Matter

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the concept in the physical sciences. For other uses, see
Matter (disambiguation).
Matter is a general term for the substance of which all physical objects consist
.[1][2] Typically, matter includes atoms and other particles which have mass. A
common way of defining matter is as anything that has mass and occupies volume.[
3] In practice however there is no single correct scientific meaning of "matter,
" as different fields use the term in different and sometimes incompatible ways.
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exa
ct nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks,
the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek
philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).[4] Over time an inc
reasingly fine structure for matter was discovered: objects are made from molecu
les, molecules consist of atoms, which in turn consist of interacting subatomic
particles like protons and electrons.[5][6]
Matter is commonly said to exist in four states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas
and plasma. However, advances in experimental techniques have realized other pha
ses, previously only theoretical constructs, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and
fermionic condensates. A focus on an elementary-particle view of matter also le
ads to new phases of matter, such as the quark–gluon plasma.[7]
In physics and chemistry, matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like prope
rties, the so-called wave–particle duality.[8][9][10]
In the realm of cosmology, extensions of the term matter are invoked to include
dark matter and dark energy, concepts introduced to explain some odd phenomena o
f the observable universe, such as the galactic rotation curve. These exotic for
ms of "matter" do not refer to matter as "building blocks", but rather to curren
tly poorly understood forms of mass and energy.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical development
1.1 Origins
1.2 Early modernity
1.3 Late nineteenth and early twentieth century
1.4 Later developments
1.5 Summary
2 Definitions
2.1 Common definition
2.2 Relativity
2.3 Atoms and molecules definition
2.4 Protons, neutrons and electrons definition
2.5 Quarks and leptons definition
2.6 Smaller building blocks?
3 Structure
3.1 Quarks
3.1.1 Baryonic matter
3.1.2 Degenerate matter
3.1.3 Strange matter
3.1.3.1 Two meanings of the term "strange matter"
3.2 Leptons
4 Phases
5 Antimatter
6 Other types of matter
6.1 Dark matter
 6.2 Dark energy
6.3 Exotic matter
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
[edit] Historical development
[edit] Origins
The pre-Socratics were among the first recorded speculators about the underlying
nature of the visible world. Thales (c. 624 BC–c. 546 BC) regarded water as the f
undamental material of the world. Anaximander (c. 610 BC–c. 546 BC) posited that t
he basic material was wholly characterless or limitless: the Infinite (apeiron).
Anaximenes (flourished 585 BC, d. 528 BC) posited that the basic stuff was pneu
ma or air. Heraclitus (c. 535–c. 475 BC) seems to say the basic element is fire, t
hough perhaps he means that all is change. Empedocles (c. 490–430 BC) spoke of fou
r elements of which everything was made: earth, water, air, and fire.[12] Meanwh
ile, Parmenides argued that change does not exist, and Democritus argued that ev
erything is composed of minuscule, inert bodies of all shapes called atoms, a ph
ilosophy called atomism. All of these notion had deep philosophical problems.[13
]
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was the first to put the conception on a sound philoso
phical basis, which he did in his natural philosophy, especially in Physics book
I.[14] He adopted as reasonable suppositions the four Empedoclean elements, but
added a fifth, aether. Nevertheless these elements are not basic in Aristotle's
mind. Rather they, like everything else in the visible world, are composed of t
he basic principles matter and form.
The word Aristotle uses for matter, ὑλη ( y
e or u
e), can be
itera

y trans
ated as
wood or timber, t at is, "raw materia
" for bui
ding.[15] Indeed, Aristot
e's c
onception of matter is intrinsica

y
inked to somet ing being made or composed.
In ot er words, in contrast to t e ear
y modern conception of matter as simp
y
occupying space, matter for Aristot
e is definitiona

y
inked to process or c a
nge: matter is w at under
ies a c ange of substance.
For examp
e, a orse eats grass: t e orse c anges t e grass into itse
f; t e gr
ass as suc does not persist in t e orse, but some aspect of it—its matter—does. T
e matter is not specifica

y described (e.g., as atoms), but consists of w ateve
r persists in t e c ange of substance from grass to orse. Matter in t is unders
tanding does not exist independent
y (i.e., as a substance), but exists interdep
endent
y (i.e., as a "princip
e") wit form and on
y insofar as it under
ies c a
nge. It can be e
pfu
to conceive of t e re
ations ip of matter and form as ver
y simi
ar to t at between parts and w o
e. For Aristot
e, matter as suc can on

y receive actua
ity from form; it as no activity or actua
ity in itse
f, simi
a
r to t e way t at parts as suc on
y exist in a w o
e (ot erwise t ey wou
d be i
ndependent w o
es).
[edit] Ear
y modernity
René Descartes (1596–1650) was t e originator of t e modern conception of matter. Be
ing a geometer, e redefined matter to be suitab
e for abstract, mat ematica
tr
eatment as t at w ic occupies space:
So, extension in
engt , breadt , and dept , constitutes t e nature of bodi

y substance; and t oug t constitutes t e nature of t inking substance. And every
t ing e
se w ic can be attributed to body presupposes extension, and is on
y a
mode of t at w ic is extended
– René Descartes, Princip
es of P i
osop y[16]
For Descartes, matter as on
y t e property of extension, so its on
y activity a
side from
ocomotion is to exc
ude ot er bodies: t is is t e mec anica
p i
osop
y. Descartes makes an abso
ute distinction between mind, w ic e defines as un
extended, t inking substance, and matter, w ic e defines as unt inking, extend
ed substance.[17] T ey are independent t ings. In contrast, Aristot
e defines ma
tter and t e forma
/forming princip
e as comp
ementary princip
es w ic toget er
compose one independent t ing (substance). In s ort, Aristot
e defines matter (
roug
y speaking) as w at t ings are made of, but Descartes e
evates matter to b
e a t ing in itse
f.
T e continuity and difference between Descartes' and Aristot
e's conceptions is
notewort y. In bot conceptions, matter is passive or inert. In t e respective c
onceptions matter as different re
ations ips to inte

igence. For Aristot
e, ma
tter and inte

igence (form) exist toget er in an interdependent re
ations ip, w
ereas for Descartes, matter and inte

igence (mind) are definitiona

y opposed,
independent substances.[18]
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) in erited Descartes' mec anica
conception of matter; e
viewed matter as "so
id, massy, ard, impenetrab
e, movab
e partic
es", w ic we
re "even so very ard as never to wear or break in pieces."[19] T e "primary" pr
operties of matter were amenab
e to mat ematica
description, un
ike "secondary"
qua
ities suc as co
or or taste.[19] Newton restores to matter intrinsic prope
rties in addition to extension (at
east on a
imited basis), suc as mass. A ke
y distinction between Descartes's and Newton's views was t at Newton refuted Des
cartes' contact mec anics by s owing t at bodies ave capacities
ike attraction
(notab
y, gravity).[20] A
ong t e same
ines, Josep Priest
y argued t at corpo
rea
properties transcend contact mec anics: c emica
properties require t e cap
acity for attraction.[20] In t e 19t century, fo

owing t e deve
opment of t e
periodic tab
e, and of atomic t eory, atoms were seen as being t e fundamenta
c
onstituents of matter; atoms formed mo
ecu
es and compounds.[21]
[edit] Late nineteent and ear
y twentiet century
T e common definition in terms of occupying space and aving mass is in contrast
wit most p ysica
and c emica
definitions of matter, w ic re
y instead upon
its structure and upon attributes not necessari
y re
ated to vo
ume and mass. At
t e turn of t e nineteent century, t e concept of matter began a rapid evo
uti
on.
Aspects of t e Newtonian view sti

e
d sway. James C
erk Maxwe

discussed mat
ter in is work Matter and Motion.[22] He carefu

y separates "matter" from spac
e and time, and defines it in terms of t e object referred to in Newton's first

aw of motion.

However, t e Newtonian picture was not t e w o
e story. In t e 19t century, t e

term "matter" was active
y discussed by a ost of scientists and p i
osop ers,
and a brief out
ine can be found in Levere.[23] A textbook discussion from 1870
suggests matter is w at is made up of atoms:[24]
T ree divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, mo
ecu
es and a
toms.
A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciab
e by t e senses.
A Mo
ecu
e is t e sma

est partic
e of matter into w ic a body can be divid
ed wit out
osing its identity.
An Atom is a sti

sma

er partic
e produced by division of a mo
ecu
e.
Rat er t an simp
y aving t e attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was
e
d to ave c emica
and e
ectrica
properties. T e famous p ysicist J. J. T o
mson wrote about t e "constitution of matter" and was concerned wit t e possib

e connection between matter and e
ectrica
c arge.[25] T ere is an entire
itera
ture concerning t e "structure of matter", ranging from t e "e
ectrica
structur
e" in t e ear
y 20t century,[26] to t e more recent "quark structure of matter"
, introduced today wit t e remark: Understanding t e quark structure of matter
as been one of t e most important advances in contemporary p ysics.[27] In t is
connection, p ysicists speak of matter fie
ds, and speak of partic
es as "quant
um excitations of a mode of t e matter fie
d".[8][9] And ere is a quote from de
Sabbata and Gasperini: "Wit t e word "matter" we denote, in t is context, t e
sources of t e interactions, t at is spinor fie
ds (
ike quarks and
eptons), w
ic are be
ieved to be t e fundamenta
components of matter, or sca
ar fie
ds,

ike t e Higgs partic
es, w ic are used to introduced mass in a gauge t eory (an
d w ic , owever, cou
d be composed of more fundamenta
fermion fie
ds)."[28] No
am C omsky summarizes t e situation:
W at is t e concept of body t at fina

y emerged?[...] T e answer is t at t
ere is no c
ear and definite conception of body.[...] Rat er, t e materia
wor
d
is w atever we discover it to be, wit w atever properties it must be assumed t
o ave for t e purposes of exp
anatory t eory. Any inte

igib
e t eory t at offe
rs genuine exp
anations and t at can be assimi
ated to t e core notions of p ysi
cs becomes part of t e t eory of t e materia
wor
d, part of our account of body
. If we ave suc a t eory in some domain, we seek to assimi
ate it to t e core
notions of p ysics, per aps modifying t ese notions as we carry out t is enterpr
ise.
– Noam C omsky, 'Language and prob
ems of know
edge: t e Managua
ectures, p.
144[20]
[edit] Later deve
opments
T e modern conception of matter as been refined many times in istory, in
ig t
of t e improvement in know
edge of just w at t e basic bui
ding b
ocks are, and
in ow t ey interact.
In t e
ate 19t century wit t e discovery of t e e
ectron, and in t e ear
y 20
t century, wit t e discovery of t e atomic nuc
eus, and t e birt of partic
e
p ysics, matter was seen as made up of e
ectrons, protons and neutrons interacti
ng to form atoms. Today, we know t at even protons and neutrons are not indivisi
b
e, t ey can be divided into quarks, w i
e e
ectrons are part of a partic
e fam
i
y ca

ed
eptons. Bot quarks and
eptons are e
ementary partic
es, and are cu
rrent
y seen as being t e fundamenta
constituents of matter.[29]
T ese quarks and
eptons interact t roug four fundamenta
forces: gravity, e
ec
tromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. T e Standard Mode
of
partic
e p ysics is current
y t e best exp
anation for a

of p ysics, but despi
te decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at t e quantum-
eve
;
it is on
y described by c
assica
p ysics (see quantum gravity and graviton).[3
0] Interactions between quarks and
eptons are t e resu
t of an exc ange of forc
e-carrying partic
es (suc as p otons) between quarks and
eptons.[31] T e force
-carrying partic
es are not t emse
ves bui
ding b
ocks. As one consequence, mass
and energy (w ic cannot be created or destroyed) cannot a
ways be re
ated to m
atter (w ic can be created out of non-matter partic
es suc as p otons, or even
out of pure energy, suc as kinetic energy). Force carriers are usua

y not con
sidered matter: t e carriers of t e e
ectric force (p otons) possess energy (see
P
anck re
ation) and t e carriers of t e weak force (W and Z bosons) are massiv
e, but neit er are considered matter eit er.[32] However, w i
e t ese partic
es
are not considered matter, t ey do contribute to t e tota
mass of atoms, subato
mic partic
es, and a

systems w ic contain t em.[33][34]
[edit] Summary
T e term "matter" is used t roug out p ysics in a bewi
dering variety of context
s: for examp
e, one refers to "condensed matter p ysics",[35] "e
ementary matter
",[36] "partonic" matter, "dark" matter, "anti"-matter, "strange" matter, and "n
uc
ear" matter. In discussions of matter and antimatter, norma
matter as been
referred to by A
fvén as koinomatter.[37] It is fair to say t at in p ysics, t ere
is no broad consensus as to an exact definition of matter, and t e term "matter
" usua

y is used in conjunction wit some modifier.
[edit] Definitions
[edit] Common definition
T e DNA mo
ecu
e is an examp
e of matter under t e "atoms and mo
ecu
es" definit
ion.
T e common definition of matter is anyt ing t at as bot mass and vo
ume (occup
ies space).[38][39] For examp
e, a car wou
d be said to be made of matter, as it
occupies space, and as mass.
T e observation t at matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an e
xp
anation for w y matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a resu
t
of t e Pau
i exc
usion princip
e.[40][41] Two particu
ar examp
es w ere t e exc

usion princip
e c
ear
y re
ates matter to t e occupation of space are w ite dwa
rf stars and neutron stars, discussed furt er be
ow.
[edit] Re
ativity
In t e context of re
ativity, mass is not a conserved quantity.[1] T us, in re
a
tivity usua

y a more genera
view is taken t at it is not mass, but t e energy–mo
mentum tensor t at quantifies t e amount of matter. Matter t erefore is anyt ing
t at contributes to t e energy–momentum of a system, t at is, anyt ing t at is no
t pure gravity.[42][43] T is view is common
y e
d in fie
ds t at dea
wit gene
ra
re
ativity suc as cosmo
ogy.
[edit] Atoms and mo
ecu
es definition
A definition of "matter" t at is based upon its p ysica
and c emica
structure
is: matter is made up of atoms and mo
ecu
es.[44] As an examp
e, deoxyribonuc
ei
c acid mo
ecu
es (DNA) are matter under t is definition because t ey are made of
atoms. T is definition can be extended to inc
ude c arged atoms and mo
ecu
es,
so as to inc
ude p
asmas (gases of ions) and e
ectro
ytes (ionic so
utions), w i
c are not obvious
y inc
uded in t e atoms and mo
ecu
es definition. A
ternative

y, one can adopt t e protons, neutrons and e
ectrons definition.
[edit] Protons, neutrons and e
ectrons definition
A definition of "matter" more fine-sca
e t an t e atoms and mo
ecu
es definition
is: matter is made up of w at atoms and mo
ecu
es are made of, meaning anyt ing
made of protons, neutrons, and e
ectrons.[45] T is definition goes beyond atoms
and mo
ecu
es, owever, to inc
ude substances made from t ese bui
ding b
ocks t
at are not simp
y atoms or mo
ecu
es, for examp
e w ite dwarf matter — typica

y,
carbon and oxygen nuc
ei in a sea of degenerate e
ectrons. At a microscopic
ev
e
, t e constituent "partic
es" of matter suc as protons, neutrons and e
ectron
s obey t e
aws of quantum mec anics and ex ibit wave–partic
e dua
ity. At an even
deeper
eve
, protons and neutrons are made up of quarks and t e force fie
ds (
g
uons) t at bind t em toget er (see Quarks and
eptons definition be
ow).
[edit] Quarks and
eptons definition
Under t e "quarks and
eptons" definition, t e e
ementary and composite partic
e
s made of t e quarks (in purp
e) and
eptons (in green) wou
d be "matter"; w i
e
t e gauge bosons (in red) wou
d not be "matter". However, interaction energy in
erent to composite partic
es (for examp
e, g
uons invo
ved in neutrons and prot
ons) contribute to t e mass of ordinary matter.
As may be seen from t e above discussion, many ear
y definitions of w at can be
ca

ed ordinary matter were based upon its structure or "bui
ding b
ocks". On t
e sca
e of e
ementary partic
es, a definition t at fo

ows t is tradition can be
stated as: ordinary matter is everyt ing t at is composed of e
ementary fermion
s, name
y quarks and
eptons.[46][47] T e connection between t ese formu
ations
fo

ows.
Leptons (t e most famous being t e e
ectron), and quarks (of w ic baryons, suc
as protons and neutrons, are made) combine to form atoms, w ic in turn form mo

ecu
es. Because atoms and mo
ecu
es are said to be matter, it is natura
to p r
ase t e definition as: ordinary matter is anyt ing t at is made of t e same t in
gs t at atoms and mo
ecu
es are made of. (However, notice t at one a
so can make
from t ese bui
ding b
ocks matter t at is not atoms or mo
ecu
es.) T en, becaus
e e
ectrons are
eptons, and protons and neutrons are made of quarks, t is defin
ition in turn
eads to t e definition of matter as being "quarks and
eptons", w
ic are t e two types of e
ementary fermions. Carit ers and Grannis state: Ordi
nary matter is composed entire
y of first-generation partic
es, name
y t e [up]
and [down] quarks, p
us t e e
ectron and its neutrino.[48] (Hig er generations p
artic
es quick
y decay into first-generation partic
es, and t us are not common

y encountered.[49])
T is definition of ordinary matter is more subt
e t an it first appears. A

t e
partic
es t at make up ordinary matter (
eptons and quarks) are e
ementary ferm
ions, w i
e a

t e force carriers are e
ementary bosons.[50] T e W and Z bosons
t at mediate t e weak force are not made of quarks or
eptons, and so are not o
rdinary matter, even if t ey ave mass.[51] In ot er words, mass is not somet in
g t at is exc
usive to ordinary matter.
T e quark–
epton definition of ordinary matter, owever, identifies not on
y t e e

ementary bui
ding b
ocks of matter, but a
so inc
udes composites made from t e
constituents (atoms and mo
ecu
es, for examp
e). Suc composites contain an inte
raction energy t at o
ds t e constituents toget er, and may constitute t e bu
k
of t e mass of t e composite. As an examp
e, to a great extent, t e mass of an
atom is simp
y t e sum of t e masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and e

ectrons. However, digging deeper, t e protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
bound toget er by g
uon fie
ds (see dynamics of quantum c romodynamics) and t e
se g
uons fie
ds contribute significant
y to t e mass of adrons.[52] In ot er w
ords, most of w at composes t e "mass" of ordinary matter is due to t e binding
energy of quarks wit in protons and neutrons.[53] For examp
e, t e sum of t e ma
ss of t e t ree quarks in a nuc
eon is approximate
y 12.5 MeV/c2, w ic is
ow c
ompared to t e mass of a nuc
eon (approximate
y 938 MeV/c2).[49][54] T e bottom

ine is t at most of t e mass of everyday objects comes from t e interaction ene
rgy of its e
ementary components.
[edit] Sma

er bui
ding b
ocks?
T e Standard Mode
groups matter partic
es into t ree generations, w ere eac ge
neration consists of two quarks and two
eptons. T e first generation is t e up
and down quarks, t e e
ectron and t e e
ectron neutrino; t e second inc
udes t e
c arm and strange quarks, t e muon and t e muon neutrino; t e t ird generation
consists of t e top and bottom quarks and t e tau and tau neutrino.[55] T e most
natura
exp
anation for t is wou
d be t at quarks and
eptons of ig er generat
ions are excited states of t e first generations. If t is turns out to be t e ca
se, it wou
d imp
y t at quarks and
eptons are composite partic
es, rat er t an
e
ementary partic
es.[56]
[edit] Structure
In partic
e p ysics, fermions are partic
es w ic obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. Fer
mions can be e
ementary,
ike t e e
ectron, or composite,
ike t e proton and t
e neutron. In t e Standard Mode
t ere are two types of e
ementary fermions: qua
rks and
eptons, w ic are discussed next.
[edit] Quarks
Main artic
e: Quark
Quarks are a partic
es of spin-1⁄2, imp
ying t at t ey are fermions. T ey carry an
e
ectric c arge of −1⁄3 e (down type quarks) or +2⁄3 e (up type quarks). For comparis
on, an electron has a charge of −1 e. They also carry colour charge, which is the
equivalent of the electric charge for the strong interaction. Quarks also underg
o radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the weak interaction. Quar
ks are massive particles, and therefore are also subject to gravity.
Quark properties[57] name symbol spin electric charge
(e) mass
(MeV/c2) mass comparable to antiparticle antiparticle
symbol
up type quarks
up u 1⁄2 +2⁄3 1.5 to 3.3 ~ 5 electrons antiup u
charm c 1⁄2 +2⁄3 1160 to 1340 ~ 1 proton anticharm
c
top t 1⁄2 +2⁄3 169,100 to 173,300 ~ 180 protons or
~ 1 tungsten atom antitop t
down type quarks
down d 1⁄2 −1⁄3 3.5 to 6.0 ~ 10 electrons antidown
d
strange s 1⁄2 −1⁄3 70 to 130 ~ 200 electrons
antistrange s
bottom b 1⁄2 −1⁄3 4130 to 4370 ~ 5 protons antibottom
b
Quark structure of a proton: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.
[edit] Baryonic matter
Main article: Baryon
Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi Dirac sta
tistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic
nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term baryon is usual
ly used to refer to triquarks — particles made of three quarks. "Exotic" baryons m
ade of four quarks and one antiquark are known as the pentaquarks, but their exi
stence is not generally accepted.
Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including a
ll atoms). This part of the universe does not include dark energy, dark matter,
black holes or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose white dwarf s
tars and neutron stars. Microwave light seen by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy P
robe (WMAP), suggests that only about 4.6% of that part of the universe within r
ange of the best telescopes (that is, matter that may be visible because light c
ould reach us from it), is made of baryionic matter. About 23% is dark matter, a
nd about 72% is dark energy.[58]
A comparison between the white dwarf IK Pegasi B (center), its A class companion
IK Pegasi A (left) and the Sun (right). This white dwarf has a surface temperat
ure of 35,500 K.
[edit] Degenerate matter
Main article: Degenerate matter
In physics, degenerate matter refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at
a temperature near absolute zero.[59] The Pauli exclusion principle requires th
at only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin up and the other spin 
down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to acco
mmodate all the available fermions, and for the case of many fermions the maximu
m kinetic energy called the Fermi energy and the pressure of the gas becomes ver
y large and dependent upon the number of fermions rather than the temperature, u
nlike normal states of matter.
Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars.[60] T
he demonstration by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar that white dwarf stars have a max
imum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the
theory of star evolution.[61]
Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron s
tars and white dwarfs.
[edit] Strange matter
Main article: Strange matter
Strange matter is a particular form of quark matter, usually thought of as a 'li
quid' of up, down, and strange quarks. It is to be contrasted with nuclear matte
r, which is a liquid of neutrons and protons (which themselves are built out of
up and down quarks), and with non strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid
containing only up and down quarks. At high enough density, strange matter is ex
pected to be color superconducting. Strange matter is hypothesized to occur in t
he core of neutron stars, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may
vary in size from femtometers (strangelets) to kilometers (quark stars).
[edit] Two meanings of the term "strange matter"
In particle physics and astrophysics, the term is used in two ways, one broader
and the other more specific.
The broader meaning is just quark matter that contains three flavors of quar
ks: up, down, and strange. In this definition, there is a critical pressure and
an associated critical density, and when nuclear matter (made of protons and neu
trons) is compressed beyond this density, the protons and neutrons dissociate in
to quarks, yielding quark matter (probably strange matter).
The narrower meaning is quark matter that is more stable than nuclear matter
. The idea that this could happen is the "strange matter hypothesis" of Bodmer [
62] and Witten.[63] In this definition, the critical pressure is zero: the true
ground state of matter is always quark matter. The nuclei that we see in the mat
ter around us, which are droplets of nuclear matter, are actually metastable, an
d given enough time (or the right external stimulus) would decay into droplets o
f strange matter, i.e. strangelets.
[edit] Leptons
Main article: Lepton
Leptons are a particles of spin 1⁄2, meaning that they are fermions. They carry an
electric charge of −1 e (charged leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, lept
ons do not carry colour charge, meaning that they do not experience the strong i
nteraction. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subjec
t to the weak interaction. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject
to gravity.
Lepton properties name symbol spin electric charge
(e) mass
(MeV/c2) mass comparable to antiparticle antiparticle
symbol
charged leptons[64]
electron e−
1⁄2 −1 0.5110 1 electron antielectron e+
muon μ−
1⁄2 −1 105.7 ~ 200 electrons antimuon μ+
tau τ−   
 1⁄2 −1 1,777 ~ 2 pro ons an i au τ+
neu rinos[65]

elec ron neu rino ν
e 1⁄2 0 < 0.000460 < 1⁄1000 electro electro atieu

tri o ν
e
muo eutrio ν
μ 1⁄2 0 < 0.19 < 1⁄2 electron muon antineutrino ν
μ
tau neutrino ν
    
τ 1⁄2 0 < 18.2 < 40 elec rons au an ineu rino ν
τ 
[edi ] Phases 
Main ar icle: Phase (ma er)   
See also: Phase diagram  and S a e of ma er 
Phase diagram  for a ypical subs  ance a a fixed volume. Ver ical axis is Pressu
re,horizon al axis is Tempera ure.The green line marks  he freezing  poin (abo
ve he greenline is solid, below i is liquid) and he blue line  he boiling po
in (above i is liquid  and  below  i is gas). So, for example, a higher
   T, a hi
gher
  P is necessary o main ain he subs ance in liquid  phase. A he riple poi
n  he hree phases;   liquid, gas and solid;  can coexis . Abovehe cri ical poin 
here is no de ec able difference  be  ween  he phases.   The do ed line shows h
e anomalous behavior of wa er: ice mel s a cons an empera ure wi h increasing
pressure.[66]
     
In bulk, ma er can exis in several differen  forms,  or s a es of aggrega ion,
known as phases,[67] depending   on ambien pressure,  empera ure and volume.[68] 
A phase is a form of ma er ha has a rela ively uniform  chemical
 composi ion a
nd physical
 proper ies (such as  densi y, specific hea , refrac ive index, and so
for h). These phases include    he hree familiar ones (solids, liquids, and gase
s), as well as more  exo ic s a es
 of ma er ( such as plasmas, superfluids, supe
rsolids, Bose–Eins ein condensa  es, ...). A fluid may be a liquid,  gas or plasma.
There  are also paramagne
 ic and ferromagne ic phases of
 magne ic ma erials. As c
ondi ions change, ma ermay change fromone phasein o ano her.  These phenomena
are called phase  ransi  ions, and are s udied in he field of hermodynamics.  I
n nanoma
 erials,
  he vas
 ly increased
 ra
 io of surface  area  o volume resul s
 in
ma er ha  can exhibi proper ies en irely differen from  hose of bulk ma  eri
al, and no well described by any bulk phase (see nanoma erials for more de ails
).
       
Phases are some imes called   s a es of ma er, bu his erm can lead o confusio 
n wi h hermodynamic s a es. For example,   wo gases main  ained a differen   pres
sures are indifferen hermodynamic s a es (differen pressures), bu in he sa
me phase
 (bo 
h are gases).
[edi ] An ima er  
Main ar icle: An ima er    
Unsolved
 problems  in physics Baryon asymme ry. Why is  here far more ma er han
an ima er in he observable universe? Ques ion mark2.svg
       
In par icle  physics
 and quan
 umchemis
 ry,
 an  ima er is ma  er ha is composed
of he an ipar  icles of hose ha cons  i u e ordinary
  ma er. If a par  icle an
d is an ipar icle come ino conac wi h each  o her,  he wo annihila e; ha i
s, hey  may bo h be conver
 ed in o o her par icles  wi h equal energy in accordan 
ce wi h Eins ein's equa  ion E= mc2. Thesenew par icles may be high energy  pho
ons (gamma rays) or o her par icle–an  ipar icle pairs.  The resul ingpar icles  are
endowed wi h an amoun of kine ic energy  equal  o he difference  be ween he re
s mass of  heproduc s of he annihila  ion and he res mass of he original pa
r icle an ipar icle pair, which is of en qui e large.
     
An ima er isno  found na urallyon Ear h, excep  very briefly and in vanishing
ly small quan  iies (as he resul of radioac
 ive decay
 or
 cosmic rays). This is
because an ima er  which came o exis
 on
  Ear h ou
  side he confines  of  asui a
ble physics labora ory would almos ins an  ly mee he ordinary
 ma  ha Ear
er
h is made
 of, and be annihila ed.  An ipar icles
 and
 some
 s able an ima
 er(such
as an  ihydrogen)
  can be made
  in iny amoun s, bu no in enough quan i y o do
more han es a few of i s heore ical proper ies.
   
There is considerable specula ion bo h in science   and science  fic ionas owhy
he observable universe
  is apparen
 ly almos  en irely ma er, and whe her  o her
places are almos en irely an ima er ins ead. In he early universe, i is hou
        
gh ha ma er and an ima er were equally represen ed, and  he disappearance  o
f an ima er requires  an asymme ry
 in physical
 laws called he charge  pari y (or
CP symme ry) viola  ion.CP symme  ry viola  ion can  be ob  ained from he  S andard
Model,[69] bu a his ime he  apparen  asymme ry of ma er and an ima er in
he visible universeis one of he grea unsolved problems  in physics. Possible
processes
  by which
 i came
 abou are explored in more de ail under baryogenesis.
[edi ] Oher ypesof ma er   
Pie
 char showing he frac  ions of energyin he universe  conribued by differe
n sources. Ordinary ma er  is divided in o luminous  ma er  ( he sars and lumin
ous
 gases and 0.005% radia ion) and nonluminous ma er (in ergalac  ic gas and ab
ou 0.1% neu rinos  and 0.04% supermassive
  black holes). Ordinary  ma er is uncom
mon. Modeled af er Os riker and S einhard .[70] For more informa ion, see NASA.
        
Ordinary ma er, in he quarks and lep ons defini ion, cons i u es abou 4% of
heenergy  of he observable universe. The  remaining energy is heorized o be du
e o exo ic forms, of which 23% is dark ma er[71][72] and 73% is dark energy.[7
3][74]      
Galaxy
 ro aion curve  for he Milky Way. Ver ical axis is  speed of  ro a ion abou
he galac ic cen  er. Horizon al axis is dis ance from he galac iccen  er. The
sun is markedwi h a yellow ball. The  observed curve of speed
 of ro a ion is bl
ue. The predic ed curvebased upon  s ellar mass and gas in  he Milky Way is red.
The
 difference is due  o dark ma er  or perhaps a modifica
 ion of he law of gr
avi y.[75][76][77]
 Sca er in observa ions is indica ed roughly by gray bars.
[edi ] Dark ma er 
Main ar icles: Dark ma er, Lambda CDM  model, and WIMPs 
See also: Galaxy forma ion and evolu ion and Dark ma er halo
     
In as rophysics
  and cosmology,  dark ma  er isma er of  unknown
 composi ion ha
does no emi or reflec enough elec romagne ic radia  ion o be  observed direc
ly, bu whose presence  can be inferred from
 gravi a ional effec  s on visible  ma
er.[11][78]  Observa ional
 evidence of he early universe
 and
 he big bang  heor
y require
 ha his ma er have energy and mass, bu is no composed
 of ei her
 e
lemen  ary fermions
 (as above) OR gauge bosons. The
 commonly accep ed
 view is ha
mos of he dark ma er is non baryonic  in na
 ure.[11] As  such, i is composed
of par  icles as ye unobserved  in
 he labora ory.Perhaps hey are supersymme  r
ic par icles,[79] which  are no S andardModel par icles, bu relics  formed a v
ery high energies in he early phase of he universe and s ill floa ing abou .[1
1] 
[edi ] Dark energy
Main ar icle: Dark energy
See also: Big bang#Dark energy
      
In cosmology,darkenergy  is he name given o he an igravi  a ing influence   ha
is accelera ing he  ra e of expansion
 of he
 universe. I
 is known no  o bec
omposed of known  par icles like
 pro ons, neu rons
  or elec rons, nor of he par i
cles of dark ma er, because hese all gravi a e.[80][81]
     
Fully 70% of he ma er densi  y in he  universe appears o be in he form of
darkenergy. Twen  y six percen is dark ma er. Only 4% is ordinary ma  er. So
less han 1 par  in 20 is made ou of ma er we have observed
  experimen ally or
described
 in  he s andard
  model of par icle physics.
 Of
 he o her 96%, apar fro
m he proper ies jus men ioned, we know absolu ely no hing.

– Lee Smolin: The Trouble wi h Physics, p. 16
  
[edi ] Exo ic ma er 
Main ar icle: Exo ic ma er
       
Exo ic ma er is  a hypo he ical concep of paricle physics.I covers any ma er
ial which viola es one or more classical condi ions or is no made of known bary
    
onic par icles.
 Such
 ma erials
 would possess
 quali ies like nega ive mass or bei
ng repelled ra her han a rac ed by gravi y.