Steel Industry in India

Steel Industry in India is on an upswing because of the strong global and domestic
demand. India's rapid economic growth and soaring demand by sectors like
infrastructure, real estate and automobiles, at home and abroad, has put Indian steel
industry on the global map. According to the latest report by International Iron and Steel
Institute (IISI), India is the seventh largest steel producer in the world.

The origin of the modern Indian steel industry can be traced back to 1953 when a contract
for the construction of an integrated steelworks in Rourkela, Orissa was signed between
the Indian government and the German companies Fried Krupp und Demag AG. The
initial plan was an annual capacity of 500,000 tonnes, but this was subsequently raised to
1 million tonnes. The capacity of Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP), which belongs to the SAIL
(Steel Authority of India Ltd.) group, is presently about 2 million tonnes. At a very early
stage the former USSR and a British consortium also showed an interest in establishing a
modern steel industry in India. This resulted in the Soviet-aided building of a steel mill
with a capacity of 1 million
tonnes in Bhilai and the British-
backed construction in Durgapur of a foundry which also has a million tonne capacity.

The Indian steel industry is organized in three categories i.e., main producers, other major
producers and the secondary producers. The main producers and other major producers
have integrated steel making facility with plant capacities over 0.5 mT and utilize iron
ore and coal/gas for production of steel. The main producers are Tata Steel, SAIL, and
RINL, while the other major producers are ESSAR, ISPAT and JVSL. The secondary
sector is dispersed and consists of: (1) Backward linkage from about 120 sponge iron
producers that use iron ore and non-coking coal, providing feedstock for steel producers;
(2) Approximately 650 mini blast furnaces, electric arc furnaces, induction furnaces and
energy optimizing furnaces that use iron ore, sponge iron and melting scrap to produce
steel; and (3) Forward linkage with about 1,200 re-rollers that roll out semis into finished
steel products for consumer use.

Structural Weaknesses of Indian Steel Industry

• Although India has modernised its steelmaking considerably, however, nearly 6%

of its crude steel is still produced using the outdated open-hearth process.
• Labour productivity in India is still very low. According to an estimate crude steel
output at the biggest Indian steelmaker is roughly 144 tonnes per worker per year,
whereas in Western Europe the figure is around 600 tonnes.
• India has to do a lot of catching in the production of stainless steel, which is
primarily required by the plant and equipment, pharmaceutical and chemical
industries.
• Steel production in India is also hampered by power shortages.
 • India is deficient in raw materials required by the steel industry. Iron ore deposits
are finite and there are problems in mining sufficient amounts of it. India's hard
coal deposits are of low quality.
• Insufficient freight capacity and transport infrastructure impediments too hamper
the growth of Indian steel industry.

Strengths of Indian Steel Industry

• Low labour wage rates

• Abundance of quality manpower
• Mature production base
• Positive stimuli from construction industry
• Booming automobile industry

Outlook
The outlook for Indian steel industry is very bright. India's lower wages and favourable
energy prices will continue to promise substantial cost advantages compared to
production facilities in (Western) Europe or the US. It is also expected that steel industry
will undergo a process of consolidation since industry players are engaged in an
unfettered rush for scale. This is evident from the recent acquisition of Corus by Tata.
The deployment of modern production systems is also enabling Indian steel companies to
improve the quality of their steel products and thus enhance their export prospects.

Note: The above information was last updated on 21-07-2007

India GDP
India's GDP recently crossed the trillion-dollar mark for the first time and with this India
has joined the elite club of 12 countries with a trillion dollar economy. Countries that
have breached trillion-dollar GDP level in the past are he US, Japan, Germany, China,
UK, France, Italy, Spain, Canada, Brazil and Russia.

The GDP or Gross Domestic Product is the primary indicator used to gauge the health of
a country's economy. The GDP of a country is defined as the market value of all final
goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time. It is also
considered the sum of value
added at every stage of
production of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of
time. GDP is a number that expresses the worth of the output of a country in local
currency. GDP tries to capture all final goods and services that are produced within the
political and geographical frontiers of the country, thereby assuring that the final
monetary value of everything that is created in a country is represented in the GDP. GDP
is calculated for a specific period of time, usually a year or a quarter of a year.

According to the data released for the year 2006-2007, India's GDP grew at an impressive
9.2 per cent. The share of different sectors of the economy in India's GDP is as follows:
Agriculture - 18.5 per cent, Industry - 26.4 per cent, and Services - 55.1 per cent. The fact
that the service sector now accounts for more than half the GDP is a milestone in India's
economic history and takes it closer to the fundamentals of a developed economy. At the
time of independence agriculture occupied the major share of GDP while the contribution
of services was relatively very less.

The government has set a target of an average annual GDP growth of 9 per cent for the
Eleventh Five Year Plan. The target looks achievable as all the macroeconomic
fundamentals are strong and the impressive growth rate of Indian GDP looks all set to
continue.

Note: The above information was last updated on 21-07-200

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Today, Everest is one of the most respected and renowned business entities in India and
has gained a strong foothold in the market. The company has a pan India presence with a
large distribution network and state-of-art manufacturing facilities at Kymore, Nashik,
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Steel Industry Analysis Brief
After successfully catering to the Indian market, ITP, in partnership with the
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Steel Industry Profile the steel industry

Energy and Environmental

The steel industry is critical to the U.S. economy.
Steel is the material of choice for many elements of
construction, transportation, manufacturing, and a
variety of consumer products. Traditionally valued
for its strength, steel has also become the most
recycled material, with two-thirds of U.S. steel now
produced from scrap.
Profile of the Steel Industry
This informative report from
August, 2000 provides an
overview of the U.S. steel
industry, including market trends,
energy and material consumption,
and environmental performance
(PDF 581 KB) Download Adobe
Reader
Economic

The U.S. steel industry is a more than $50 billion enterprise, and
additional downstream processing pushes the value closer to $75
billion. The industry accounts for nearly 10% of the global raw
steel market, providing over 107 million net tons in 2003. Large
quantities of low-cost imports have challenged the industry in The steel industry
recent years, but restructuring, downsizing, and widespread works in partnership
implementation of new technologies have led to vastly improved with ITP to boost
labor productivity, energy efficiency, and yield. energy efficiency and
cut production costs.
Geography

As a result of industry consolidation, the number of steelmaking facilities has decreased

significantly over the last few decades. As of 2002, 90 companies were producing raw
steel at almost 140 locations. The absolute number of integrated mills producing steel in
basic oxygen furnaces has always been relatively small and is currently at around 20. The
highest geographic concentration of mills is in the Great Lakes region, including Indiana,
Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New York. Approximately 80% of U.S.
steelmaking capacity is in these states. The industry employs more than 100,000 people
nationwide.

Markets

The U.S. steel industry is vital to both economic competitiveness and national security.
Steel is the backbone of bridges, skyscrapers, railroads, automobiles, and appliances.
More than 3,000 catalogue grades of steel are currently available, not including custom
grades for specific users. Most grades of steel in use today - particularly high-strength
steels that are lighter and more versatile - were not available ten
years ago.

Energy

The U.S. iron and steel industry relies heavily on coal and natural
gas for fuel, and is one of the largest energy consumers in the
manufacturing sector. In 1998 the industry used approximately 2
quads of energy, representing approximately 7% of all U.S. Nickel Aluminide
manufacturing energy use and 2% of domestic energy use. The Transfer Rolls allow
industry has made significant improvements in energy efficiency non-stop processing
over the last decades, reducing energy use per unit of output by and reduce energy
over 45% since 1975. Additionally, the industry has made steel costs 33%. See
the most recycled material in North America, with an overall Successes.
recycling rate of 67%.

Printable Version
Steel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Steel (disambiguation).
Iron alloy phases
v•d•e
Ferrite (α-iron, δ-iron)
Austenite (γ-iron)
Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)
Martensite
Bainite
Ledeburite (ferrite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon)
Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C)
Steel classes
Crucible steel
Carbon steel (≤2.1% carbon; low alloy)

Spring steel (low or no alloy)

Alloy steel (contains non-carbon elements)

Maraging steel (contains nickel)

Stainless steel (contains ≥10.5% chromium)
Weathering steel
Tool steel (alloy steel for tools)
Other iron-based materials
Cast iron (>2.1% carbon)

Ductile iron
Gray iron
Malleable iron
White iron

Wrought iron (contains slag)

Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and
2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material
for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium,
vanadium, and tungsten.[1] Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent,
preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another.
Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel
(solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and
tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made
harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less ductile than iron.

Alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron because of their
lower melting point and castability.[1] Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron,
which can contain a small amount of carbon, but it is included in the form of slag
inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel's increased rust resistance and better
weldability.

Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the
Renaissance, its use became more common after more-efficient production methods were
devised in the 17th century. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th
century, steel became an inexpensive mass-produced material. Further refinements in the
process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), lowered the cost of production while
increasing the quality of the metal. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in
the world, with more than 1.3 billion tons produced annually. It is a major component in
buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.
Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards
organizations.

The steel cable of a colliery winding tower

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Material properties
o 1.1 Heat treatment
• 2 Steel production
• 3 History of steelmaking
o 3.1 Ancient steel
o 3.2 Wootz steel and Damascus steel
o 3.3 Modern steelmaking
 3.3.1 Processes starting from bar iron
 3.3.2 Processes starting from pig iron
• 4 Steel industry
• 5 Recycling
• 6 Contemporary steel
• 7 Uses
o 7.1 Historical
o 7.2 Long steel
o 7.3 Flat carbon steel
o 7.4 Stainless steel
• 8 See also
• 9 References
o 9.1 Bibliography
• 10 Further reading

• 11 External links
 [edit] Material properties

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, i.e.,
combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur.[2] Typical iron-containing
minerals include Fe2O3—the form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2
—pyrite (fool's gold).[3] Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining
the ore with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as
smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts
at approximately 250 °C (482 °F) and copper, which melts at approximately 1,100 °C
(2,010 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at approximately 1,375 °C (2,507 °F). All of
these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used since the
Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 °C, it is
important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin,
liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. Smelting results in an alloy (pig iron)
containing too much carbon to be called steel.[4] The excess carbon and other impurities
are removed in a subsequent step.

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired
properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite
more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and
vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. To prevent
corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the
metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of
cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed
steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so
these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing.[5]

The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between
7750 and 8050 kg/m3 (0.280–0.291 lb/in3).[6]

Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and
iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties.
Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature,
the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure α-ferrite. It is a
fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no
more than 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F), and only 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F). If the steel
contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC)
structure, called austenite or γ-iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve
considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%[7] carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which
reflects the upper carbon content of steel.[8]

When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from
an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an
excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate
out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite,
resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic
compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled
structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For
steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and
cementite.[9]

Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is
significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and
then quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell
structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic
phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an α ferrite BCC
crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure.
There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite.
Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same
neighbors.[10]

Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them
results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this
expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and
tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If
quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools.
At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic
imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although
they may not always be visible.[11]
[edit] Heat treatment
Main article: Heat treating carbon steel

There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are
annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a
sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases:
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel
depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy.[12]

Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then
quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic
structure.[10] The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In
this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into
cementite, or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results
in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal.[13]

Iron ore pellets for the production of steel

Main article: Steelmaking
See also: Steel production by country

When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than
is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to
the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. This liquid is then
continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. Approximately 96% of steel is
continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as cast steel ingots.[14] The ingots are then
heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold
rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire.
Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern
foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and
finished steel coming out.[15] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling it is heat treated for
strength, however this is relatively rare.[16]

Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages

Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy

[edit] Ancient steel

Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing bloomeries,
iron-smelting facilities, where the bloom contained carbon.[17]

The earliest known production of steel is a piece of ironware excavated from an

archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehoyuk) and is about 4,000 years old.[18] Other
ancient steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 BC.[19] In the 4th century BC
steel weapons like the Falcata were produced in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel
was used by the Roman military.[20] The Chinese of the Warring States (403–221 BC) had
quench-hardened steel,[21] while Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) created
steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a
carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.[22][23] The Haya people of East Africa
discovered a type of high-heat blast furnace which allowed them to forge carbon steel at
1,802 °C (3,276 °F) nearly 2,000 years ago.[24] This ability was not duplicated until
centuries later in Europe during the Industrial Revolution.

[edit] Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent was
found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka.[25] Wootz steel was produced in India by about
300 BC.[26] Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also
adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported into China
from India by the 5th century AD.[27] In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method
employed the unique use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds, that was
capable of producing high-carbon steel.[28] Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is
famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge. It was originally created from a
number of different materials including various trace elements. It was essentially a
complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that
carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its
legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were
produced by chance rather than by design.[29] Natural wind was used where the soil
containing iron was heated up with the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to
extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil[citation needed], a remarkable feat at the time. One
such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel
as the ancients did long ago.[28][30]

Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in
the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.
[26]
In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using
two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and
a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via
repeated forging under a cold blast.[31]

A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England

Since the 17th century the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of
iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace.[32] Originally using charcoal, modern methods use
coke, which has proven to be a great deal cheaper.[33][34][35]

[edit] Processes starting from bar iron

Main articles: Blister steel and Crucible steel

In these processes pig iron was "fined" in a finery forge to produce bar iron (wrought
iron), which was then used in steel-making.[32]

The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published
in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case
hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The
process was introduced to England in about 1614.[36] It was produced by Sir Basil Brooke
at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of wrought iron.
During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from oregrounds iron
from a region of Sweden, north of Stockholm. This was still the usual raw material in the
19th century, almost as long as the process was used.[37][38]

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than being forged, with the
result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough
temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the
invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted
in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[38][39]

[edit] Processes starting from pig iron

A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the Brandenburg Museum of Industry

White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace

The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's
Bessemer process in 1858. His raw material was pig iron.[40] This enabled steel to be
produced in large quantities cheaply, thus mild steel is now used for most purposes for
which wrought iron was formerly used.[41] The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic
Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, lining the converter
with a basic material to remove phosphorus. Another improvement in steelmaking was
the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process.[38]

These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking
(BOS), developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes. Basic oxygen
steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped
into the furnace limits impurities.[42] Now, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common
method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for
converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per
metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of
cheap electricity.[43]

Steel production by country in 2007

See also: History of the modern steel industry, Global steel industry trends, Steel
production by country, and List of steel producers

It is common today to talk about "the iron and steel industry" as if it were a single entity,
but historically they were separate products. The steel industry is often considered to be
an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in
infrastructural and overall economic development.[44]

The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for
steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%.
Since 2000, several Indian [45] and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like Tata
Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and
Shagang Group. ArcelorMittal is however the world's largest steel producer.

In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about
one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.[46]

In 2008, steel started to be traded as a commodity in the London Metal Exchange. At the
end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[47]

[edit] Recycling
Main article: Ferrous metal recycling

[edit] Contemporary steel

Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was one of the world's largest

manufacturers of steel before its 2003 closure.
See also: Steel grades
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many
purposes.[5] Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel
production.[1] High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight)
of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest
price increase.[48] Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum,
manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the
hardenability of thick sections.[1] Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a
minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some
stainless steels are magnetic, while others are nonmagnetic.[49]

Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of
tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows
the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance.[1] Tool
steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting
cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten,
which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.[50]

Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to
contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength.[51] Transformation
Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize
amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic
steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to
martensite without the addition of heat.[52] Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other
elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very
strong but still malleable metal.[53] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a
specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.[54]
Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to
create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after
Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 12–14% manganese which when
abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank
tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life.[55]

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by
standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series
of grades defining many types of steel.[56] The American Society for Testing and
Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most
commonly used structural steel in the United States.[57]

Though not an alloy, galvanized steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been
hot-dipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust.[58]

A roll of steel wool

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure,
applicances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and
skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a
concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in
major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main
material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as
bolts, nails, and screws.[59] Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipeline
transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines),
heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in the
form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in
this role).

A carbon steel knife

Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques,
steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly
for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge
was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches.[38]
With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has been easier to
obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes.
However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these
materials to replace steel due to their lower cost and weight.[60]

[
A steel pylon suspending overhead powerlines

• As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete

• Railroad tracks
• Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
• Wires

Steel industry : Important Policy Measures

i. In the new Industrial Policy announced in July, 1991 Iron and Steel
industry, among others, was removed from the list of industries
reserved for the public sector and also exempted from the provisions of
compulsory licensing under the Industries ( Development and
Regulation) Act, 1951.
ii. With effect from 24.5.92, Iron and Steel industry has been included in
the list of `high priority' industries for automatic approval for foreign
equity investment upto 51%. This limit has been recently increased to
74%.
 iii. Price and distribution of steel were deregulated from January, 1992. At
the same time, it was ensured that priority continued to be accorded for
meeting the requirements of small scale industries, exporters of
engineering goods and North Eastern Region of the country, besides
strategic sectors such as Defence and Railways
iv. The trade policy has been liberalised and import and export of iron and
steel is freely allowed. There are no quantitative restrictions on import
of iron and steel items, covered under Chapter No. 72 of the ITC(HS)
Code. The only mechanism regulating the imports is the tariff
mechanism. Tariffs on various items of iron and steel have drastically
come down since 1991-92 levels and the government is committed to
bring them down to the international levels.
v. Freight equalisation scheme was modified in January'92, removing
freight disadvantage to states located near steel plants in the country.
At the same time, it was ensured that far-flung areas and distant states
were protected by stipulating that the main producers charge either
actual freight or freight element existing prior to withdrawal of the
scheme, whichever is less.
vi. Levy on account of Steel Development Fund was discontinued from
April'94 providing greater flexibility to main producers to respond to
market forces.
vii. Iron & Steel are freely importable as per the Extant Policy
viii. To check unbridled cheap imports of steel the Government has fixed
floor prices for seven items of finished steel viz. HR coils, HR sheets,
CR coils, Tinplates, CRNO and ASBR.
ix. Iron & Steel are freely exportable.

x. Advance Licensing Scheme allows duty free import of raw materials for
exports.

Policy on Iron Ore Exports

i. The existing Export & Import Policy (Exim Policy) permits direct exports
of iron ore from Goa and Redi sector to all destinations by the iron ore
producers, irrespective of the iron content. The Kudremukh Iron Ore
Company Ltd. (KIOCL) is the canalising agency for its own products
(iron ore concentrates and iron ore pellets) since it is a 100% Export-
Oriented Unit (EOU). Iron ore of Fe content upto 64% is completely
decanalised. Exports of ore with iron content exceeding 64% from other
sectors of the country are canalised through a Government agency,
namely MMTC. The major buyers of Indian Iron Ore are the Japanese
Steel Mills (JSMs).

ii. The earlier contract for supply of iron ore by MMTC/KIOCL to the
Japanese Steel Mills (JSMs) terminated on 31.3.96. The Cabinet in its
meeting held on 8.12.95 approved the proposal of Ministry of
Commerce for entering into another five year contract with Japan for
export of iron ore. The broad guidelines given in this regard are :-
• Iron ore surplus to domestic requirement may continue to be exported;
and

•
The export of high grade ore (run of mine Fe content above 65%)
would be within the prescribed ceilings.
Cabinet Ceilings on export of high grade are :
The cabinet in its meeting held on 21.7.98 approved the following ceilings
 proposed by Ministry of Commerce w.e.f. 1.4.1998 and which would be valid for
a period of three years.
Valid for 3 years from 1.4.1998 ( in million tonne/annum )
Grade Quantity Range
Bailadila lumps Not exceeding 3.0
Bailadila fines Not exceeding 3.8
High grade lumps (Bellary-Hospet) Not exceeding 1.2
High grade fines (Bellary-Hospet) Not exceeding 2.0

Manganese Ore

Export policy of manganese ore is decided keeping in view the need for
conserving high grade ores. Alongwith this, effort is also made to replace the
export of ores with export of value added items For the year 1999-2000 the
maximum ceilings of manganese ore allowed for export are as follows :
Ceiling for 1998-99
ITEM
(in lakh tonnes)
Medium Grade Manganese Ore/blended ore containing
1.00
38% to 46% manganese and more than 0.15% Phos.
Medium Grade Manganese ore/blended ore containing
0.50
38% to 46% manganese and more than 0.10 % Phos.
Low grade manganese ore/blended ore containing less
4.00
than 38% manganese.
Manganese ore fines below 12mm in size containing
1.50
less than 44% manganese.

Chromite Ore
Keeping in view the limited reserve of Chromite ore in the country, only certain
grades of ore are allowed for export. Emphasis has been laid on export of
beneficiated chromite concnetrates. From the year 1997-98, a five year Export
policy has been decided upon by Government so us to enable the exporters to
establish their presence in the international market.

Growth Potential of India’s Steel Industry

India has traditionally been one of the major producers of steel in the
world. Till the 1990s the steel industry of India was regulated and controlled by
government policies.

After the economic reforms of the early 1990s, the Indian steel industry has evolved
significantly to conform to global standards.

India has set a vision to be an economically developed nation by 2020. The steel industry
is expected to play a major role in India's economic development in the coming years.
The steel industry of India has a very high growth potential and is expected to register
significant growth in the coming decades. India is expected to emerge as a strong force in
the global steel market in coming years.
Steel Industry
Technology Roadmap
Barriers and Pathways
for
Yield Improvements
by Energetics, Inc.
for the
American Iron and Steel Institute
October 7, 2003
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS i
Executive
Summary ...............................................................................
............................ii
1 Modeling, Measurement and
Control ........................................................................1
2 Operating Techniques and
Practices...........................................................................3
3 Process
Equipment .............................................................................
............................5
4 Fuels, Feedstocks, and
Recycling................................................................................
.6
5 Material Properties and Manufacturing
Technologies ...........................................8
Table of Contents
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS ii
In 1995, the U.S. steel industry reached consensus on broad goals for
the future and
published its vision in Steel: A National Resource for the Future. In
1998 the industry
mapped out the technology path to achieving that vision in the Steel
Industry Technology
Roadmap. Technology roadmaps are dynamic documents, and regular
updating is
essential to reflect important changes in the industry and the world in
which it operates.
The steel technology roadmap was updated in December 2001 in
response to
technological advances, changes in the global market, and new
technical insights.
The Steel Industry Technology Roadmap – Barriers and Pathways for
Yield Improvements
represents a subset of the overall industry roadmap. In addition, North
American
steelmakers were consulted to identify additional R&D needs for
improving yield to be
included in this roadmap. Improving yield directly impacts production
costs, energy
efficiency, and environmental performance. The ability to obtain higher
yields using
the same amount of energy reduces the energy intensity of a process
and any associated
emissions.
Yield Loss in the Steel Industry
In a typical year, the U.S. steel industry consumes approximately 120
million tons of
metallics and ships approximately 100 million tons of products.
Roughly 53% of these
shipments are produced by integrated steelmakers, i.e. blast furnace
and BOF operators,
and 47% via the electric furnace route. This represents a total yield
loss of about 20
million tons each year. The losses are realized throughout many
different operations in
a steel mill. They appear in the form of “home” scrap and waste
oxides; integrated
producers also lose a small percentage of coal and coke.
Yield losses also reduce the overall energy efficiency of steelmaking.
The steel industry
consumes about 18.1 million Btu per ton of product, 22% more than
the practical
minimum energy consumption of about 14 million Btu/ton. These
energy losses –
about 4 million Btu/ton – are a result of the energy “embedded” in
yield losses and
process inefficiencies.
Additional losses are generated in the use of steel as it is
manufactured into steel
products. Examples of these “intrinsic” losses are excess scrap
generated because of
quality rejects, poor or inconsistent steel properties, or corrosion;
excess material
consumption due to excessive corrosion and safety factors; the
misapplication of
materials; and manufacturing rejects and excesses from
manufacturing operations.
Table ES-1 lists four major steel industry unit operations (plus a fifth
category covering
applications and materials properties) and their estimated yield losses.
The table
presents the steel industry’s targets for reducing these losses through
an R&D program
focusing on several broad topics discussed below. The reduction in
energy intensity
resulting from achieving the targets is also shown for each unit
operation.
Executive Summary
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS iii
Table ES-1. Steel Industry Yield Losses and Targets
Unit Operation Estimated Yield
Loss (%)
Yield Loss Target
(% Reduction)
Energy Savings
Targeta
(million Btu/ton)
Ironmakingb 2 - 6 25% 0.1 – 0.2
BOF Steelmakingc 7 - 9 33% 0.2 - 0.3
EAF Steelmakingc 6 - 8 33% 0.2 – 0.3
Finishing Operationsd 1 33% 0.1
Applications and
Material Propertiese
19 50% 1.7
a Reduction in energy intensity that will result from achieving the corresponding yield
loss target
b Includes tapping, metal handling, skimming, and desulfurization
c Includes ladle refining and casting
d Includes hot and cold rolling, coating, scarfing, etc.
e. Based on 14 million tons of prompt scrap plus 5 million tons reduced production
resulting from
improved properties
R&D Opportunities to Improve Yield
The sections that follow discuss five broad topics presenting significant
opportunities
for R&D that could improve process yield in ironmaking and
steelmaking:
� Modeling, measurement, and control
� Operating techniques and practices
� Process equipment
� Fuels, feedstocks, and recycling
� Material properties and manufacturing technologies
Each section identifies the barriers to improved yield (including
obstacles to increased
throughput as well as quality and consistency issues) and lists
potential R&D solutions
or opportunities that have been identified by industry to overcome
these barriers. The
R&D opportunities have been derived from information contained in
the Steel Industry
Technology Roadmap and a recent survey of mills performed for this
study.
As shown in Table ES-1, the largest potential impact on the industry’s
overall energy
intensity could come from Applications and Materials Properties
research since yield
may be improved by improving upstream operations as well as yield
losses occurring
during the use of steel to manufacture products. Key needs include
steel plant
manufacturing & processing improvements, microstructure control and
reliable
property data for advanced steels.
Table ES-2 summarizes those opportunities in each of the five topic
areas considered to
have the largest potential impact on reducing yield loss. The lists of
opportunities are
not meant to be exclusive; rather, they are representative of the kinds
of activities that
could be included in the overall pathway for yield improvements.
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS iv
Table ES-2. Key R&D Opportunities for Yield Improvements
Modeling, Measurement, and Control
• Robust, low-cost sensors to measure key ironmaking and steelmaking
parameters
(chemistry, temperature, etc.)
• Real-time off-gas analysis method and chemistry adjustment methods
• Detection systems to detect and classify inclusions
• Process control practices that reduce shape defects
• Improved control of heat treatment processes for precise control of
properties
• Advanced combustion control systems for furnaces
Operating Techniques and Practices
• Optimization of energy use in EAF steelmaking
• Techniques to minimize or eliminate scaling
• Technology to eliminate casting or oscillation marks
• Improved furnace heat transfer
Process Equipment
• Longer-lasting refractories that do not interact with steel or slag
• Other materials and technologies that reduce maintenance requirements
• Technologies that allow higher rolling speeds and faster processing in other
processes
• Higher productivity RHF operations
Fuels, Feedstocks, and Recycling
• Improved understanding of coal injection to the blast furnace
• Economical processes for recycling ironmaking and steelmaking by-
products
• Recycling spent pickle liquor to produce a higher value by-product
Material Properties and Manufacturing Technologies
• Improved microstructure control
• Reliable property data for advanced steels
Yield loss in steelmaking is a function of waste oxide production, slag
formation, and
in-plant scrap returns. In addition, off-spec steel that is returned from
the customer
represents a substantial yield loss since this product must be scrapped.
Finally, the
yield loss associated with the use of finished goods cannot be ignored;
improvements in
steel processing techniques that improve steel quality and the
development of new
materials and their implementation by customers have the potential to
save up to six
times the amount of energy required to manufacture the steel used in
the product.
The energy loss associated with these yield losses (excluding in-house
scrap, customer
rejects, and excesses from manufacturing operations) is approximately
1.7 million
Btu/ton for ore-based steelmaking and 1.0 million Btu/ton for EAF
steelmaking.
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS v
Factoring in the effect of scrapped steel results in an additional 4
million Btu of energy
lost per ton of steel produced.
The steel industry needs more precise knowledge of steelmaking
processes, feedstocks,
and products in order to address the complex combination of
inefficiencies that lead to
yield losses. Better understanding and control of ironmaking and
steelmaking
manufacturing processes will help reduce these inefficiencies. More
precise knowledge
of material properties could lead to higher quality products and fewer
customer rejects,
thereby reducing yield losses.
Advanced technologies, operating practices, and materials that
increase steelmaking
productivity and yield will also generate sizeable energy savings. A
research program
focused on improving steel industry yield will reduce the industry’s
energy intensity
while helping steelmakers meet the increasing demands of end-users
for higher quality
products.
AISI’s Research and Development Program
“The mission of the Institute is to promote steel as the material of
choice and to enhance
the competitiveness of its members and the North American Steel
industry.” To
accomplish its mission, AISI has established two key goals:
• Enhance the comparative value of North American steel
• Achieve leadership in environmental health, health, and safety
performance
As part of its strategy for achieving the goals, AISI has created an
extensive high-risk
R&D program to develop new technologies and reduce the lead time
between discovery
and commercialization. The program is highly leveraged by steel-
producing
companies, steel users, and equipment suppliers. Because much of
AISI’s R&D
accomplishes a public purpose as well as the industry’s objectives, the
U.S. Department
of Energy has cost shared many of the R&D projects. The two
organizations share
several common goals, including maintaining a globally competitive
manufacturing
sector, increasing energy efficiency, reducing environmental impact,
and creating and
saving jobs. The numerous benefits of this collaborative partnership
are summarized
below.
Increasing Energy Efficiency and Improving the Environment: Energy
consumption
per ton of steel is down 10% since 1990 as are CO2 emissions. Much of
this
achievement is a direct or indirect result of the collaborative Steel
Program.
Leveraging High Risk Research: Industry/government cost sharing
mitigates the
high risk often associated with developing breakthrough technology.
This
allows industry to undertake R&D projects it might not otherwise
pursue.
Maintaining Globally Competitive Manufacturing: Maintaining a globally
competitive manufacturing sector means high-paying manufacturing
jobs are
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS vi
available. The program’s many research projects involving universities
(e.g.,
University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon, University of Alabama and
Colorado
School of Mines) have the additional benefit of preparing highly
qualified
professionals to fill those jobs.
Delivering Safe, Low-Cost Consumer Goods: The results of many of the
R&D efforts
benefit industry and consumers alike. For example, crash modeling of
automobiles using advanced computing power and software can help
design a
new generation of lighter and safer vehicles.
Utilizing Government Resources and Expertise: Federal labs often have
expensive
test and simulation equipment and advanced computing facilities that
individual
companies (or even entire industries) cannot afford.
Accelerating Technology Development: International competition is so
fierce in the
steel sector that even a small technological difference can create a
competitive
advantage. By partnering with the government in R&D, the steel
industry is able
to undertake a broader range of projects, thus accelerating
development and
increasing the opportunity for competitive advantage. Under the Steel
Program,
the government partners in the testing and validation of research
ideas.
However, it is industry’s responsibility to take technologies through
commercial
realization, and industry alone is responsible for these costs.
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 1
Precise measurement and control provide a variety of yield saving
opportunities.
Making the steel and internal products correctly the first time
minimizes waste oxide
generation, in-plant returns and, most importantly, customer rejects.
Proper
measurement and control will also maximize process throughput.
There are two major sources of yield losses that can be addressed by
R&D in modeling,
measurement, and control:
• The production of home scrap, customer returns, and wastes from
the
manufacturing process where steel is turned into finished goods
• The production of waste oxides in the blast furnaces, BOF, EAF,
reheat, and other
heat treating furnaces
For example, reheat furnaces are only 50% efficient; this inefficiency
arises from a lack
of proper heat treating data as well as the inability to control furnaces
precisely or the
ability to integrate heating schedules with mill upsets. An estimated
1% of all
production is returned from the customer because it does not meet
specifications. Inhouse
scrap represents another 8 million tons per year that must be
reprocessed. Both
kinds of scrap represent significant yield loss since the energy
consumed in the
production of these is lost. Examples of R&D opportunities to improve
microstructure
control and reduce defects include better sensors for chemistry,
cleanliness, and other
key parameters, and improved NDE technologies and defect detection
systems (see
Table 1).
Waste oxide generation in steelmaking furnaces is estimated to be
about 14 million tons
per year with about 7 million tons of contained iron. A major barrier to
reducing this
loss is maintaining reliable process control and furnace stability.
Potential R&D
opportunities to overcome this barrier include sensors for critical
chemical and physical
parameters in the BF, BOF, and other furnaces; real-time chemistry
adjustment
technologies; and advanced combustion control systems.
TABLE 1. MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL: BARRIERS AND R&D
OPPORTUNITIES
Barrier: Optimization of Process Sequencing
• Pacing program to optimize and coordinate the blast furnace, BOF, ladle
refining, and caster
• Artificial intelligence techniques to optimize EAF operation
• Advanced computer diagnostic controls for identification of potential
operation problems and
scheduling of maintenance

1 Modeling, Measurement, and Control

STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 2
Barrier: Difficulty Maintaining Reliable Process Control and
Furnace Stability
• Sensors and measurement systems
� Low-cost sensors to measure gas composition, temperature, bed
permeability, and hearth level
� Robust process sensors for the BOF (chemistry, temperature, waste gas
composition, etc.)
� Real-time off-gas analysis method
� Reliable sensors for lance-to-steel bath distance
� Improved flux raw materials analysis and computer-controlled batching
• Control systems
� Improved process control and on-line data collection for cokemaking and
ironmaking
� Real-time chemistry adjustment methods
� Advanced combustion control systems for furnaces
� Integrated melter guidance system
• Models
� Comprehensive model of the blast furnace and BOF
� Charge control model for better end-point control
Barrier: Control of Inclusions and Other Product Quality and
Consistency Issues
• Sensors and measurement systems
� Better sensors and control systems for chemistry, cleanliness, and
temperature
� On-line chemical and temperature sensors
� Detection systems to identify the location of inclusions
� Improved on-line non-destructive evaluation technologies
� Cold surface defect detection and classification
� On-line dynamic roll surface inspection during hot rolling
� Automated in-line system to quantify steel surface cleanliness
� Rapid contact inspection techniques for coating
• Control systems
� Process control practices that reduce physical surface and shape defects
� Techniques to control width and shape
� Active control of fluid flow, temperature, and chemistry
� Fluid mixing control
• Models
� Ability to predict cast shape, inclusion, or bubble distribution and structure
� Slab reduction models for minimizing centerline segregation
� Models to predict the location and rate of accretion
• Processing technologies
� Ability to produce liquid steels with strictly controlled inclusion contents
� Methods to limit exposure of steel to air during tapping and refining
• Roll maintenance
� Hot mill roll crowning, bending models, and roll cooling technology
� Deformation modeling
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 3
Improvements in operating techniques and practices can reduce the
yield losses
associated with in-house scrap returns, waste oxide production, excess
slag formation,
lower throughput, and reworking. The operation of electric arc
furnaces, for example,
presents an opportunity for improving yield by optimizing charging
practices, reducing
furnace heat time, and optimizing operating cycles. The productivity of
many finishing
processes can also be increased by minimizing process times and
adopting practices
that reduce defects that will reduce plant returns of prompt scrap.
Other examples are
scaling due to improper atmosphere control and excess soaking time in
the reheat and
annealing furnace. Lack of chemical control produces excess slag
volume and iron
losses in the blast furnace, BOF, and EAF.
Table 2 lists some representative R&D opportunities in operating
techniques and
practices that can help reduce steelmaking and processing times
downstream of the
steelmaking furnace, and increase productivity in refining and casting.
TABLE 2. OPERATING TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES: BARRIERS AND R&D
OPPORTUNITIES
Barrier: Electric Arc Furnace Heat Times
• Feed materials
� Understanding of how feed material size and shape affect melting time and
yield
� Understanding of how preheating feed materials affects the EAF process
� Scrap preheating techniques
• Time utilization
� Optimized EAF operating cycles
� Time utilization improvement techniques
• Power issues
� Improved flicker control
� Finding limitations of secondary voltages
Barrier: Productivity of Unit Operations Downstream of
Steelmaking
• Time utilization
� Improved heat transfer in annealing, heat treating, and other furnaces
� Optimization of batch annealing cycles
� Minimized component process times of parallel/concurrent processing
methods for refining
• Techniques to minimize or eliminate scale
Barrier: Product Quality, Cleanliness, and Consistency Issues
• Refining
� On-line chemical and temperature sensors
� Improved formulation and quality of alloy additions
� Alternative forms of carbon or better addition methods to improve carbon
dissolution rate
during refining
� Methods to limit exposure of steel to air

2 Operating Techniques and Practices

STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 4
• Surface marks
� Technology to eliminate casting or oscillation marks
� Hot surface defect detection and classification techniques
• Novel liquid flow control techniques for strip casting
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 5
As with improved operating practices, improvements to furnaces such
as higher
productivity rhf operation, rolling systems, and other process
equipment can reduce
generation of in-house scrap and minimize the creation of prompt
scrap, improve waste
oxide recycling and slags while increasing productivity and yield.
Advanced
refractories and other improved materials can reduce the frequency of
both scheduled
and unscheduled downtime for furnaces and ladles. The development
of rolling and
finishing technologies with reduced maintenance requirements or
faster operating
speeds can eliminate bottlenecks that inhibit productivity in these
stages. Examples of
the types of R&D that can result in higher yields through improved
process equipment
are presented in Table 3.
TABLE 3. PROCESS EQUIPMENT: BARRIERS AND R&D OPPORTUNITIES
Barrier: Furnace Maintenance Requirements
• Refractories
� Longer-lasting refractories (for ladles, degassers, and other equipment)
that do not interact with
steel or slag
• Equipment and components
� Radiant tubes immune to thermal fatigue and creep
� Improved, easy-to-maintain hoods
� Higher productivity rhf operation
• Maintenance techniques
� Techniques for mechanical and ancillary systems to take advantage of
increased BOF lining life
from slag splashing
� Technology to characterize the condition of the furnace and ladles
Barrier: Processing Times and Maintenance Requirements of
Other Unit Operations
• Equipment and components that increase processing speed
� Dross management systems for coating operations
� Technologies to allow higher rolling speeds
• Equipment and components that reduce scheduled and unscheduled
downtime
� Improved nozzles
� Mill rolls that reduce the frequency of roll changes
� Improved automated roll scraper
� Longer-life, corrosion-resistant molten bath hardware for hot-dip metallic
coating processes
� More reliable system to clean air knife lips gap in-line
� Dross management systems for coating operations
� Rolls that will peel and heal without microspalling and banding
3 Process Equipment
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 6
The steel industry can improve its fuel efficiency and productivity by
capturing the heat
value of by-product gases and optimizing its mix of fuels and
feedstocks. In a similar
fashion, efficient use of iron and steelmaking by-products can improve
yield by
maximizing the industry’s use of its iron-bearing feedstocks. Already,
the U.S. steel
industry relies on recycled iron units for more than half of its
production. Recycling
scrap consumes less than half the energy required for iron ore
reduction. R&D needs to
increase recycling include improved measurement technologies to
classify scrap and
processes that enhance scrap (e.g., dezincing).
The reliance of ironmaking on coke is a productivity barrier that can be
overcome by
increased use of coke alternatives such as coal and natural gas.
According to
projections in the Steel Industry Technology Roadmap, injection of coal
into the blast
furnace is expected to rise to 500 lbs/ton of hot metal by 2015, up
from current levels of
about 300 lbs/ton of hot metal. However, increasing the amount of coal
injected into
the blast furnace is currently limited by the knowledge of and ability to
control bed
permeability and burden descent issues. As shown in Table 4, research
is needed to
develop a better understanding of coal and oxygen injection and to
determine feasible
levels of scrap and DRI as feedstocks to the blast furnace.
Iron-bearing by-products generated within the steel mill can also be
used as feedstock
to the blast furnace. Approximately 30 million tons of ironmaking and
steelmaking byproducts
-- oxide dusts, sludges, scale, and slags -- are generated each year.
Currently,
about 50% of this volume is recovered and recycled. Steelmaking slags
are treated to
recover metallic iron where feasible. Waste oxides contain about 7
million tons of iron
units plus lime, coal and coke fines. Research leading to increased
internal recycling of
these residues will increase the steel industry’s primary yield while
reducing disposal
costs and saving energy.
TABLE 4. FUELS, FEEDSTOCK AND RECYCLING: BARRIERS AND R&D
OPPORTUNITIES
Barrier: Reliance of Ironmaking on Coke
• Improved understanding of coal injection
� Improved injection systems
� Injection of combustion enhancers
� Study of maximum injectant levels
� Use of hot oxygen to increase coal injection rate
� Slag formers
• Ability to use non-coking coals and low-value carbonaceous material
• Better use of blast furnace off-gas and alternative fuels
• Develop techniques to increase scrap and DRI usage

4 Fuels, Feedstock and Recycling

STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 7
Barrier: Difficulty Recycling Ironmaking and Steelmaking
Byproducts
• Economical processes for:
� De-oiling
� Recycling of zinc-bearing oxides
� Dewatering sludge
� Recovering zinc from coated scrap
� Recycling spent pickle liquor to produce a higher value by-product
� Segregating and recycling advanced high strength steel scrap
� Mixing and injecting various waste stream materials
• Better and cheaper binders for cold briquetting by-product oxides
• Economical raw material analysis, classification, and beneficiation
• Alternative higher-value-added products for coke oven by-products
Barrier: Waste Heat Recovery
• Recovery of waste heat and retention of heat in slabs coming from the
caster
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 8
Material properties R&D can optimize steels in ways that minimize the
yield loss in
manufacturing and decrease the total amount of steel manufactured.
In a typical year,
14 million tons of the 100 million tons of steel produced are returned
from
manufacturers in the form of parts rejects, stamping wastes, and other
prompt
industrial scrap. This high reprocessing rate results from sub-optimal
manufacturing
techniques and lack of precise knowledge of the materials and their
behavior in the
various forming operations by the OEMs and fabricators of steel
products. Through
material properties and fabricating R&D it may be possible to reduce
“prompt scrap”
generation by 50%. Improved steels that are more precisely
engineered for their
purpose could reduce the total demand for steel by 5% or 5 million
tons per year. R&D
in material properties and manufacturing technologies could possibly
increase yield
production by a total of 19 million tons per year.
There are three major opportunity areas under the topic of material
properties:
• Microstructure control and defect minimization,
• The development of accurate property data for new grades and
advanced steels, and
• The development of new forming and joining processes and
adaptation of existing
processes to new grades.
Microstructure Control and Defect Minimization
As stated in Section 1, the combination of customer rejects and in-
house scrap generated
at the plant itself represent a significant tonnage of steel that must be
reprocessed,
losing the heat value from the fuels used to produce the steel in the
first place. R&D to
help steelmakers predict and control microstructure is critical to
reducing these losses
(see Table 5).
Development of Accurate Property Data for Advanced Steels
The application of advanced high strength steels with superior
properties has great
potential for improving the energy efficiency of both the steel
manufacturer and the end
user. Increased strength directly impacts the amount of material that
must be used for a
particular application. For example, increasing steel strength by a
factor of “x” allows
the weight of a piece to be reduced by a factor of 1/x0.5. Although the
price of the new,
improved steels typically rises slightly due to increased alloy content
and/or
processing, the overall price of the finished good falls because of its
lower weight. The
replacement of ASTM A36 steel, a universally applied structural steel
(yield strength
36,000 psi), with ASTM A526 (yield strength 50,000psi) occurs because
A526 is less
costly overall. A smaller amount of the high-strength grade can
substitute for the
conventional grade, meaning lower steel production and a
corresponding reduction in
5 Material Properties and
Manufacturing Technologies
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 9
yield loss. Additional benefits are realized because less energy is used
in the
manufacture, fabrication, and transport of products.
Development of New Forming and Joining Processes
New forming and joining processes can significantly reduce the
excesses from
manufacturing operations, a significant contributor to yield loss.
Processes that can be
used with new grades of steel, particularly advanced steels, will
facilitate the use of
these steels and help the industry realize their benefits (described
above).
In many cases, the energy savings related to the use of enhanced
finished goods are
even greater than the energy savings in manufacturing. For example,
the use of
advanced high strength steels in automobiles saves four times their
own weight in CO2
emissions annually due to reduced gasoline consumption. However,
extensive
properties research will be required for this and similar substitutions to
be realized. For
example, appropriate alloying, rolling, and heat treating practices must
be determined
as well as weldability, forming, and annealing schedules. The results of
this research, if
successful, will include lower energy consumption by the end user,
fewer CO2
emissions, and stronger, safer, and less costly goods.
TABLE 5. MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES:
BARRIERS AND R&D OPPORTUNITIES
Barrier: Microstructure Control
• Models and measurements
� Investigation of reduction ratio versus microstructure and final properties
for very thin and
near-net-shape cast products
� Prediction of cooling behavior in laminar flow systems
� Dynamic measurement of phases in galvanneal coating
� Quantification of the effects of residual steel elements on continuously
annealing and coating
processes
� Methods to effectively communicate the interrelationship between end
properties, production
route, microstructure, and cost
� Comprehensive data and modeling of plate finishing to predict product
properties
� Material property characterization and the development of new coatings
for shape changing
and surface modification technologies
� Development of stability properties of steel inclusions and precipitates
• Control systems
� Closed-loop control of heat treating incorporating feedback from
microstructure sensors
� Improved control of microstructures of as-rolled, high-strength grades
� Grain size control or steel texture using laser ultrasonics
Barrier: Product Quality and Consistency Issues
• Process control practices that reduce variability of coating appearance and
coating weights
• Techniques for better coating uniformity
• Improved process seam welding techniques
STEEL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP—BARRIERS AND PATHWAYS FOR YIELD IMPROVEMENTS 10
Barrier: Lack of Property Data for Advanced Steels
• Alloying, rolling, and heat treating practices for advanced high strength
steels
• Weldability, forming, and annealing schedules for advanced high strength
steels

Role of Iron and Steel Industry

in India GDP

The Role of Iron and Steel Industry in India GDP is very important
for the development of the country. In India the visionary Shri Jamshedji Tata set up the first
Iron and Steel manufacturing unit called Tata Iron and Steel Company, at Jamshedpur in
Jharkhand. Iron and steel are among the most important components required for the
infrastructure development in the country.

Role of Iron and Steel Industry in India GDP-Facts

• The Iron and Steel Industry in India is one of the fastest growing sectors
• The demand drivers for the Indian Iron and Steel industry are increase in the activities
of the automobiles industry, real estates industry, transportation system, aircraft
industry, ship building industry, etc.
• India ranks 5th in the world in terms of production of steel
• The amount of crude steel produced in 2006-07 was 50.71 million tonnes
• The amount of finished steel produced in 2006-07 was 51.9 million tonnes
• The production of finished steel was increased by 16.52%
• The production of finished carbon steel was 24.8 million tonnes in the year 2006-07
• It is expected that India would become the second biggest producer of steel within the
year 2016 and the production per year would be 137 million tonnes
• The exports pertaining to the steel industry was 6.26 % during the period 2006-07

Role of Iron and Steel Industry in India GDP-

Consumption

• The domestic consumption of steel has grown by12.5% in the past three years
• The domestic steel consumption in the year 2006-07 was 41.14 million tonnes
• The average growth rate of the Indian Iron and Steel Industry is 11.36%
• The construction projects all over India are major consumer of steel
• The per capita consumption of steel in India is 35kgs
• As the per capita consumption of steel is lower than other countries, so the steel
industry has huge opportunities in the future

Role of Iron and Steel Industry in India GDP-Growth in

Future
• The Arcelor Mittal, which is the largest steelmaker in the world, has plans of establishing
two Greenfield steel projects with capacity of 12 million tonnes annually, in India
• Acerinox SA, one of the important stainless steel manufacturers in collaboration with
Nisshin Steel, Japan is setting up a steel plant in India
• The Tata Steel ranks 5th in the world steel production and the company have plans of
expanding its capacity by the year 2015
• SAIL, India's biggest producer of steel has plans of increasing the production to 24.98
million tonnes annually
• Sinosteel Corp, China are planning to invest US$ 4 billion to set up a 5 million tonnes
capacity Greenfield steel plant
• The acquisition of the Corus, the Anglo-Dutch steel manufacturer by the Tata Steel

• The Algoma Steel, Canada was acquired by Essar Global for US$ 1.63 billion