds are composed of
crystalline water or carbon dioxide. Recently it was suggested that the white
clouds occur most frequently over bright areas and adjacent to dark areas. It was
proposed that these clouds are analogous to clouds produced on the Earth when
moisture-laden winds blow at right angles over a mountain range. Downwind of

260
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

the range are regions where the air is at a low pressure, and adiabatic expansion
results in sufficient cooling to permit condensation. If this process is occurring on
Mars, it implies that at least some of the dark areas are elevated and that the winds
blow from the dark to the bright areas during the times when clouds are observed.
From this brief discussion on Mars, it is obvious that, although Mars is prob-
ably the best observed of the planets, the questions concerning it that remain are
many and are not easily answered because of the limitations of Earth-based obser-
vational techniques. Certainly a closeup view of the planet would do much in
providing a more accurate picture of its surface characteristics. Therefore, when
the Mariner-Mars 1964 scientific payload was selected, a television experiment
was included to help resolve some of the controversies surrounding the nature of
the planet's surface. The picture-taking sequence was designed to obtain a view of
a wide variety of Martian features. The best telescopic resolution from Earth of the
planet's surface, combining visual and photographic observations, generally is
believed to permit distinction of features no smaller than 80 to 97 km (50 to 60
statute miles) across. A resolution of 2.4 km (1.5 statute miles) was expected with
the television instrument included in the Mariner-Mars 1964 scientific payload.
In order to obtain more information concerning the atmosphere of Mars, an
occultation experiment was included. This experiment, requiring no added equip-
ment on the spacecraft, was based on the principle that, if the spacecraft passed
behind the planet as viewed from the Earth, its radio signal would pass through
the atmosphere of Mars. Any amplitude and phase changes detected in the signal
would enable scientists to draw conclusions regarding the atmospheric charac-
teristics of the planet.
The scientific investigators for the television and occultation experiments
were given previously in table 7-I.

Television

Description of experiment

The television experiment on the Mariner IV spacecraft had three basic

objectives: (1) to make preliminary topographic reconnaissance of the surface of
Mars; (2) to attain, through photographs, an improved knowledge of areas of
possible living matter; and (3) to obtain additional information concerning the
planet's surface reflectivities to aid in the design of future, more detailed photo-
graphic experiments. The instrument selected to achieve these objectives con-
sisted of one camera and a television system that recorded 40 000 (200 by 200)
picture elements per frame. The camera had a focal length of 30.48 cm (12 in.)

261
 9

MARINER-MARS 1964 8

and could resolve surface features of 3 km (1.88 statute miies) at the Mariner IV
passage distance. The shutter speed had to be 0.2 sec or less to limit blurring of the
image caused by the motion of the spacecraft with respect to Mars. The light
sensitivity of the television picture tube established the focal ratio off/8. For the
optical system, a reflecting telescope of the Cassegrain type was selected, with an
aperture of 3.81 cm (1.5 in.). The television system is shown in figure 7-14.
Experience had demonstrated that the best way to send a weak radio signal
through space in the presence of background noise is to use a signaling method
known as pulse-code modulation. With this method, the output of an electronic
device such as a television camera is coded into a sequence of binary digits (bits) of
zeros and ones that represent a particular level of intensity. The output of the
Mariner IV television camera was translated into a 6-bit code that identified the
brightness of each picture element on a scale that had 64 steps from full black to
full white. The 64 steps of the sequence ran from 0 to 63. A sequence of six ones
represented M i biack or no iight at aii; a sequence of six zeros represented h i i
w-hite or maximum light. To encode the information contained in the 40 000 pic-
ture elements, 240 000 bits were required.
In order to obtain information about the surface coloration of Mars, the
television system was designed to take overlapping pair? of pictures, with one
member of each pair being taken through a green filter and the other through a

7
CAMERA

MIRRORS SHUTTER AND FILTERS VIDICON TUBE

FIGURE7-1 4.-Mariner I V television system.

262
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

red filter. A wheel carrying four filters, alternately red and green, was arranged to
rotate 90 ° after each exposure, thus producing a sequence of pictures alternately
red and green. One picture was exposed every 48 see. Had all these pictures been
recorded, however, all the data-storage capacity would have been used up long
before the television scan path had crossed the planet. In order to stretch out the
sequence and yet have some pairs of overlapping colored pictures, therefore, every
third picture was omitted from the stored sequence. The overlapping pairs of
pictures thus followed a sequence of green-red, red-green, green-red, etc.
Several hours before the actual recording sequence, the camera and tape
recorder electronics were turned on and began taking pictures. Since the tape
transport was not yet activated, these first pictures were not recorded. During this
warmup period, the camera axis was positioned to trace the desired path across
the planet. When the planet came into view, an internal signal activated the tape
transport and recording began. The tape recorder was started and stopped at the
beginning and end of each picture to conserve tape. A total of 21 pictures and 22
lines of the 22d picture was recorded.
Although the system was provided with automatic gain control to adjust for
changes in the brightness of the surface of Mars, the gain adjustment could func-
tion only after the first picture had been recorded on the face of the vidicon tube
and had been scanned electronically. Furthermore, in order to keep the gain
control simple and not run the risk of a large error in correction between pictures,
the gain correction was made only on the basis of the green image and then was
limited to a gain change up or down of only one step. Pictures 1 to 18 were all at
the same gain level, which was selected as the one most likely to be correct before
Mariner IV was launched. For the remaining pictures, the gain increased to the
next highest level at each picture.
The television data were programed to be returned to Earth about l0 hours
after the recording, with each picture requiring about 101_ hours for complete
transmission. As the signals arrived, they were recorded on magnetic tape for sub-
sequent analysis; this also provided a permanent record. After the 21 pictures and
the 22 lines of the 22d picture had been transmitted to Earth and recorded once, a
process that took slightly more than 8 days, Mariner IV was instructed to retrans-
mit the entire set. It was of interest to see how closely a replay would duplicate the
initial values for the 40 000 picture elements in each of the 21 pictures plus the 22
lines of the 22d picture. Any discrepancies between the two playbacks would
indicate the number of errors that had occurred in the transmission and would also
tell where they had occurred in each picture. The second transmission differed
MARINER-MARS1964

from the first in only about 20 elements of the 40 000 in each picture, making an
average of 10 errors per picture in each transmission.

Regionsof Mars photographed

Prior to launch of Mariner IV, it was known that a maximum of I percent of

Mars' entire surface could be photographed if everything on the spacecraft func-
tioned perfectly. The best scan paths were those that crossed the largest number of
bright and dark areas. Naturally, pictures of regions in which canallike markings
had been consistently reported were desired. Also, it was felt that some of the pic-
tures should include views of the side of the planet on which Syrtis Major is located.
In selecting the flight path, however, the needs of the television instrument
were not the only ones that had to be considered. For example, the spacecraft
could not be allowed to enter into the shadow of Mars or it would lose its fix on the
Sun. It could not go above Mars or it would lose its fix on Canopus. In addition,
the spacecraft had to travel behind Mars so that its radio signal would pass
through the atmosphere of the planet for the occultation experiment. But the final
requirement was the one that placed such a restriction on the flight path that,
during the Mariner IV mission, it proved impossible to have the camera pointing
anywhere near Syrtis Major. This requirement was that California be facing Mars
at the time of encounter so that the 100-kW transmitter at Venus DSS 13 in
California could send last-minute commands to the spacecraft if necessary.
The desired time of encounter was achieved by making appropriate adjust-
ments in the trajectory of the spacecraft during the December 5 midcourse
maneuver. This maneuver could have adjusted the encounter time to any desired
value over a period of several days; however, because the Earth and Mars rotate
on their axes at nearly the same rate, it was impossible to delay or accelerate the
encounter sufficiently for Syrtis Major to be facing Mariner IV's camera at the
same time that California was facing Mars.
The camera scan path foIIowed by Mariner IV at Mars started on the limb
(edge) of the planet at about 37 ° north latitude, swept southward across the
equator to about 52 ° south latitude, then curved northward again, and moved off
the planet at about 38 ° south latitude. The path crossed a region in which maps of
Mars show only a few canallike markings.
Table 7-IV and figure 7-15 show the coordinates for each of the 22 pictures.
It has been estimated that these locations are accurate to 1 o latitude and 3 °
longitude near the center of the set. The longitude uncertainty is greater for the
first few pictures and the uncertainty in both longitude and latitude increases to

264
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Table 7-1V.--Martian coordinates of Mariner IV photographs

Picture North latitude, deg East longitude, deg

1 37.0 173.0
2 25.1 175.0
3 11.9 177.8
4 6.9 179.1
5 --1.8 181.5
6 --5.8 182.9
7 --13.5 185.8
8 --17.1 187.4
9 --23.7 190.9
10 --26.8 192.9
11 --32.7 197.3
12 --35.4 200.0
13 --40.1 205.6
14 --42.2 208.9
15 --46.0 216.5
16 --47.6 220.9
17 --50.1 231.3
18 --51.0 237.7
19 --51.2 252.1
20 --50.2 260.2
21 --44.3 278.5
22 --35.8 291.4

perhaps 4 o or 5 o for the last few pictures. These locations were derived by com-
bining information from the following sources: (1) trajectory; (2) orientation of
the spacecraft within the limits of the attitude-control subsystem; (3) position of
the scan axis with respect to the spacecraft; (4) position and orientation of the
limb of Mars in picture 1 ; and (5) motion observed by examination of the overlap
between adjacent pictures.
Data processing and reduction

The first and second playbacks were merged, and the bad lines were elimi-
nated. Discrepancies between individual pictures were repaired by hand rather
than by computer. Because the percentage of bit errors was very small and the
scene itself was one of low contrast, the errors that did exist were easily identified
and corrected in most instances. This was done by fitting the erroneous point to
the surrounding scene by correcting one of the 6 bits in the intensity word. A
similar averaging technique was used to remove the black fiducial marks.
The fiducial marks provided a means of rectifying the geometry in the pic-
tures. Before launch, the geometric distortions of the camera and optical systems
were recorded by photographing a grid pattern and noting its relationship to the

265
 .
MARINER-MARS 7964

50"

N.
40'

30'

!OO

IO0

3 O

IO"

29"

3G"
I "
I

40°

S.

5d

FIGURE
7-1 5.-Locations on Mars photographed by Mariner I V

266
 SCIENTIFICRESULTS
AND CONCLUSIONS

fiducial marks. The geometric distortions in the Mariner IV pictures were not
great, but were sufficient that in the application of calibration data it was neces-
sary first to remove the small amount of nonlinearity that did exist. Thus, by using
digital computer operations, geometric fidelity was achieved. Calibration data
could then be incorporated.
The major correction to the data was compensation for shading on the
vidicon due to varying sensitivities over the photoconductive surface. Because the
pictures were of very low contrast, the shading corrections became extremely im-
portant, even though the vidicon shading was not great. The shading corrections
were made by using a large number of calibration frames. These frames were
obtained by exposing the camera to a uniform scene whose illuminance had been
accurately measured and was varied over the dynamic range of the systems. From
this set of calibration frames, a calibration matrix was constructed to give the
intensity corresponding to a given data number and gain setting for each of the
40 000 positions of the picture elements. This extensive process increased confi-
dence in the stability and photometric accuracy of the vidicon system.
High-altitude haze which appeared in picture 1 raised the question of glare in
the optical system. Tests made in an attempt to create an optical defect that could
have caused the observed effects revealed no reasonable possibility that the optics
had degraded.
The early photographs were enhanced by a computer process which, in a
sense, stretched the darkest intensity value received to black and stretched the
brightest intensity value received in the other direction to nearly white. This
method of enhancement increased the degree of contrast between adjoining dots in
a photograph over that actually seen by the camera and made feature identifica-
tion easier.
One attempt to identify surface features was made by using an airbrush
technique to produce a relief rendition of picture 11. This rendition is presented in
figure 7-16. 2 The relief interpretations shown were b_sed on knowledge and
experience gained from interpreting and rendering lunar relief features. Picture 11
shows with reasonable clarity (even though contrast is enhanced by a factor of 4)
that the Martian surface is made up of the same kind of features as those found on
the lunar surface. Therefore, a maximum interpretation was made showing hexag-
onality on some craters, flat-floored craters, inverted cone-shaped craters, a dome
with caldera, and even linear (rill-like) or crater chain markings. A central peak

Prepared by Patricia Bridges of the ACIC (Aeronautical Chart and Information Center), Lowell Observatory,
Flagstaff, Ariz.

267
 9

MARINER-MARS 1964

seems to show clearly in the crater at the ==per left-hand cmner in figure ?-?6, yet
the very bright patch over the southwest wall of that crater is apparently obscuring
relief rather than being a surface feature with higher albedo (reflective power).
That conclusion was reached when no logical form could be made of the bright
patch during attempts to interpret it as a surface feature.
In the most basic form, the Mariner IV photographic data are represented

mi

FIGURE
7-1 6.-Relief rendition of picture 11

268
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

107 108 I09 llO III IIZ [13 114 115 116 117 lib Ii9 120 121 122 123 IZ4 125 126 L27 IZ8 12Q l)O 131 132 133 134 135 136 [37 138 139 140 14!

LINE 130 71 71 72 69 74 T3 77 75 75 75 7B 78 78 7B 7B 77 81 77 77 77 78 78 78 79 7q ?Z 69 65 69 69 72 72 77 77 76

LINE 13[ 71 71 6q 73 73 74 7. 78 74 79 78 79 78 78 7B 7T 80 77 76 77 ?e 79 82 79 79 76 69 69 69 68 72 7l 16 77 77

LINE 13Z 7| 7Z 72 ?0 7O 74 ?_ 79 79 76 76 78 7e 1g ?e 7B 7B 78 77 78 7_ 79 8_ 80 80 76 69 69 69 72 73 7Z 12 76 76

LiNE [33 73 7| 68 69 ?4 ?_ 71 76 76 78 7g 79 7e ' 78 79 78 78 78 77 14 7_ ?g 83 79 8O 76 69 69 73 7Z 72 7Z 72 76 ?6

LINE 134 72 72 7z 69 71 75 75 7_ 79 8o 79 79 7e 78 78 77 81 78 78 78 79 8O eo 79 83 77 7_ 69 73 ?2 76 76 13 76 77

LINE 135 73 72 72 7o 7o 75 76 77 79 17 t6 78 7g 79 76 78 78 78 78 ?e ?9 oo 8o 79 8O eL 73 69 73 71 75 72 76 ?3 77

tl_E 136 73 73 ?3 73 71 ?5 ?7 7e 7q 76 76 8o 79 7Q 79 76 78 78 75 79 79 8O 8O 8O 8O 78 74 69 72 73 72 76 ?Z 76 77

LInE 137 73 69 73 73 71 7Z 75 75 76 T8 77 76 76 79 79 79 79 79 79 16 ?_ 8O eo 8o 8O 81 78 7) 73 69 7_ 73 73 76 77

LINE 13e 72 72 7O 7) 7_ 71 76 77 76 17 8O ?_ 79 ?q 79 75 75 79 76 ?g 19 79 8O 77 77 81 ?? 77 7) _Z 69 73 ?3 73 74

LINE 139 7O 70 73 73 74 7[ 77 73 71 16 8O 74 79 19 78 7g 76 79 79 7_ 79 79 8O 77 71 77 ?? 78 78 73 73 ?3 74 74 10

LINE 140 73 7O 73 71 74 74 76 72 72 76 76 T9 79 79 79 79 79 78 79 16 79 eo eo 77 77 77 77 ?e 78 77 7_ 74 73 74 73

LINE [41 73 69 ?4 ?1 15 ?5 72 75 72 77 eO T9 7e 79 76 76 79 78 79 76 77 76 8o 8o 77 77 T_ le ?e 17 73 74 74 75 ?4

LiNE 14Z 77 ?0 7o 71 t4 71 7Z 72 76 7_ 8o 7o 7e 76 76 76 75 T5 79 78 77 76 77 eo 77 77 7? 79 78 17 74 74 74 7_ 7_

LINE 143 73 7O 71 75 7O 7O 71 7Z 16 76 79 79 79 76 76 7_ 7_ 75 ?9 eo eo 8o eo 78 7e 7e ?e 79 79 78 7e 77 74 14 74

LINE 144 74 73 75 74 7Z 71 75 76 7? 8O r9 t6 76 72 72 ?Z 76 7Q 19 8o eo oo eo el 78 ?8 7_ 79 19 79 79 ?_ T4 7_ ?7

tiNE 14S 74 74 75 74 74 71 75 75 76 8O 77 73 68 69 73 7_ 76 80 79 eo 79 eo 6l 81 eL 74 1_ 79 78 77 78 79 74 74 73

tlNE 146 77 ?3 7. 74 74 ?! 75 75 eo _7 69 66 69 68 68 7Z 75 76 79 8O 81 8O 8O 81 81 82 ?9 79 ?e 78 78 79 78 74 78

LI_E 147 74 7_ 7_ 78 7_ 75 75 76 76 7z 66 65 69 66 6q _8 ?Z 76 76 8O el _0 eL O_ 81 85 83 79 78 81 81 ?9 78 75 74

UNE |48 TO 74 74 75 79 75 ?4 ?8 7z 65 66 69 66 _6 6_ 65 6q 68 12 77 77 77 ?e e2 85 85 e6 eo ao 79 79 e3 Te 75 75

LINE 149 74 75 7_ 75 76 75 75 75 6q 66 66 66 66 66 6_ _5 6_ _ 72 76 ?4 77 78 82 82 e5 o_ e7 eL 16 83 79 7_ 78 74

LINE 150 75 74 t5 78 75 75 75 72 65 65 66 6_ 66 66 65 65 66 69 72 ?2 73 74 78 78 85 e6 o6 O5 8O _0 8O 7_ 7_ _ _S

74 7_ 7_ 76 7_ T8 7z 68 66 6_ _ 6_ 65 69 6_ _9 7_ 68 _

LINE 152 ?8 74 75 76 76 76 69 68 61 62 o5 65 69 73 6_ 73 7_ _q 7_ 7_ 74 74 76 79 79 79 _? _1 e4 79 e3 eo 7e 8o 8o

LiNE 153 77 75 7_ 76 76 76 69 66 6[ 6_ 66 70 7_ 73 70 7_ 72 7_ 73 7_ 7o 74 77 79 79 82 87 87 8_ oo 7_ 6o 8_ 1_ eo

LINE 154 77 75 75 75 76 74 69 67 62 67 68 70 7_ 73 7! 7_ 73 75 75 73 7o 72 7_ ?9 el o3 85 89 ez T8 79 81 ez eo eo

LINE ISS 7e 75 76 75 77 73 68 70 62 70 70 70 74
73 7o 10 74 79 83 e3 84 91 8o 76 eo 84 8o 8O 8o

LINE 156 76 ?_ 76 76 76 77 68 66 66 TO 69 73 ?e 74 7_ 7_ 72 13 73 74 71 7_ 7e 7e e_ eo 83 91 ao 77 81 8O oo eo eo

LiNE 151 ?5 75 76 ?6 76 73 72 67 67 73 73 11 ?7 78 74 73 73 7) 74 71 70 75 14 eo oo 8o 8_ 91 80 76 79 e3 eo 77 8o

tlNE [5_ 76 16 75 73 77 76 1_ 66 7O _0 7O r4 77 7e 73 73 73 ?O 71 75 14 74 74 eo 8o eo ez 87 76 _6 7q 8O eo 77 81

LINE L59 76 16 76 73 77 76 74 7O 7l 7O 7o 73 77 74 74 7_ 70 71 70 75 7_ 74 7_ 79 80 8o 83 8_ 77 81 8O 76 ao 8o 81

LINE 160 77 76 77 ?7 74 77 ?e 71 7o 7O 7o 74 75 ?3 7_ 74 70 71 71 72 75 75 ?e 79 8o lq 8_ 81 81 77 8O 76 8O 77 77

LINE 161 77 77 ?6 76 77 77 7_ 67 71 I0 7o 69 ?3 74 7" 74 70 70 70 72 ts ?s 74 18 8o e4 Bo 8o 71 t6 84 al eo 77 77

LINE LGZ 77 t7 73 ?8 17 74 71 61 66 71 70 7o 73 _3 7_ ?_ 70 ?0 74 75 79 79 74 79 e3 8_ 8c 8o 81 8[ 81 81 eL 77 77

LINE [63 77 77 77 8o 78 ?s ?4 7o 68 67 7o 10 69 73 74 78 74 ?1 71 7_ 80 ?5 74 78 84 76 76 77 81 71 77 78 82 ez 78

LiNE 164 ?8 78 T6 76 78 ?5 7_ 74 7o _7 71 7o 7o 73 78 ?o 78 75 71 T[ _L 76 79 8_ 83 75 72 76 81 Te 77 77 82 e2 81

LImE 165 7? ?8 82 78 74 74 ?4 77 74 71 7O 7O 7O 71 78 _ 78 75 t[ 72 ?3 79 79 83 8O 73 72 77 76 t? 77 78 78 e2 77

LINE 166 78 81 7e 7e 79 71 78 75 74 14 74 14 7o 7o 7_ 6_ 7_ 75 75 71 _1 _0 83 8O 77 73 7_ 17 eo uo 76 77 ez 82 79

LI_E 1_7 7e 82 78 75 75 ?4 78 74 ?S 79 T8 7_ 74 75 ?_ 71 70 74 _ 76 t6 79 8O 76 73 ?3 t_ 77 el eo 77 78 ?e 74 7e

LINE 168 79 ?9 79 ?e 71 74 7e 79 7_ ?_ 14 74 77 ?4 14 70 67 ti 75 7_ 79 79 8O 76 76 77 73 78 81 e5 81 78 _8 7e 19

LINE 169 8o eo 75 79 75 75 75 15 8O 75 78 78 77 77 ?_ 7_ 7Z _e 70 76 8O eo 76 ?6 8O 77 74 79 8z 8o e2 ?g ?e e2 7_

LiNE 170 79 79
75 7q 78 79 74 78 75 75 79 7_ 7_ 73 74 75 ?l 72 75 75 8o 7_ 76 16 76 72 77 ?8 ?7 81 81 78 78 79 7e

LINE 171 76 _9
t5 79 19 75 75 74 7S 15 79 75 74 77 74 71 7Z ?s t_ 76 8o 76 76 76 76 7z 77 76 77 eL 8_ ?e 79 ?e 79

LINE [72 76 76 78 79 75 75 79 75 7_ ?e 78 ?_ _5 77 ?4 7| 76 76 79 77 8O 60 77 77 77 77 76 77 81 el 78 70 78 7_ ?9

LINE 173 75 ?6 77 77 78 79 79 75 74 7_ ?_ 74 7_ 73 75 76 7_ 76 76 76 uo ?6 72 76 76 76 ?7 76 _1 _2 7e 79 78 79 79

LINE 174 77 77 77 77 77 77 ?9 ?e 74 74 T4 T[ 74 74 75 75 75 75 76 8O 8o 8o ?6 76 76 77 76 77 77 el 78 7_ ?9 79 75

tINE 175 78 77 77 ?7 77 77 79 79 1_ 74 _1 7_ 70 73 75 76 75 76 7_ eo 81 el 8o 76 76 77 71 73 1_ 6[ 78 75 79 79 79

LINE 176 81 8O 79 ?e 78 77 79 79 19 71 70 10 74 70 71 71 75 76 76 78 60 eo 8o 81 77 71 77 1_ ?T 8_ 7e 7q 78 ?9 75

LI_E 177 81 8O 79 ?9 78 77 78 18 ?s T_ 70 TO 75 74 75 75 75 7_ 7_ 77 el 81 8o 8o 7? 77 _7 73 77 77 ?e 78 79 eo 75

LINE 178 _Z el e0 79 _8 77 8O ?8 ?8 7o 7o 74 73 74 75 75 76 76 77 81 81 ol 80 8o 76 77 77 77 77 7e 78 79 75 8o 8o

LINE 179 78 ?8
?g 78 77 17 78 7g 75 7o 7_ 69 73 74 75 77 73 76 77 eo 7o 81 eo 8o 76 73 77 81 7_ 77 78 79 79 76 eo

tlNE 180 78 ?e
78 78 78 77 79 78 75 74 7o ?0 t3 7_ 76 77 77 77 77 77 76 81 _1 77 77 ?z 76 el 7t 77 78 79 79 ?6 79

LiNE [el ;8 78 78 78 78 78 76 79 75 74 71 70 74 7Z 77 76 7t 77 78 8l 77 el B_ eL ?e 74 77 78 ?e 77 ?8 79 eo 71 ?6

LINE 182 79 78 76 77 76 76 7? 77 ?S 7_ 71 71 72 73 77 7? 77 78 79 78 77 82 8Z oz 7g 74 78 78 77 7e 78 ?5 76 75 76

FIGURE 7--17.--Unrectified calibrated intensities for picture 11.

269
MARINER-MARS1964

by a numerical matrix for scientific analysis. An example of this presentation is

shown in figure 7-17. The crater area covered by this matrix is approximately
outlined by the rectangle drawn in figure 7-16. The numbers represent calibrated
intensities of the picture elements observed by the Mariner IV camera system.
Their values have been normalized such that 1000 is the observed intensity if the
Martian surface plane corresponding to each picture element consisted of a per-
fectly diffusing white surface oriented normal to the Sun. The absence of in-
tensity, or black, is represented by the number 0, and the intervening numbers
from 0 to 1000 indicate progressively lighter shades of gray.
During picture processing, compensation also had to be made for the reregis-
tration of the image format caused by operation in a region with no magnetic
field. All the camera ground testing had been performed in the Earth's magnetic
field, whereas the actual operation during Mars encounter occurred in essentially
a zero field. Because of this difference in environment, the image on the photocon-
ductive surface was translated and slightly rotated from the fixed reference of the
fiducial marks. Although the necessary reregistration was straightforward, a minor
problem developed because the last six picture elements in each television line
were in a portion of the photoconductive surface that had not been photometrically
calibrated. A reasonably good correction was made by extrapolation.

Descriptionof pictures
The entire set of pictures taken by Mariner IV is presented in figures 7-18 to
7-39 and is discussed in the following paragraphs. Figures 7-18 to 7-36 each shows
three representations of a particular Mariner IV photograph: (a) the "raw" data,
printed so that the picture-to-picture relative brightness levels as viewed by the
camera are shown; (b) the calibrated, reregistered data with errors and fiducial
marks removed; and (c) the same data as in (b), but with enhanced contrast.
Figures 7-37 to 7-39 show only the raw data. The "red" and "green" designations
in the descriptions which follow refer to the filter through which the picture was
taken. In all these figures, the north direction (toward Mars' north rotational
pole) is generally to the left, and east (astronautical convention) is toward the top
of the page.
It will be seen that, as the slant range over which the pictures were taken
decreased, the area covered by each picture grew smaller and the definition be-
came better. Toward the end of the picture-taking sequence, the light level and
contrast became very low. The illumination near the terminator (the border
between the daylight side and the night side) fell off more rapidly than expected,
and the camera could not adjust quickly enough to the loss of light.

270
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 1 (red).--This picture (see pp. 272 and 273), taken at a slant range of
about 17 000 km (10 600 statute miles), shows a bright area between Trivium
Charontis and Propontus II about 330 km (205 statute miles) along the limb of the
planet and about 1200 km (750 statute miles) from the limb to the bottom of the
picture. Phlegra, a bright area, is on the limb of the planet. The sun is 27 ° from
the zenith from the southeast. The main point of interest in this picture is the light
"smudge" area, which resembles a cloud above the horizon. This hazy patch
appears better in the raw version (a) than in the final version (c), in which the
contrast enhancement was designed to bring out the surface features. Initially it
was assumed that the area had been caused by an imperfection in the optical or
television system, but the smudge did not appear on calibration pictures taken
several weeks after encounter nor was duplication by the introduction of deliberate
defects in identical equipment possible. Thus, the experimenters have tentatively
concluded that what is seen is actually on Mars. Some evidence suggests that the
atmosphere of Mars may contain tiny crystals of frozen carbon dioxide at great
heights. The cloud shown in picture 1, if it is a cloud, extends to about 28 km
(18 statute miles) above the surface, while atmospheric haze appears to extend as
much as 150 kin (93 statute miles) above the surface.

271
 #

MARINER-MARS 1964

272
 . SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

FIGURE
7-1 8.-Picture 1. (a) raw data; (b) calibrated, reregistered data with errors and fiducial
marks removed; (c) same data as in (b), but with enhanced contrast.

273
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-13.-Picture 2. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-

t- moved; (c) same data as in (b),

but with enhanced contrast.
 I

8
SClENTlFlC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 2 (green).-The area seen in picture 2 is midway between the bright

areas of Elysium and Amazonis and is about 500 km (310 statute miles) by 900 km
(560 statute miles). The Sun is 20" from the zenith from the southeast (upper
right) and the slant range is 16 200 km (10 000 statute miles). This picture over-
laps the first by about 25 percent, as was planned for each pair of pictures. The
fact that the area which overlapped clearly showed some features on both pictures
proved that the camera system was returning valid data.

275
 ,
MARINER-MARS 1964 .

r 1

FIGURE
7-20.-Picture 3. (a) raw data;

t- i
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; ( c ) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.
 *
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSlONS

Picture 3 (green).-Taken at a slant range of 15 300 km (9500 statute miles),

picture 3 shows a bright area 325 km (200 statute miles) by 514 km (320 statute
miles). This area is located southeast of Trivium Charontis on the western edge of
the Amazonis desert area. In this picture, the Sun is 13" from the zenith. Thc
3-km-across (2-statute-mile) resolution is a considerable improvement over that
of picture 1, where the resolution was 5 km (3 statute miles) across. A prominent
spot about 19 km (12 statute miles) across appearing in picture 3 is on the surface
of the planet.

277
 *
MARINER-MARS 1964

r 7- 7

FIGURE
7-21.-Picture 4. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data

t- with errors and fiducial marks re-

moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

e-

I- l

278
 b SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 4 (red).-In this picture, taken a t a slant range of 14 900 km (9300

statute miles), the Sun is 14" from the zenith from the northeast (upper left). A
bright area in Mesogaea measuring 304 km (190 statute miles) by 450 km (28C
statute miles) is shown. The few depressions which appear in picture 4 are called
craters simply because the later pictures showed them so clearly. Without the later
pictures, an analyst of this picture might conclude that it is a desert landscape
with a few roundish spots that might be dried-up lakes. The primary reason this
picture did not reveal very much is that it was almost noon on Mars when Mariner
IV passed this location, and, with the Sun overhead, there were no shadows.
279
 b
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-22.-Picture 5. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

280
 .
a SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 5 (red).-Picture 5 was taken at a slant range of 14 300 km (8900

statute miles), with the Sun 19" from the zenith from the north. The area is 281
km (175 statute miles) by 375 km (233 statute miles) and is located in a bright
area in eastern Zephyria. The surface detail became somewhat clearer in this
picture, but no positive conclusions regarding the roundish spots could yet be
made.

281
 .
MARINER-MARS 1964 .

FIGURE7-23.-Picture 6. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

I
L J, J J

202
 ,
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 6 (green) .-Located in a bright area in eastern Zephyria as is picture

5, this picture covers a region that is 273 km (170 statute miles) by 349 km (217
statute miles). The Sun is 22" from the zenith from the north, and the slant range
is 14 100 km (8800 statute miles). As was true with picture 5, the surface detail
became slightly clearer in this picture.

283

- A
 ,
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-24.-Picture 7. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

284
 ~ ~~~

b
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSlONS

Picture 7 (green).-Picture 7, taken at a slant range of 13 600 km (8400

statute miles), shows an area 262 km (163 statute miles) by 310 km (193 statute
miles) in the bright region in southeastern Zephyria near Mare Sirenum. The
Sun is 29 O from the zenith from the north. This picture had a dramatic effect when
first received since it was the first to show that the roundish spots of the earlier
pictures were definitely craters. Ten or more of these craters can be seen.

285
 c
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-25.-Picture 8. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

286
 SClENTlFlC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 8 (red).-This picture shows the border between Zephyria and Mare
Sirenum. The area covered is 255 km (158 statute miles) across by 296 km (184
statute miles). The slant range is 13 400 km (8300 statute miles), and the Sun is
32" from the zenith. The center of picture 8 shows two craters measuring about 32
km (20 statute miles) in diameter side by side and a few smaller craters elsewhere.
The larger craters seem to have a broken appearance and generally flat-appearing
bottoms (when compared with some of the more recent lunar craters).

287
 4

MARINER-MARS 1964 .

FIGURE7-26.--.Picture 9. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

288
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 9 (red) .-Showing at least 20 craters of assorted sizes, this picture was
the first that strongly resembles an area of the Moon. It was taken at a slant range
of 13 000 km (8100 statute miles) and reveals an area in Mare Sirenum, bordering
on Atlantis in the southwest (lower right) corner of the frame and measuring about
253 km (157 statute miles) by 225 km (140 statute miles). The Sun is 39 O from the
zenith. One of the craters which may be seen in this picture has a central peak in it.
(A plot resulting from an analysis of this crater is given later in this discussion.)
There is also a slight indication of a straight edge in one part which is very dim.

289
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-27.-Picture 10. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

290
 L

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 10 (green).-The area shown in picture 10 is in Atlantis, bordering

on Mare Sirenum in the northeast (upper left) corner of the frame. The dimensions
are 251 km (156 statute miles) by 267 km (166 statute miles). The slant range is
12 800 km (8000 statute miles), and the Sun is 42" from the zenith. .The edges of
two giant craters are seen jutting into the picture frame; in addition, about 12
rather small craters may be seen.

29 1
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-28.-Picture 11. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

292
 .
I SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 11 (green).-Taken at a slant range of 12 600 km (7800 statute miles),

picture 11 shows an area in Atlantis between Mare Sirenum and Mare Cim-
merium about 250 km (155 statute miles) across and 254 km (158 statute miles)
deep. The Sun is 47” from the zenith. This picture shows the largest crater with a
diameter of about 120 km (75 statute miles) and one of the smallest craters with a
diameter of about 6 km (3.8 statute miles). A straight edge may be seen that is
dark in some places and light in others. There are also some domed regions which
look like “inside-out” craters. The airbrush rendition in figure 7-16 was made from
the raw-data version of this picture.
293
MARINER-MARS 1964

7-29. -Picture
FIGURE 12. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.
 Picture 12 (red).-This picture, covering an area of 256 km (159 statute
miles) by 254 km (158 statute miles) in Mare Cimmerium, bordering on Atlantis
in the northeast corner (upper left) of the frame, is relatively featureless. Only a
few craters are evident. The slant range for picture 12 is 12 400 km (7700 statute
miles), and the Sun is 52 O from the zenith.

295
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-30.-Picture 13. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

296
 ( c)

Picture 13 (red).-This picture was the first in which white areas began to
show on crater rims, as if covered with snow at their highest elevations. By the
time picture 13 was taken, Mariner IV was over fairly high southern latitudes
where it was midwinter. Another straivpht edge can be seen. There is also a sug-
gestion of a circular feature which would be interpreted as a crater except that it
seems to be rather light colored all around, rather than shadowed on one edge.
The area covered is 254 km (158 statute miles) by 242 km (150 statute miles) on
the border between Mare Cimmerium to the north and the bright region, Phae-
thontis. The slant range is 12 200 km (7600 statute miles), and the Sun is 58 O from
the zenith from the north (left). 297
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGIJRE 7-31.-Picture 14. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial rnarks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

298
 .
SClENTlFlC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 14 (green).-Taken at a slant range of 12 200 km (7600 statute miles),

picture 14 covers 257 km (160 statute miles) horizontally and 240 km (149 statute
miles) vertically in a bright area in northwestern Phaethontis. The Sun is 61 O from
the zenith. Very marked light patches are visible, and the apparent craters are
ringed around their circumference like the crater seen in picture 13. The white
areas which are evident are thought to be frost on the surface of the planet since
this picture was taken in the subpolar regions, where it is generally believed that
frost exists.

299
 4

MARINER-MARS 7964

JRE7- -32.--Picture 15. raw data7

(b) calibrated, reregistered data

with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 15 (green) .-Beginning with this picture, the light level dropped
faster than the automatic gain control could adjust. Also, the atmosphere of the
planet could have obscured some features. No very clear craters are evident, but
some light patches can be seen. However, in terms of the actual levels of intensity
and the angle of the Sun (67" from the zenith), this frame should have been the
most sensitive for detecting shading on the surface of the planet. The area shown is
266 km (165 statute miles) by 236 km (147 statute miles) in a bright area in
Phaethontis. The slant range is 12 000 km (7500 statute miles).

301
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-33.-Picture 16. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.

302
 *
SClENTlFlC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 16 (red).-The Sun is 70" from the zenith from the north, and the
slant range is 12 000 km (7500 statute miles) for this picture. Covering 273 km
(170 statute miles) east-west and 236 km (147 statute miles) north-south, the
picture shows a bright area in Phaethontis near Aonius Sinus. Except for some
white spots in a few places, virtually no features are evident. Version (c) shows
<<
contouring," giving it a grainy, layered appearance, caused by the extreme con-
trast enhancement of a digital picture that was originally of very low contrast.

303
 *
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-34.-Picture 17. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.
 . SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 17 (red).-A region 292 km (181 statute miles) by 238 km (148

statute miles) in a dark area in Aonius Sinus is covered in picture 17. Its slant
range of 12 000 km (7500 statute miles), a little less than twice the diameter of
Mars, was the lowest during the picture-taking sequence. The Sun is 76" from the
zenith. The raw picture was very low contrast, so that even more contouring ap-
pears in the enhanced version than in that of picture 16.

305
MARIN ER-M ARS 1964

FIGURE
7-35.-Picture 18. (a) raw data;
(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks re-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
but with enhanced contrast.
 .'
r SClENTlNC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Picture 18 (green).-For this picture, also taken at a slant range of 12 000 km

(7500 statute miles), the Sun is 80" from the zenith from the northwest. The area
shown is 308 km (191 statute miles) by 242 km (150 statute miles) in the same dark
area as picture 17.

307
 .
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE7-36.-Picture 19. (a) raw data;

(b) calibrated, reregistered data
with errors and fiducial marks rc-
moved; (c) same data as in (b),
brit with enhanced contrast.
I .
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Pictures 19 to 22.-Picture 19 was taken at a slant range of 12 100 km (7500

statute miles) and covers an area 360 km (224 statute miles) by 258 km (160
statute miles) in the same dark area as pictures 17 and 18. The Sun is 88" from the
zenith from the northwest. The camera crossed the terminator to the dark side of
Mars in this picture; evidence for this can be seen in the eastern corner of the
frame. Picture 20 is almost entirely beyond the terminator, picture 21 is entirely
beyond it, and the 22 lines of picture 22 are entirely beyond the terminator and
may be partly beyond the dark limb of the planet.

309
MARINER-MARS 1964

FIGURE
7-37.-Picture 20 (raw data).

FIGURE
7-38.-Picture 21 (raw data).

310
. SClENTlFlC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

FIGURE7-39.-Picture 22 (raw data).

31 1
MARINER-MARS 1964

Conclusionsdrawn from the Mariner IV pictures of Mars.

With all systems having functioned perfectly, the total area photographed by
Mariner IV was about 1 554 000 sq km (600 000 sq statute miles), approximately
1 percent of the entire surface of Mars. The major surprise in the pictures was the
large number of craters: more than 70 of varying sizes are clearly distinguishable.
If what is seen on the Mariner IV photographs is typical of what would be seen
elsewhere on the planet, there must be more than 10 000 craters on the surface of
Mars. These craters were not expected by most scientists.
On the basis of the sample provided by Mariner IV, it may be said that the
number of large craters per unit area on the Martian surface and their size distri-

1000

_HIGHLANDS)

E I00

eY
w
MOON (MARIA) _ _

ku
Ii0

I IO
.% IOO I000

CRATER DIAMETER, km

FICURE 7-40.--Number of craters on the Moon and on Mars (estimated) as a

function of crater diameter.

312
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

bution resemble closely the number and size distribution of craters on the Moon.
Figure 7-40 compares the number of craters estimated to exist on the surface of
Mars (as a function of crater diameter) with the number on the Moon. There are
fewer Martian craters with diameters below 10 km (6.25 statute miles) than would
be expected on the basis of our knowledge concerning the Moon.
The craters on Mars have rims that rise about 100 meters above the sur-
rounding surface and depths that extend several hundred meters below the
rims. The crater walls slope at angles up to about 10 ° . Figure 7-41 compares the
depths and diameters of Martian craters with those of the lunar craters. The
depths of the Martian craters were estimated by plotting the light values of succes-
sive picture elements on a line cutting across the diameter of a crater. Such a plot
is shown in figure 7-42. The light-intensity curve at the bottom of figure 7-42
traces the light and dark values on the 64-step intensity scale assigned to each
picture element in one line across the middle of the picture.
There seems to be a tendency for the small craters to appear on the rims of
large craters. This trend suggests that there may be something special about the

1500
• PICTURE 7 NOTWHEN
: SAMEC'RA R

tooo
o
&
17
X
PICTURE
PICTURE
PICTURE
PICTURE
8
9
I0
II
/ .PPEARED
,NTWO
P,CTURES
ANO iTS SIZE WAS DIFFERENT
IN EACH, THE TWO VALUES
ARE CONNECTED

k-
n
W 1
Q

50o • !

In

0 tO 20 30 40 50

DIAMETER, km

FIGURE 7-41.--Crater depth as a function of crater diameter for the Moon and for Mars.

313
MARINER-MARS 1964

42

43

44

45

46

47 \ /

40

FIGURE 7-42.-Plot used to compute the slope and depth of a crater. The plot refers to the
data numbers along a line running left to right through the middle of the crater shown.
(Crater shown is from picture 9.)

314
 SCIENTIFICRESULTS
AND CONCLUSIONS

composition or texture of the crater rims that resists whatever forces tend to erode
small craters when they are formed elsewhere on the Martian surface.
Many of the craters are flattened along a portion of their circumference
instead of being circular. This phenomenon, also observed in lunar craters, is
believed to result from structural faults below the surface. The straight edge in
picture 11 intersects a crater and continues across the rim. This, too, might have
been caused by a fault.
The principal topographic features of Mars in the areas photographed by
Mariner IV have not been produced by stress and deformation originating within
the planet, in contrast to the features of Earth. Earth, of course, is internally
dynamic, giving rise to mountains, continents, and other such features; Mars, on
the other hand, has evidently long been inactive. The lack of internal activity is
also consistent with the absence of a significant magnetic field at Mars (as deter-
mined by the Mariner IV fields and particles experiments).
Although it may be difficult ever to arrive at an unambiguous identification
and interpretation of all the features seen on the photographs, it is felt that the
existence of a lunar-type cratered surface, even in only a 1-percent sample, has
profound implications about the origin and evolution of Mars and further en-
hances the uniqueness of the Earth within the solar system. By analogy with the
Moon, much of the heavily cratered surface of Mars must be very ancient: perhaps
2 to 5 billion years old. However, a definite statement concerning the age of the
Martian surface cannot be made until more of the surface has been photographed
and until more is known about the relative rates of impact of asteroid-sized bodies
on the Moon and Mars.
The remarkable state of preservation of this surface infers that no atmosphere
significantly denser than the present very thin one has characterized the planet
since its surface was formed. (The atmosphere of Mars is discussed later in this
section.) Similarly, it is difficult to believe that free water in quantities sufficient to
form streams or to fill oceans could have existed anywhere on Mars since that time.
The presence of such amounts of water (and consequently atmosphere) would
have caused severe erosion over the entire surface, as was true with the Earth.
Surface features on Earth are eroded and effaced in a few tens of millions of years.
Canals were looked for on the Mariner IV photographs, but nothing can be
seen that is obviously a canal. Although the trace of the camera view crossed
several of the canallike markings sketched from time to time on maps of Mars, no
such features could be identified with certainty. The apparent lack of these
features in the Mariner IV photographs could be due to several factors, including

315
 t,

MARINER-MARS 1964

the following: (1) The season was unfavorable, because these canallike markings
do not show well during winter; or (2) the pictures may show whatever it is that
makes a canal in so much detail that it cannot be recognized. Therefore, nothing
positive concerning the existence or lack of canals can be concluded on the basis
of the Mariner IV photographs.
As anticipated, the Mariner IV photographs neither demonstrate nor pre-
clude the possible existence of life on Mars. Geologic experience gained on the
Earth suggests that the search for a fossil record on Mars appears less promising if
oceans never existed on the planet. On the other hand, if the surface of Mars is
truly as ancient as is now supposed, that surface may prove to be the best (and
perhaps the only) place in the solar system still preserving clues to primitive
organic development, traces of which have long since disappeared from the Earth.

Occulation

Obiectives oF experiment

In the spring of 1964, after the Mariner-Mars 1964 spacecraft were built and
the mission objectives had been defined, an occultation experiment was included.
This experiment required no changes in the spacecraft; all that was needed was a
shift in the aiming point at Mars to insure that the spacecraft would pass behind
the planet Mars as viewed from the Earth. This stipulation meant that the 2300-
MHz radio signal from the spacecraft would pass through the atmosphere of Mars
as the spacecraft went behind Mars (as viewed from the Earth) and as it emerged
on the other side. The Earth occultation region, where the Earth would actually
be hidden from view of the spacecraft and the radio signal would disappear, is
illustrated in figure 7-43. As the radio signal passed through the Martian atmos-
phere, it would be refracted (i.e., deflected from a straight path when passing
obliquely from one medium to another in which its velocity is different), giving
rise to a change in the apparent motion of the spacecraft.
If all other factors producing apparent motion of the spacecraft were ac-
counted for (e.g., the actual motion of the spacecraft, the motion of the deep space
stations on the rotating Earth, the lengthening of the transit time of the signal, and
the refractivity of the Earth's lower atmosphere), the remaining unexplained
changes in the radio signal could be attributed to refraction by the atmosphere of
Mars. (For a successful experiment, it was necessary to account for the total
change in frequency or phase of the signal due to all causes other than refraction

316
 b
SClENT/F/C RESULTS AND CONCLUSlONS

FIGURE
7-43.-Geometry of Mars and Mariner IV at the time of Earth occultation.

by the Martian atmosphere to an accuracy of at least one part in loll.) Since the
geometry obtained from the estimated trajectory is known, the measured changes
could be used to estimate the spatial characteristics of the index of refraction (or
refractivity) in the electrically neutral atmosphere and electrically charged ion-
osphere of Mars. Thus, by measuring and then analyzing the changes in the
characteristics (frequency, phase, and amplitude) of the radio signals from the
spacecraft, it was hoped to learn more about the composition, density, and scale
height of the Martian atmosphere. Knowledge concerning these atmospheric
characteristics is essential to any attempt at defining the entry and landing re-
quirements for future spacecraft missions to Mars.
3The term used to designate the height of atmosphere needed to produce a given surface pressure if the density
of the atmosphere were constant from top to bottom. For the Earth’s atmosphere, the scale height is 7 km (4.4
statute miles).

317
MARINER-MARS 1964

Earth occultation during the Mariner IV mission

At 02:19:11 GMT on July 15, 1965 (approximately 1_ hours after its closest
approach to Mars), the Mariner IV spacecraft entered the Earth occultation
region at Mars and the radio signal from the spacecraft ceased. Less than 1 hour
later (at 03:13:04), the spacecraft left the region and the radio signal was re-
acquired. During this phase of the mission, Pioneer DSS 11 and Echo DSS 12 took
standard Doppler (closed-loop) data 4 as well as open-loop records _ of the received
data, and Woomera DSS 41 and Tidbinbilla DSS 42 took Doppler data only.
When the signal first passed through the Martian atmosphere, it was after-
noon according to Mars local time, and the Sun was about 20 o above the horizon.
At its entrance into the Earth occultation region (as projected on Mars, be-
tween Electrus and Mare Chronium at 55 ° south latitude and 177 ° east longi-
tude), Mariner IV was 22 559 km (14 021 statute miles) from the limb of the
planet, traveling at a velocity of 2.09 km/sec (1.3 statute miles/sec) perpendicular
to the Earth-Mars line. All data were taken while the spacecraft's transmitter
frequency reference was provided by a frequency standard on Earth.
When Mariner IV emerged from behind the planet and the radio signal
again passed through the Martian atmosphere, the spacecraft flew tangent to a
point where, according to Mars local time, it was close to midnight. At its exit
from the Earth occultation region (as projected on Mars, above Mare Acidalum at
60 ° north latitude and 44 ° west longitude), the spacecraft was 36 119 km (22 448
statute miles) from the limb of the planet. A portion of the data taken at that time
was received while the spacecraft's transmitter frequency reference was provided
by a crystal oscillator on the spacecraft. In that mode, phase measurements were
significantly less precise.

Results and conclusions

The analysis of Doppler tracking data taken before and after the encounter of
the spacecraft with Mars yielded the Mariner IV trajectory at the time of occul-
tation with such precision that the range rate of the spacecraft was known at an
accuracy of 0.0015 m/sec (0.005 ft/sec). Thus, any significant deviation of the
received Doppler data from expected values based on trajectory analysis was
expected to have been caused by atmospheric and ionospheric phase-path effects.

4Taken from the ordinary tracking channel, which gave a cycle count of the spacecraft's frequency.
s Contained in so-called open-loop receivers, which were modified to record a frequency-translated version of
the actual received signal on tape in the audiofrequency range (about 2 to 3 kc). This system enabled much more
precise measurements of the received power of the signal as well as the frequency and phase relationships.

318
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

The changes in the phase of the Mariner IV radio signal, as recorded at

Pioneer DSS 11 prior to the entrance of the spacecraft into the Earth occultation
region, are plotted in figure 7-43. The times shown in figure 7-44 are those at
which the data were taken on Earth and are approximately 12 rain later than the
times at the spacecraft because of the period required for the signal to travel from
the spacecraft to the Earth. As can be seen, the signal phase changed about 10
cycles from the expected value (if no atmosphere or ionosphere were present) as
the signal passed through the electrically charged ionosphere. As the signal
reached the electrically neutral lower atmosphere, its phase began to return to the
expected value and then moved in the opposite direction until a value over 25
cycles from the expected value was reached. At approximately 02:31:11 GMT, the
radio signal from the spacecraft was no longer received on Earth, an indication
that the spacecraft had entered the Earth occultation region (at 02:19:11 at the
spacecraft). All data received had been taken in the brief period of about 100 sec.
The receipt of these data marked the first time coherent radio transmission was
used to probe the atmosphere and ionosphere of another planet.
Both the ionosphere and atmosphere of Mars were somewhat less dense than
expected. The data on the ionosphere obtained prior to Mariner IV's entrance
into the Earth occultation region show a distinct ionized layer with a peak electron
density of about 9.0±1.0×104 electrons/cm 3 (14.8+1.6×105 electrons/in. 3) at
an altitude of 121 to 126 km (75 to 78 statute miles). (The peak electron density of
the Earth's ionosphere is about 106 electrons/cm _ (16.4×106 electrons/in.3).)
Indications of a second less-dense ionized layer were noted. (No ionosphere was
detected as the spacecraft left the Earth occultation region at approximately mid-
night on Mars; however, the electron density in the atmosphere at night is at least
20 times lower than that during the day.) The electron scale height of the ion-
osphere above the electron-density peak is about 20 to 25 km (12.5 to 15.6 statute
miles). _Ihe low altitude of the peak electron density and the small scale height of
the ionosphere above it indicate that the temperature is considerably lower than
had been anticipated. The temperature at 121 to 201 km (75 to 125 statute miles)
is estimated to be less than 200 ° K (-99.4 ° F).
Various theoretical models of atmospheres were proposed so that the data
obtained on the Mars atmosphere could be compared with those for the models
and hopefully a "fit" could be made. Such a fit is illustrated in figure 7-45, where
the solid curve represents the computed phase change for a theoretical model
atmosphere having a surface refractivity of 3.7 N-units and a scale height of 9 km
(5.6 statute miles). The actual phase change, as computed from data collected by

319
MARINER-MARS 1964

3O

ATMOSPHERE--
8 \
_, 20

,o

IONOSPHERE---_
...1_ 0

-20
02;28:30 02:29:I0 02:29:50 02:30:30 02:31:10
O2:28:50 02:29:30 02:30:10 02:30:50 O2:31:30

GMT AT EARTH, JULY 15_ 1965

FIGURE 7-44.--Signal phase changes prior to entrance of Mariner IV into Earth

occultation region at Mars.

5O I I I 1 [

X PIONEER DSS [I DATA

• ECHO DSS 12 DATA

4O
0 TIDBINBILLA DSS 42 DATA

(.9

/
50
Z
I
L.)

"I- 20 THEORETICAL MODEL ---, ',,,r'/v-I

Q.

Z
_o
03
° I
I0--

o v
>/
02:30:53 -- O2:_:56 02:30:59 02:31:02 02:31:05 02:51:08 02:31: H

GMT AT EARTH, JULY 15, 1965

FIGURE 7-45.--Mariner IV data for electrically neutral atmosphere fit to theoretical

atmospheric model curve.

320
 SCIENTIFICRESULTSAND CONCLUSIONS

Pioneer DSS 11, Echo DSS 12, and Tidbinbilla DSS 42, is seen to fit quite well
with that model. (For the model, it was assumed that the atmospheric density
decreases exponentially with altitude.) The best fit obtained yielded a value of
3.64-0.2 N-units for the surface refractivity and a value of 8 to 10 km (5 to 6.3
statute miles) for the scale height. (The refractivity of the electrically neutral part
of the Earth's atmosphere is 350 N-units.) The data indicate that there is no
obvious change of scale height with altitude up to at least 30 km (18.8 statute
miles). This finding, together with Earth-based observations of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere of Mars, clearly indicates that the atmosphere consists primarily
of carbon dioxide and that the amount of nitrogen present is very small.
On the basis of the assumption of a Martian atmosphere consisting primarily
of carbon dioxide and on the basis of determined values of refractivity and scale
height, the mass density and surface pressure for certain models of the atmosphere
have been estimated. For a pure carbon dioxide atmosphere, the surface mass
density (or density at that point at which the refractivity is that given here) is
1.434-0.1×10 -5 g/cm a (5.184-0.36×10 -7 lb/in.a). The surface mass density
for an atmosphere of 80 percent carbon dioxide and 20 percent heavier gases
(argon and/or nitrogen) is 1.54-0.15×10 -5 g/cm a (5.43±0.54×10 -7 lb/in.a),
and that for an atmosphere composed of equal parts of carbon dioxide and argon is
1.754-0.10×10 -5 g/cm a (6.334-0.36×10 -7 lb/in.a). If these values are correlated
with the scale height, the temperature ranges for the three types of atmos-
pheres can be established as follows: 1804-20 ° K (-135.4+36 ° F), 1754-25 ° K
(-144.44-45 ° F), and 1704-20 ° K (-153.44-36 ° F), respectively.
If the previously mentioned temperature ranges and the measured refractivity
range are assumed, the surface pressure can be estimated as 4.1 to 5.7 millibars for
a pure carbon dioxide atmosphere, 4.1 to 6.2 millibars for an atmosphere com-
posed of 80-percent carbon dioxide and 20-percent heavier gas, and 5.0 to 7.0
millibars for an atmosphere in which carbon dioxide and argon are present in
equal amounts. This lower-than-expected surface pressure leads us to believe that
it will be much more difficult to design capsules capable of landing on the surface
of Mars than was previously supposed. However, the scale height is less and the
mass density expected at the atmospheric peak is quite low, indicating that
density falls off quite rapidly in the upper atmosphere. Therefore, it should be
possible to orbit the planet at lower altitudes than had been thought feasible prior
to the Mariner IV mission.
In the data presented, there is a possibility of an error of about 10 percent
caused by the inability to determine exactly what feature on the Martian surface

321
MARINER-MARS1964

actually cut off the radio signal as the spacecraft passed behind the planet. If the
feature happened to be some large crater or a protuberance of another kind, the
values presented here are low. It can be estimated that the surface pressure would
change by about 1 percent for every 90 meters (300 ft) of elevation difference on
the surface. It is difficult to say whether or not Mars was observed all the way
down to its surface. The surface temperature is undoubtedly about 30 to 40
Kelvin degrees (54 to 72 Fahrenheit degrees) higher than that observed, and there
is bound to be some fluctuation of temperature with altitude at some point.
The near or complete absence of a static magnetic field at Mars has very
interesting implications with regard to understanding the ionosphere and atmos-
phere of both Mars and Earth. For Mars, it means that formation and loss
mechanisms can be better understood and related to the physical characteristics of
the atmosphere and ionosphere, since there are no complicating effects of a mag-
netic field. For Earth, many ionospheric phenomena are still not well understood,
often because of the complicating effects of the magnetic field in controlling in-
coming charged particles, in affecting ionospheric motions, in storing high-energy
particles which may provide a heating and ionization source, in affecting and
controlling small- and large-scale ionospheric irregularities, and in providing
partial shielding from the solar wind. Results of studies of the Martian ionosphere
should therefore aid in separating and understanding various phenomena in that
region surrounding Earth.

3_
APPENDIX A

Project History and Organization

MARINER-MARS 1964 PROJECT FORMALIZATION

The possibility of an Atlas/Agena-launched Mars mission was first given

serious consideration in May 1962. Budget studies by OSSA and informal studies
of spacecraft configurations were begun. In July 1962, preliminary design studies
based upon use of Atlas/Agena for the 1964 Mars opportunity were formally
started at JPL and other NASA centers. Since Mars launch opportunities occur
only once every 25 months, and since the 1964 opportunity would coincide with
the "---:-'"
ttuxct ph ase u,
_r the Sun ...L:_t.
w,,lu, uCCut_
............ alJpiuallltatt_ly
:.... _.........
_vuy 11
l_ ......
y_,_la,I•t ',','as
considered important to the national space effort to conduct meaningful scientific
exploration of Mars at this opportunity. Proposals were presented to NASA Head-
quarters and exchanged among the NASA centers. The preliminary design was
completed, and, even though the science payload was not firmly established, the
JPL proposal was approved by NASA in early November 1962, 2 years prior to the
first launch opportunity. The project was officially named the Mariner-Mars 1964
project at that time.
Final designation of key project systems and personnel was made in January
1963 after the end of the Mariner-Venus 1962 project. The system management
assignments derived for the Mariner-Mars 1964 project are summarized in figure
A-l; the associated project organization for these assignments is shown in figure
A-2. The Mariner-Mars 1964 project rested firmly on the foundation ot tech-
nological experience accumulated on the Mariner-Venus 1962 project and the
Ranger project. Many design features were continuations and extensions of those
applied during the previous projects. Departures from the previous designs were
made only where necessary to meet the unique and more stringent requirements of
the Mars mission. Many of the key personnel (technical, scientific, and mana-
gerial) stepped directly into the Mariner-Mars 1964 effort upon completion of
their contribution to the Mariner-Venus 1962 project.
The Mariner-Mars 1964 project was originally to consist of three launch
attempts. However, in May 1963, because of budgetary considerations, the scope
of the project was reduced to two launches from separate launch pads using an

323
MARINER-MARS 1964

Z _

_z

z_O

2_a
OZ_
u_m_
_0

_0

<_0
2
Z

E_ 0

• U Z
z <
Izz o Zo
'_' _- _Z

_0_ O_
,z_Z _>,

-_ _Z._ -"ft._ < Z0 0 U

;_Z-- _u I ..>,[8.u
= 2 =_
)_u,_O0

0
<
Z
I _0

W
f

I
l
<

324
 APPENDIX A

_ _zbo
z N
_ Z

_zz _

-.4

0
"2,
N

I:m

O"_ 0

W
&
.=..
0

_-o

_o _
ua.

I
I
<
u

u_
Z_ O_

325
MARINER-MARS 1964

Atlas D/Agena D launch vehicle. The development time schedule permitted, and
mission reliability demands made necessary, full use of both subsystem and system
validation testing concepts. Three complete, fully flight-qualified spacecraft were
to be provided, as well as spares of certain critical assemblies. In order to quafify
this hardware, the equivalent of three sets of checkout, test, and handling equip-
ment was to be furnished to support testing and launch operations. Spacecraft and
launch vehicles would be processed in parallel so that the second launch could
occur as soon as 2 days after the first launch.

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND

MANAGEMENT

Under contract to NASA and managed by the California Institute of Tech-

nology, JPL assumed project management responsibility and system management
responsibility for: (1) the design, fabrication, and testing of the spacecraft and the
required ground support equipment; (2) the space flight operations for the
missions from injection to the end of the missions; and (3) the tracking and data
acquisition activities. The system management organizations are shown in figures
A-3 to A-5.
Figure A-1 showed the system management function and responsibility
assignments defined by JPL in the Mariner-Mars 1964 project development plan.
The master schedule milestones and due dates were also included in that docu-
ment. At the beginning of the project, 131 milestones were selected and their
phasing determined across the 2-year period up to launch. The schedule for major
events is shown in figure A-6. The progress of events was reported regularly to
NASA Headquarters.
A project policy and requirements document was also prepared to establish
the operational procedures for the project within JPL. That document comple-
mented the project development plan by expanding the system management
concepts and presenting a compatible project master schedule.
In order to coordinate the efforts of the 1100 persons (peak) working on the
project at JPL, project representatives were chosen from each JPL technical
division to serve as central controllers for all project activities within the technical
division. Since each technical division was involved in activities other than just
those for the Mariner-Mars 1964 project, and since the project representatives had
control over only those resources committed to the project by the technical division
manager, monthly meetings of the division managers and Mariner-Mars 1964
project office personnel were held. The purposes were to inform the division

326
 APPENDIX A

managers of the progress of the project, to make available reports of the contri-
butions of the technical divisions to the project, and to solicit the division man-
agers' ideas regarding the project. In addition, regular weekly meetings were held
with the JPL system managers and the project representatives indicated in figure
A-7. The project representatives were required to submit progress reports at
regular intervals.
Besides the regularly scheduled reviews and meetings, numerous other
reviews were conducted as required or as deemed desirable; for example:
1. A detailed spacecraft subsystem review in spring 1963.
2. A series of preshipment acceptance reviews on each spacecraft in summer
1964.
3. A series of launch-readiness reviews at JPL and the AFETR (Cape
Kennedy, Fla.) to determine equipment flightworthiness.
4. Reviews concerning launch vehicle performance and preparation.
An ......
,..,te._v,.: "_ quality assurance _.A ..,_;_hn;,,, v'"e, .....................
addition, a comprehensive documentation effort was implemented to provide each
person involved in this complex project all necessary information for executing his
assigned tasks.

LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER RESPONSIBILITY

The responsibility for the Atlas D/Agena D launch vehicle was assigned to
LeRC in January 1963. This assignment included administrative and technical
cognizance and control over the launch-vehicle system procurement, booster
launch and flight operations, and the delivery and analysis of flight performance
and tracking information up to the time of spacecraft injection. LeRC established,
as its principal agent, the Agena project office with the responsibility for insuring
proper vehicle support to several NASA projects using Agena and Atlas vehicles,
including the Mariner-Mars 1964 project. The Agena project organization is
illustrated in figure A-8.
Launch operations were conducted at the NASA John F. Kennedy Space
Center, Cocoa Beach, Fla. The actual conduct of launch operations was directed
by the Goddard Space Flight Center, under the technical cognizance of LeRC.
An additional responsibility of the Goddard Space Flight Center--the manage-
ment and operation of the Worldwide Communications Network during the space
flight testing and operations phases of the project--was under the supervision of
the NASA Tracking and Data Acquisition Office.

327
MARINER-MARS 1964 J

_ACECm_T _S_ _AC-ER

D SCHNeq_

I I
OCCULW_ION

._ COGNIZANT
A _LI_C
_IEN_IST

I I
_RC0JEClSCIeNtiST CO_NIZAN_ EN_INEE_
0ATA E_ODER
F L. _"UTZ
PROJECT_I_E_

_NEVO_IE_

CO_NIZANrENGq_ER
0 0. r,'C_RIS

CO_ _IZAN, E_GIN_E_

_C_L _S
US_ SU_RW_
COG_LZA_. t _C.I_
W. PO_I_

0A_ *UTO_,ION _S_EM _F DATA S_S_E_

R. S,OF_

_C_¢_ T_WS_ S-_.N_ TR^NSeON_, S_'ERVlSO_

SVS_
¢O_NIZAN, E_GINEE_ C_NIZAN_ E_GINEER __._ INSrRU_N_O_

PLAN_ _XN

¢OGNIZAN1 ENGI_k

CO_C _V _e_

FIGURE A-3.--Spacecraft system management

328
 APPENDIX A

I I
COG NIZANT ENGI_ER 11 GU&DA_E AND CONTROl

o. R. rHO_S J' _" ACOR0

1 I
I I I ASSISTANT _OJECI

J-t...............
1
REPRE_ NTATIVE

CC_S POWER SUSSYSIEM kTTITU_

PROJECT
-CO NTROL _a_
ENGINEER STEM GUIDANCE _D CON[ROL J. D. SCHMUECKE_

N. H. HAR_N "_t K. M. DAWSON

PROJECt ENGINEER W. W. BENJAMIN J.L. SAWNO

COGNIZANt ENGINEE. [ COGNIZANT ENGINEER COGNIZANt ENGINEER

pROJEC T ENGINEER pOWER SUbSYStEM CONTRACT ANTENNAS AND D_VISIGN
_ACKAGING pIN._JLL£R _UI_S _II REPel_ NTAIIVE
COGNIZANTU.
s,CC&SLINOONE
NGINEE_ COGNIZAN
G, C. CLEVEN
T EN01N[_R
ArTnuoE-CONIROL q POW'E_ OSE raN-PULLERS AN0 W. E. LAYMAN

COGNIZANT ENOIN[E_ COGNIZANI ENGIN_ COGNIZANt _GINE_R SCI_NTIEICINStRUmeNtS

_R PAN[kS _YRONET_K S AND
J_ VANE _ClUAIO_S ATTIIU_CONTROL OS_ pACKAG,NG OS_
J. V. OOLDSM,TH ,__ COGNiZaNT ENGINeeR COGNIZANT _NGINEE l
c. CA_S,A_A J. _. P_TRAUA _ CA_FR

CO_ NITANI F NGINffl ................ 1 [ I ! .................

SAt_ERIES

W. =. _ONO
................... I I .......
COGN_ZANT_NGIN_R l I CO_N_Z_NTENOIN_R
COGNIZANT ENGINIER
EL_Cr,lCAL co_E_re,s CAN_US _N_
AC_UAIO_ E_U,_NI
C_NiZR. L.ANT
SeENCER
ENGINEER J _. S, DAVIS
SO_AR_ANE_ ___ GROUNO HANDU_

C_ NIZANI _NOI_I COG NIZAN_ _ NGIN[[R

SOLARVAN_ CONTROL TEL_CO_UNICAnONS
ELECTRONICS PACKAG,NG

r_ J. 0ONLIN R. E_S"[_ co_.,_N,,,

_......

INERTIA_ S_NSO_S _AN _TUA_OR _NGI_EE_

.___ COGN,ZA_
p. J. HANI>
ENG,NE_R E. L. FLOYD C.W. _AGGIO, JR.

ATTITUDE-CONTROL
IE_ERAT_E CONTROL SOLAP PR_S_R_ VANE
_u_sYsr_ r_S_NG AN_ _AS
REAL_I_U_AnONS
COGNIZANT ENGINEER
_. B. GRAM J. C, RANDALL

SUN SENSORS _RI_RY SIR_T_E SU_ERST_:TU_E ANO

rH_R_L SHIELDS
COGNIZANT
k. F. _HM_T
_NGINEER

AUmnLOT

_ COGNIZANT EN_IN_

organization for Mariner-Mars 1964 project.

329
MARINER-MARS 1964

SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

SYSTEM MANAGER

T. S. BILBO

I
SPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS

DIRECTOR

D. W. DOUGLAS

t+F+II++'F++
I A ER /
FLIGHT PATH ANALYSIS J
ANALYSIS AND COMMAND AND COMMAND
AND COMMAND

A. G. CONRAD R. SLOAN
N. R. HAYNES

I
(includes principal investigators

when SCIENCE
acting in this capacity)
OPERATORS J

FIGURE A-4.--SFO system management organization for Mariner-Mars 1964 project.

I DSIF N.SYSTEM
A. RENZEITI
MANAGER

J. R, HALL
I PROJECT REPRESENTATIVE I

R. K. MALLIS
DSIF OPERATIONS MANAGER
C. A. HOLRITZs ASSISTANT

I°++
....
+°1
....AND

A.
NET

T.
CONTROL

BURKE

I I I I I i 1
....II_+1l ....1I++II .........
I _'° DSS II
STATION MANAGER

J. IIUCKLEY
I +°
STATTON

H,
+I I++1
....
DSS 12
MANAGER

OLiN
STATION

J.
DSS 13
MANAGER

BUCKLEY
STATION

W.
DSS 41
MANAGER

METI_EAR
STATION
DSS 42
MANAGER

R. LESLIE
STATION
DSS 51

D,
MANAGER

HOGG
STATION
DSS 61
MANAGER

P. TARDANi

FIGURE A-5.--DSIF system management organization for Mariner-Mars 1964 project.

330
 APPENDIX A

EVENT

AUTHORIZE

STUDY

DESIGN

FABRICATE

ASSEMBLE
AND TEST

LAUNCH

FIGURE A-6.--Mariner-Mars 1964 project schedule.

The Air Force Space Systems Division (and its designees) acted as an agent
for LeRC in Atlas D and Agena D procurement, logistics, and management
support. The addition of special equipment for the Mariner-Mars ;1964 missions in
the Agena D and the adaptation of conventional Agena D military hardware were
performed by the Medium Space Vehicle Programs Office of the Lockheed
Missiles and Space Company (LMSC) at Sunnyvale, Calif., under the cognizance
of that company's Space Programs Division. This organization was under direct
contract to LeRC to execute all launch-vehicle responsibilities, except for the
procurement of the basic Agena D vehicle. The Medium Space Vehicle Programs
Office cooperated with General Dynamics/Convair (now General Dynamics/
Astronautics) at San Diego, Calif., producer of the Atlas D; and with Space Tech-
nology Laboratories (now TRW Systems) at Redondo Beach, Calif., the launch-

331
MARINER-MARS 1964

NASA HEADQUARTERS ;YSTEM

OFFICE OFSPACE MANAGERS_ LAUNCH
SPACE FLIGH1
SPACECRAFT DSIF
SCIENCE AND PRC IECT OPERATIONS VEHICLE
APPLICATIONS RI RESENTATIVES
D SCHNEIDERMAN N RENZETT I
I T, BILBO s. c, HIMMEL

I G. REIFF
PROJECT
I ENGINEERING
i
J. CASANI
PROJECT
M. GOLDFINE
X X
MANAGEMENT
V EXPERIMENTERS J. MACLAY
O. SHAW
J.N.JAMES
PROJECT SCIENTIST A. WILL I AMS
W.A.COLLIER
T.H.PARKER QUALITY
R. SLOAN
ASSURANCE
AND
X X X
RELIABILITY

R.WELNtCK
F.WRIGHT
SYSTEMS

N. HAYNES
X
D. DOUGLAS

SPACE
SCIENCES
X X
H. TROSTLE

TELECOMMUNI-
CATIONS

J. BRYDEN

GUIDANCE
AND
CONTROL X X
T. ACORD

ENGINEERING

MAIN DEPENDENCY
MECHANICS X
-- -- -- ALTERNATE RELATIONS J, WILSON
X NOT APPLICABLE

PROPULSION
X
B. SCHMITE

ENGINEERING
FACILITIES
X X X
D. HESS

PROCUREMENT
X
L,WRIGHT

F I NANCE
MANAGEMENT
X
(FISCAL REPORTS
ONLY)

FIOVRE A-7.--Mariner-Mars 1964 project matrix organization.

332
 APPENDIX A

..... J

J _o_

l_i

w _w_ w z
<
z_J_
- _o_ -

_ _ _-- o6
I
<
_o I_°_ I
z o _
D

i_ _,__ $i_ _' _

_._ ,,_ _',

I_._I
i _x _ i
I_I

_ _
_> I • _- I
_a
z_ I _ • I

• e- i _ i

i__
°°_.
_o,_
_...

333
MARINER-MARS 1964

vehicle trajectory and flight-performance analysis contractor. The Medium Space

Vehicle Programs Office also designed, qualified, and delivered the shroud system.

ADVISORY PANEL PARTICIPATION

Advisory panels formed during the Mariner-Venus 1962 project and the
Ranger project were also consulted by Mariner-Mars 1964 project office per-
sonnel and the spacecraft system manager. The panels, however, exercised no
technical direction over JPL, LeRC, or their contractors. The panels concerned
with performance control, trajectories, guidance and control, and flight dynamics
and with tracking, communications, inflight measurements, and telemetry con-
tinually monitored, compiled, evaluated, and coordinated data relating to their
respective areas as those areas interacted with the launch vehicle, shroud, and
spacecraft. The Launch Operations Working Group, acting as the prime coordi-
nator of flight preparations at the AFETR, participated in launch vehicle, space-
craft, support facilities, and range-readiness meetings. The Launch Vehicle
Integration Group, representing working levels of JPL, LeRC, and LMSC, was
concerned with resolving incompatibilities between the launch vehicle, shroud,
and spacecraft.

334
APPENDIX B

Abbreviations

AAC automatic aperture control

ac alternating current
AFETR Air Force Eastern Test Range
AGE automatic ground equipment
APW analog-to-pulsewidth
AU astronomical unit
BECO booster-engine cutoff
CALIB calibration
, 1
central computer and sequencer
COS RAY cosmic ray telescope
CPM Canopus-probe-Mars (angle)
DAS data automation system
dc direct current
DC direct command
DN data number
DSIF Deep Space Instrumentation Facility
DSN Deep Space Network
DSS deep space station
ENC encounter
EPM Earth-probe-Mars (angle)
EPW Encounter Planning Working (Group)
FPAC Flight Path Analysis and Command (Team)
GCS Ground Communication System
GM Geiger-Mueller
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GTS ground telemetry subsystem
IMP impact probability
JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory
LCE launch complex equipment
LeRC Lewis Research Center

335
MARINER-MARS1964 ,J

LLA low-level amplifier

LMSC Lockheed Missiles & Space Co.
MAG magnetometer
max maximum
MDL master data library
MT master timer
N newtons
NAMG narrow-angle Mars gate
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASCOM NASA Worldwide Communications Network
NRT non-real time
NRZ nonreturn-to-zero
OSE operational support equipment
OSSA Office of Space Science and Applications (NASA)
PAS pyrotechnics arming switch
PCM pulse-code-modulated
PDP programed data processor
PL plasma
PN pseudonoise
POS position
Qc quantitative command
RF radio frequency
RT real time
RWV read, write, verify
SAA S-band acquisition aid
SAF Spacecraft Assembly Facility (JPL)
SCM S-band monopulse feedhorn and bridge system
SECO sustainer-engine cutoff
SFO space flight operations
SFOF Space Flight Operations Facility (JPL)
SIT separation-initiated timer
SMIT simulated midcourse interaction test
SN serial number
SPAC Spacecraft Performance Analysis and Command (Team)
SPM Sun-probe-Mars (angle)
SSAC Space Science Analysis and Command (Team)
TEMP temperature

336
 APPENDIX B

TPS telemetry processing subsystem

T/R transformer/rectitier
TTY teletype
VCO voltage-controlled oscillator
VECO vernier-engine cutoff

337
 I_!_CED_G PAGE BLANK NOT _"_ '"_

Bibliography

1. ALEXANDER, W. M.; MCCRACKEN, C. W.; AND BOHN, J. L." Zodiacal

Dust: Measurements by Mariner IV. Science, vol. 149, no. 3689,

Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1240 1241.
2. ALLEN, J. D.: A Mars Photographic System. The Society of Photo-
graphic Instrumentation Engineers Journal, vol. 2, Aug.-Sept. 1964,
pp. 227-230.
3. ALLEN, J. DENTON; ET AL." Mariner IV Photography of Mars: Initial
Results. Tech. Rept. no. 32-890, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif., Mar. 1, 1966. (Reprinted from Science, vol. 149, no. 3684, Aug.
6, 1965, pp. 627-630.)
4. ANDERS, E.; AND ARNOLD, J. R.: Age of Craters on Mars. Science, vol.
149, no. 3691, Sept. 24, 1965, pp. 1494-1496.
5. ANDERSON, H. R. : Mariner IV Measurements Near Mars: Initial Results.
Science, vol. 149, no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1226-1228.
6. ANDERSON, HUGH R.; ET AL.: Mariner IV Measurements Near Mars:
Initial Results. Tech. Rept. no. 32-833 (Collection of six papers re-
printed from Science, vol. 149, no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965; see refs. 1, 5,
39, 54, 68, and 77), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Nov.
30, 1965.
7. BALDWIN, R. B." Mars: An Estimate of the Age of its Surface. Science,
vol. 149, no. 3691, Sept. 24, 1965, pp. 1498-1499.
8. BASTOW, J. G." Mariner Mars Spacecraft Magnetic Contamination Status
Report. Tech. Memo no. 33-261, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif., Feb. 1, 1966.
9. BECKER, R. A." Analysis of Solar Panel Effect on Louver Performance.
Tech. Rept. no. 32-687, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,
June 1, 1965.
10. BECKER, R. A.: Design and Test Performance of Mariner IV Television
Optical System. Tech. Rept. no. 32-773, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., July 1, 1965.
11. BLUM, R. : Magnetosphere and the Martian Blue Clearing. Nature, vol.
207, Sept. 25, 1965, pp. 1343-1344.
12. BOUVIER, H. K." The Mariner IV Attitude Control System. Sciences et
Industries Spatiales, vol. 1, nos. 7, 8, 1965, pp. 41-48.

339
MARINER-MARS 1964

13. CASANI, J. R.; CONRAD, A. G.; AND NEILSON, R. A. : Mariner 4--A Point
of Departure. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 16-24.
14. CLARKE, V. C.,JR.; BOLLMAN, W. E.; ROTH, R. Y.; AND SCHOLEY, W.J.:
Design Parameters for Ballistics Interplanetary Trajectories, Part 1:
One Way Transfers to Mars and Venus. Tech. Rept. no. 32-77, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Jan. 16, 1963.
15. COYLE, G. : Mariner IV Science Platform Structure and Actuator Design,
Development and Flight Performance. Tech. Rept. no. 32-832, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Nov. 15, 1965.
16. DALLAS, S. S.: High-Energy Earth to Mars and Return Trajectories.
Tech. Rept. no. 32-803, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,
Dec. 15, 1965.
17. DAWSON, KIRK M.; CLEVEN, G. CURTIS; AND FREDRICKSON, CHARLES D.:

Reliability Considerations in the Design, Assembly, and Testing of the

Mariner IV Power System. Tech. Rept. no. 32-729, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., July 1, 1965.
18. DE VAUCOULEURS, G.: Charting the Martian Surface. Sky and Tele-
scope, vol. 30, Oct. 1965, pp. 196-201.
19. EASTERLING, M. F. : A Long Range Precision Ranging System. Tech.
Rept. no. 32-80, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., July 10,
1961.
20. EASTERLING, M. F.; AND GOLDSTEIN, R.: The Effect of the Interplanetary
Medium on S-Band Telecommunications. Tech. Rept. no. 32-825,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Sept. 1, 1965.
21. EWINO, A. : Canals May Be Craters. Science News Letter, vol. 88, Aug.
14, 1965, p. 103.
22. FAWCETT, WILLIAM G.; SCHUTZ, FRANK L.; SLOAN, RICHARD K.; AND

TROSTLE, HERBERT G. : Scientific Exploration With Mariner 4. Astro-

naut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 10, Oct. 1965, pp. 22-28.
23. FIELDER, G. : Photographs of Mars Taken by Mariner IV. Nature, vol.
207, Sept. 25, 1965, p. 1381.
24. FINK, D. E. : Mars Vehicle Becomes Major Scientific Program. Aviation
Week and Space Technology, vol. 82, no. 11, Mar. 15, 1965, pp. 116-
118, 123-125.
25. FORNEY, R. G.; SZIRMAY, S. Z.; AND BOUVIER, H. K.: Mariner 4 Maneu-
ver and Attitude Control. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 10, Oct. 1965,
pp. 36-39.

34o
 BIBLIOGRAPH Y

26. GOLDSTEIN, R. M.: JPL Radar Observations of Mars. Science, vol. 150,
no. 3704, Dec. 24, 1965, pp. 1715-1717.
27. HAYNES, N. R.; MICHEL, J. R. ; NULL, G. W.; AND SLOAN, R. K. : Mariner
4 Flight Path to Mars. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 6, June 1965,
pp. 28-33.
28. HERMAN, N. H.; AND LINGON, U. S.: Mariner 4 Timing and Sequencing.
Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 10, Oct. 1965, pp. 40-43.
29. HUNTER, J. H.: Mariner Mars 1964 Telecommunication System. Tech.
Rept. no. 32-836, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Dec. 1,
1965.
30. JAMES, J. N." Managing the Mariner Mars Project. Astronaut. Aeron.,
vol. 3, no. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 34-41.
31. JAMES, J. N." The Voyage of Mariner IV. Sci. Am., vol. 214, no. 3,
Mar. 1966, pp. 42-52.
_,2 I,_,_,,=_ J. N.; ET AL.: Mariner IV Mission to Mars, Part I. Tech. Rept.
no. 32-782, Part I (Collection of seven papers reprinted from Astronaut.
Aeron., vol. 3, nos. 6-8, June-Aug. 1965; see refs. 14, 28, 32, 40, 64, 66,
and 87), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Sept. 15, 1965.
33. JAMES, J. N.; ET AL.: Tech. Rept. no. 32-958 (Collection of three papers
reprinted from Sci. Am., vol. 214, nos. 3-5, Mar.-May 1966; see refs.
33, 43, and 67), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
34. JOHNSON, F. S." Atmosphere of Mars. Science, vol. 150, no. 3702, Dec.
10, 1965, pp. 1445-1448.
35. JOHNSON, N. E.: Investigation of Fiberglass Shroud Materials. Tech.
Memo no. 33-214, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Apr.
1, 1965.
36. KLIORE, ARVYDAS; CAIN, DAN L.; AND HAMILTON, T. W.: Determination

of Some Physical Properties of the Atmosphere of Mars from Changes

in the Doppler Signal of a Spacecraft on an Earth-Occultation Tra-
jectory. Tech. Rept. no. 32-674, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasa-
dena, Calif., Oct. 15, 1964.
37. KLIORE, ARVYDAS; CAIN, DAN L.; LEVY, GERALD S.; ESHLEMAN, VON R.;

FJELDBO, GUNNAR; AND DRAKE, FRANK D." Occultation Experiment:

Results of the First Direct Measurement of Mars Atmosphere and
Ionosphere. Science, vol. 149, no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1243-1248.
38. KLIORE, ARVYDAS; CAIN, DAN L. ; LEVY, GERALD S. ; ESHLEMAN, VON R. ;
DRAKE, FRANK D.; AND FJELDBO, GUNNAR: The Mariner IV Occulta-

341
MARINER_JCIARS I964

tion Experiment. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 7, July 1965, pp. 72-80.
39. LEAR, JoHn: Mariner IV's Expense Account: Increase Due to Extreme
Tenuity of Martian Atmosphere. Sat. Rev., vol. 48, Aug. 7, 1965,
p. 35.
LEIGHTON, R. B.: The Photographs From Mariner IV. Sci. Am., vol.
214, no. 4, Apr. 1966, pp. 54-68.
LEIGHTON, ROBERT B.; MURRAY, BRUCE C.; SHARP,ROBERT P.; ALLEN,

J. DENTON; AND SLOAN, RICHARD K.: Mariner IV Photography of

Mars: Initial Results. Science, vol. 149, no. 3684, Aug. 6, 1965,
pp. 627-630.
42. LEVY, G. S.; OTOSHI, r. Y.; AND SIEDEL, B. L.: Ground Instrumentation
for Mariner IV Occultation Experiment. Tech. Rept. no. 32-984,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,Sept. 15, 1966.
43. LEWIS, D. W.: Maintaining Thermal Control in Mariner 4. Astronaut
Aeron., vol. 3, no. I0, Oct. 1965, pp. 30-34.
44. LINDSEY, R. : Mars Atmosphere Probe Proposed. Missilesand Rockets,
vol. 16, Feb. 8, 1965.
45. LOOMIS, A. :Some Geological Problems of Mars. Tech. Rept. no. 32-400,
Revision I (Reprint from Geological Soc. Bull.,yol. 76, Oct. 1965,
pp. 1083-1104), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,Jan. 15,
1966.
46. MALLING, L. R. :Slow Scan Vidicon as an Interplanetary Imaging Device.
Advances in Electronics and Electronic Physics, vol. 22B, Academic
Press,New York, 1966.
MALLING, L. R. : Space Astronomy and the Slow Scan Vidicon. J. Soc.
Motion Picture Television Engrs., Nov. 1963.
MATHISON, R. P. :Mariner Mars 1964 Telemetry and Command System.
Tech. Rept. no. 32-684, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,
June I, 1965. (Also published in IEEE, vol. 2,July 1965, pp. 76-84.)
MILLER, B." JPL Facing Mariner C Avionics Problems. Aviation Week
and Space Technology, vol. 80, no. 26,June 29, 1964, pp. 16-17.
NORMYLE, W. J.: Planetary Exploration Hopes Buoyed by Mariner
Flight. Aviation Week and Space Technology, vol. 83, no. 6, Aug. 9,
1965, pp. 86-93.
51. O'GALLAGHER, J. J.; AND SIMPSON, J. A.: Search for Trapped Electrons
and a Magnetic Moment at Mars by Mariner IV. Science, vol. 149,
no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1233-1239.

342
 BIBLIOGRAPH Y

52. O'GALLAGHER, J. J.; AND SIMPSON, J. A.: The Heliocentric Intensity

Gradients of Cosmic Ray Protons AND Helium During Minimum Solar
Modulation. Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies Preprint No.
66-112.
PAY, R." VAD Group Processed Mariner Photos. Missiles and Rockets,
vol. 17, Aug. 9, 1965, p. 28.
PEFLEY, R. K.: Temperature Control: A Case History of the Mariner
Spacecraft. Tech. Memo no. 33-189, Rev. 1, Jet Propulsion Lab-
oratory, Pasadena, Calif., Mar. 1, 1965.
PICKERING, W. H.: Mariner 4 Flight to Mars. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3,
no. 10, Oct. 1965, pp. 20-21.
PICKERING, W. H.; ET AL." Mariner IV Mission to Mars, Part II. Tech.
Rept. no. 32-782, Part II (Collection of five papers reprinted from
Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 10, Oct. 1965; see refs. 23, 26, 29, 45, and
"/\ T_ .- 1 " T ! .
/ j, Jet Propmslon Laooratory, Pa adena, Calif., Dec. 15, 1965.
57. RANDOLPtt, J. E.: Mariner Mars 1964 Flight Dynamic Data. Tech.
Memo no. 33-278, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., May
15, 1966.
58. RENZETTI, N. A." Tracking and Data Acquisition Report: Mariner Mars
1964 Mission, Volume I. Near-Earth Trajectory Phase. Tech. Memo
no. 33-239, vol. I, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Jan.
1, 1965.
59. SCHMITZ, BRUCE W.; GROUDLE, THOMAS A.; AND KELLEY, JAMES H."
Development of the Post-Injection Propulsion System for the Mariner
C Spacecraft. Tech. Rept. no. 32-830, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., Apr. 1, 1966.
60. SCHMUECKER, J. D.; AND SPEHALSKI, R. J.. Mariner Mars 1964 Basic
Structure, Design and Development. Tech. Rept. no. 32-953, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., May 1, 1967.
61. SCHMUECKER, J. D.; AND WILSON, J. N.. Structural and Mechanical
Design of Mariner Mars. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 8, Aug. 1965,
pp. 26-33.
62.
SCHUTZ, F. L.; ET AL.: Mariner-Mars Science Subsystem. Tech. Rept.
no. 32-813, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Aug. 15, 1966.
63. SHIPLEY, W. S.; AND MACLAY, J. E.: Mariner 4 Environmental Testing.
Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 42-48.
64. SLOAN, R. K." The Scientific Experiments of Mariner IV. Sci. Am., vol.
214, no. 5, May 1966, pp. 62-72.
343
 /

MARINER-MARS 1964

65. SMITH, E. J.; ET AL. : Magnetic Field Measurements Near Mars. Science,
vol. 149, no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1241-1242.
66. SPEHALSKI, R. J.: Mariner Mars 1964 Mechanical Configuration. Tech.
Rept. no. 32-933, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Sept. 1,
1966.
67. SPEHALSKI, RICHARD J.: Mariner IV Mechanical Operations. Tech.
Rept. no. 32-954, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Dec.
1, 1966.
68. STONE, L. : Mariner Data May Limit Voyager Payload. Aviation Week
and Space Technology, vol. 83, no. 5, Aug. 2, 1965, pp. 55-60.
69. STONE, L. : Mariner Design Modified by Mars Flyby. Aviation Week
and Space Technology, vol. 78, no. 18, May 6, 1963, pp. 50-54.
70. TAYLOR, H. : Webb Says Mariner Winning Mars Race: Zond a Month
Behind. Missiles and Rockets, vol. 16, Feb. 15, 1965, p. 15.
71. THOSTESEN, T. O.; AND LEWIS, D. W.: The Mariner Mars 1964 Absorp-
tivity Standard. Tech. Rept. no. 32-734, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., Mar. 1, 1966.
72. VAN ALLEN, J. A.: Absence of 40-kev Electrons in the Earth's Magneto-
spheric Tail at 3300 Earth Radii. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, Oct.
1, 1965, pp. 4731-4739.
73. VAN ALLEN, J. A.; AND KRIMIGIS, S. M.: Impulsive Emission of Approxi-
mately 40-kev Electrons From the Sun. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70,
Dec. 1, 1965, pp. 5737-5751.
74. VAN ALLEN, J. A.; FRANK, L. A.; KRIMIGIS, S. M.; AND HILLS, H. K.:
Absence of Martian Radiation Belts and Implications Thereof. Sci-
ence, vol. 149, no. 3689, Sept. 10, 1965, pp. 1228-1233.
75. VAN BUREN, R.: Mariner Mars 1964 Handbook. Tech. Memo no.
33-265, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Dec. 1, 1965.
76. VILLERS, P.: Application of Solar-Sail Attitude Stabilizers to Thermionic
Power Generation. J. Spacecraft Rockets, vol. 2, Nov.-Dec. 1965,
pp. 976-978.
77. WAINWRIGHT, L. : Our Encounter with Mars: Successful Combination of
Men and Machines. Life, vol. 59, Aug. 6, 1965, p. 14.
78. WATKINS, H. D.: JPL Debating Alternate Methods for Contacting Mar-
iner 4 in 1967. Aviation Week and Space Technology, vol. 83, no. 5,
Aug. 2, 1965, p. 32.
79. WATKINS, H. D.: Mariner 4 Nearing Final Mission Hurdles. Aviation
Week and Space Technology, vol. 83, no. 1, July 5, 1965, pp. 50-57.
344
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

80. WATTS, R. N., JR.: Mariner Flight Continues. Sky and Telescope, vol.
29, Feb. 1965, pp. 95-96.
81. WATTS, R. N., JR.: Mariner IV Completes Mars Mission. Sky and
Telescope, vol. 30, Sept. 1965, pp. 136-138.
82. WATTS, R. N., JR.: Mars Observations Wanted: Mariner IV Probe. Sky
and Telescope, vol. 29, Mar. i965, p. 150.
83. WAY, JOHN, SR. : Analog-Digital Conversion of TV Data on Mariner IV.
Space/Aeronautics, vol. 44, Aug. 1965, pp. 83-88.
84. WELNICI¢, R. A.; AND WRIGHT, F. H. : Assuring Quality and Reliability
for Mariner 4. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 3, no. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 50-53.
85. WILSON, J. H.: Space Probes. Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
1966 Yearbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1966.
86. WILSON, J. H.: To Mars: The Odyssey of Mariner IV. Tech. Memo
no. 33-229, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., July 1965.
87. WITTING, J.; NARIN, F.; AND STONE, C. A." Mars: Age of Its Craters.
Science, vol. 149, no. 3691, Sept. 24, 1965, pp. 1496-1498.
88. WONO, R. Y. : Design, Development, Testing and Flight Performance of
the Mariner Mars Planetary Scan System. Tech. Rept. no. 32-919,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., July 1, 1966.
89. YOUNKIN, R. L. : A Search for Limonite Near Infrared Spectral Features
on Mars. Astrophys. J., May 1966.
90. Craters Found on Mars. Science News Letter, vol. 88, Aug. 7, 1965,
p. 82.
91. Mariner Mars 1964 Project Report: Mission and Spacecraft Development,
Volume I. From Project Inception Through Midcourse Maneuver.
Tech. Rept. no. 32-740, vol. I, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif., Mar. 1, 1965.
92. Mariner Mars 1964 Project Report: Mission and Spacecraft Development,
Volume II: Appendixes. Tech. Rept. no. 32-740, vol. II, Jet Pro-
pulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Mar. 1, 1965.
Mariner Mars 1964 Project Report: Mission Operations. Tech. Rept.
no. 32-881, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., June 15, 1966.
Mariner Mars 1964 Project Report: Spacecraft Performance and Analysis.
Tech. Rept. no. 32-882, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.,
Feb. 15, 1967.
95. Mariner Photos to Be Studied With Eye to Voyager. Missiles and
Rockets, vol. 17, Aug. 9, 1965, pp. 16-17.

345
MARINER-MARS 1964

96. Mariner 4 Photograph_ of Mars. Sky and Telescope, vol. 30, Sept. 1965,
pp. 155-161.
97. Mariner 4 Sensors Relay Excellent Data. Aviation Week and Space
Technology, vol. 81, no. 23, Dec. 7, 1964, pp. 26-27.
98. Mariner-Venus 1962--Final Project Report. NASA SP-59, 1965.
99. Martian Surface Shows Moonlike Quality. Aviation Week and Space
Technology, vol. 83, no. 5, Aug. 2, 1965, pp. 30-31.
100. Rendezvous with Mars. Science Digest, vol. 57, Jan. 1965, pp. 24-27.
101. Terrain of Neighbor Mars: Pictures Taken 135 Million Miles Away.
Life, vol. 59, Aug. 6, 1965, pp. 62A-62C.

46 3_-u.$, GOVEm_IMEN'r PRINTING OFFICE: 1_ O--271-409

 "The aeronautical and space activities of the United States shall be
conducted so as to contribute . . . to the expansion of human knowl-
edge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space. The Administration
shall provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination
of information concerning its activities and the results thereof."
mNATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACA8 ACT OF 1958

NASA SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

TECHNICAL REPORTS: Scientific and technical information considered

important, complete, and a lasting contribution to existing knowledge.

TECHNICAL NOTES: Information less broad in scope but nevertheless of

importance as a contribution to existing knowledge.

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS: Information receiving limited distribu-

tion because of preliminary data, security classification, or other reasons.

CONTRACTOR REPORTS: Scientific and technical information generated

under a NASA contract or grant and considered an important contribution to
existing knowledge.

TECHNICAL TRANSLATIONS: Information published in a foreign

language considered to merit NASA distribution in English.

SPECIAL PUBHCATIONS: Information derived from or of value to NASA

activities. Publkatinns include conference proceedings, monographs, data
compilations, handbooks, souzrebooks, and special bibliographies.

TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION PUBHCATIONS: Information on tech-

nology used by NASA that may be of particular integest in commercial and other
non-aerospace applications. Publications indude Tech Briefs, Technology
Utilization Reports and Notes, and Technology Surveys.

Details on the ovailal_ilify of thesepublications may (_e obtained from:

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION DIVISION

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 20546