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3 In this document the term ‘pressure equipment’ means (c) Leak test: this test may be carried out at a pressure
a pressure vessel, pipework, systems comprising one or not exceeding 10 Y. of the design pressure on
more pressure vessels and associated pipework, and any pressure equipment which has not been subjected
other container of pressure, that need to be pressure tested. to a standard pressure test. It may also be
performed at a higher pressure, not exceeding 11OO/. 12 The assessment should also indicate whether or not
of the design pressure, on pressure equipment which pressure equipment needs to be placed behind a barrier
has satisfactorily passed the standard pressure test. when it is tested, bearing in mind that pressure equipment
pneumatically tested will contain considerably more energy
(d) Functional test: this test is carried out using a than the same equipment subject to hydraulic testing.
suitable test medium at design pressure, or working
pressure if this is lower, to check that the pressure Hazards
equipment and its components function properly. It
may include the actuation of moveable parts, such 13 The main hazard when pressure testing is the
as the opening and closing of valves. unintentional release of stored energy. In the case of
pneumatic testing this can lead to a blast wave and
Hydraulic and pneumatic testing missiles. However in the case of hydraulic testing, blast
has little energy and it can be assumed that all expansion
6 Although pressure testing using a liquid as the energy goes into missile energy.
pressurizing medium (usually referred to as hydraulic
testing) is not without risks, it is by far the safer method 14 The hazards presented by the compressibility,
and should be used wherever practicable. Pressure flammability and toxicity of the testing medium should also
testing using air, steam or gas as the pressurizing be considered.
medium (usually referred to as pneumatic testing) is
potentially more dangerous because of the higher energy Stored energy
levels involved. For example, the energy released during
a total failure of pressure equipment containing 15 Risk assessment of pressure testing activities
compressed air at pressures frequently used in pressure should take account of the energy stored in the pressure
testing is more than 200 times the energy released by the equipment being tested and dangers arising when this
same volume of water compressed to the same pressure, stored energy is suddenly and unintentionally released,
creating blast waves and missiles. The release of stored
7 Pneumatic testing should only be carried out when energy can be due to:
hydraulic testing is not practicable, for instance where the
interior of the pressure equipment will be contaminated by (a) rupture of pressure equipment due to brittle
the hydraulic test medium, or when the pressure fracture;
equipment supports and/or foundations are not capable of
supporting the weight of the equipment filled with the (b) rupture of pressure equipment due to ductile
medium. fracture;
8 A pneumatic leak test within the limitations set out (c) detachment or removal of blanking plates and their
in paragraph 5(c) above can be used to find small but clamps/attachment bolts, screwed plugs, isolation
significant leaks, especially in equipment which will valves etc;
contain flammable gases and/or fluids.
(d) detachment of temporary welds on plugs, at pipe
ends and nozzles.
RISK ASSESSMENT
16 Calculation of the stored compressed energy in the
9 The first step to take before carrying out any pressure equipment will indicate the extent of possible
pressure test is to perform a risk assessment of the blast and missile formation if it ruptures or if components
operation. Risk assessment guides the judgement of the become detached under test pressure, Formulae for
employer or the self-employed person as to the measures calculating stored energy in gas and liquid filled systems
they need to take to carry out their legal obligations when are shown in the appendix to this document. Further
pressure testing. It relies on the identification of all detailed information is available in HSE Contract
relevant hazards and dangers, and consists of an Research Repotl No CRR168 Pressure test safety.
estimation of the risks arising from them with a view to
their control or avoidance, For further guidance on risk Blast and its effects
assessment see the relevant HSE publications listed in
‘Further information’ at the end of this document. 17 Blast and its effects on structures are briefly
described in the appendix, The Research Report
10 As pressure testing is sometimes undertaken by Pressure test safety reviews the physics of blast wave
specialist sub-contractors there is a need for co-operation formation, discusses the response of structures to
and co-ordination between them and the pressure dynamic loads imposed by blast waves and missiles and
equipment manufacturer and/or owner to ensure that all gives some worked examples.
risks are taken into account.
Missile formation
11 A risk assessment will indicate the extent and
content of the safe system of work that needs to be in 18 The appendix describes how the mass, size, shape
place before any pressure testing is carried out. A safe and speed of each fragment can be determined. It also
system of work is necessary to ensure the safety of gives formulae for calculating the thickness of
testing personnel and other people in the vicinity, containment walls. Fuller explanations and worked
including the general public. examples are contained in Pressure test safety.
19 Possible modes of failure and hence fragment size 25 If appropriate, an up-to-date piping and
should be the subject of discussions between the instrumentation drawing showing the position of all
manager/supervisor of the pressure testing team /operators isolation valves, safety valves, non return valves, pressure
and the pressure equipment designer. In situations where gauges, testing medium supply points, vent valves and
pressure tests are carried out by sub-contractors they blanking plates should accompany these instructions.
should obtain sufficient information from the designer and
manufacturer for this assessment to be made. 26 Tables may also be needed as a checklist to show if
valves are in the normally open or normally closed
Brittle fracture condition during pressurisation and de-pressurisation. This
should ensure that when the pressure equipment is handed
20 The risk of rupture of the pressure equipment due to back for subsequent remedial or other work there is no
brittle fracture under the test conditions should be residual pressure left in it. Any reference to the checking of
assessed at the design stage. This may affect the choice valves should include remotely operated valves.
of materials of construction and the temperature at which
tests will be carried out. 27 Depending upon the complexity of the pressure
equipment under test, the system of work should include
the following requirements:
SAFE SYSTEM OF WORK
(a) the dimensions of the designated test area,
21 A risk assessment should indicate the extent and including minimum safe distances from the pressure
content of the safe system of work that needs to be in equipment under test;
place before any pressure testing is carried out.
(b) the designated test area should be isolated as a no
Permit-to-work system go area and testing should not start until all persons
are in a safe place;
22 An important element of this safe system will be the
written permit-to-work system. This should require: (c) only those persons essential for the operation of the
test equipment should be allowed in the vicinity of
(a) Recorded positive verification by a competent the test after pressurisation has begun;
person that safe working conditions are in place
before each pressure test commences. (d) checks to ensure that all test equipment used
during the test is capable of withstanding the full
(b) Recorded authorisation by a competent person that test pressure;
the pressure equipment is isolated from pressure
sources, fully de-pressurised and vented (or, if (d) the pressure should be applied gradually or increased
justified by a risk assessment, to any other safe by steps of approximately 10O/.until the required test
level) before dismantling of the pressure equipment, pressure is reached. It maybe necessary to record
its components or any remedial work takes place. test pressure at suitable intervals;
3
sections, if this is the intended method of testing. Where include visual and other non-destructive testing (NDT)
the section under test terminates at a valve it should not methods to ensure that there are no significant defects
be possible for pressure to build up inside an adjacent which could lead to failure during the test.
closed section if this valve leaks.
39 Special attention should be given to the testing of
29 Before remedial or other work is to be carried out on pressure equipment which has been refurbished or repaired
the pressure equipment it should be vented and the after a period of service. Such equipment may have been
pressure testing medium supply line disconnected. If it is subjected to cyclic loading and/or corrosive environments.
unreasonable to disconnect the supply line then the NDT maybe necessary before the test to ensure that metal
isolation valve should be locked in the closed position. thickness meets specified design requirements and that
there are no significant defects which may lead to failure
Clamps and bolts during the test. Repair records should also be checked to
ensure that any repairs were correctly carried out.
30 Clamps or bolts on bolted flanges must not be
loosened or tightened while the pressure equipment is Protection against blast waves and missiles
under pressure. The pressure equipment should be
isolated from pressure sources, de-pressurised and 40 Protection against blast waves and rocketing
vented before clamps or bolts are adjusted or removed, fragments can be provided by placing the pressure
equipment behind a suitable barrier or in a properly designed
31 Clamps should be fitted and tightened in pit, Formulae to calculate the thickness of barriers are shown
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommended in the appendix but more detailed information is given in
procedures. Flanged joints should be fitted with the HSE Contract Research Report Pressure test safety
appropriate bolts and gaskets and tightened in
accordance with written procedures. Safety valves
Test equipment 41 Safety valves of adequate size and marked with the
set pressure should be installed in or close to the test
32 Pressure gauges should be fitted at or near each supply line to prevent the test pressure being exceeded. It
venting and pressurizing medium supply point where they should not be possible to isolate these valves from the
can easily be seen by the operator. Further pressure testing medium pressure. It is vital that safety valves are
gauges should be incorporated to detect any residual supplied and maintained in proper working order. They
pressure if there is a risk that pressurizing medium can be should be regularly stripped, cleaned and examined, and
trapped by check valves and similar equipment. the set pressure checked before re-use.
38 To minimise the risk of failure while under test, the Large pressure systems
pressure equipment should be evaluated and inspected
before it is tested, The evaluation should include 45 If the risk assessment of a pressure test indicates
consideration of the design criteria, material specification the pressure equipment should be placed behind barriers
and construction methods. The inspection may need to but it is too large or heavy to do so, then any persons in
the test danger zone, including nearby buildings, public 53 Safeguards should be provided which ensure that:
roads or open areas, should be kept clear until the test is
over. It may be possible to carry out this test at night (a) the equipment is completely immersed to its
when it will cause the least disruption to the general public specified depth while the standard pressure test is
and normal production. being carried out, and
5
APPENDIX (b) use of empirical equations based on
thermodynamic data;
SAFETY IN PRESSURE TESTING
(c) assume the gas is an ideal or perfect gas; and/or
1 Introduction
(d) use the pressure-volume product.
All types of equipment which operate at pressures above
These are listed in order of preference and are discussed
ambient need to be tested in order to check that they
in more detail below:
function correctly and, more importantly, that they are safe
to use. All pressure testing has the potential for failure of (a) For real gases, Table 2 in Pressure test safety
the pressure system, and an assessment of both the risk provides a list of pure substances for which
and consequences of failure is essential. thermodynamic properties are available in tabular or
chart form. A bibliography of the known sources of
A recent report, commissioned by HSE, has considered these data is also provided along with guidance on
the procedures needed to carry out pressure testing how it should be used. For convenience, these are
safely. It includes comprehensive advice on calculation of included here as Table 1. The references will be
stored energy, assessment of fragment size and velocity, found at the end of this annex.
assessment of blast and the shielding needed to contain
both fragments and blast. The report is Saville G et al Table 1 Pure substances for which the thermodynamic
Pressure test safety. 1 properties are available in tabular or chart form
This guidance is based on the above report and provides Substance Reference No (see paqe 11)
information on how to:
Acetylene (6)(llk)(19)
Ammonia (6)(17) (18a)(19)
(a) assess the amount of energy stored in a Argon (2)(6)(17)(21 )(23)(30)
pressurised system; Benzene (111)(33)
I- Butane (l)llf)(19)
(b) assess the potential for fragment generation and n - Butane (1)(1 ld)(l 7)(19)
missiles; and 1 - Butane (5)(llj)(19)
Carbon dioxide (2)(4)(5)(6)(1 7)(18b)(19)(20)
(c) assess the thickness of materials needed to contain Carbon monoxide (2)(6) (13)( 18c)(19)
Carbon tetrafluoride (17)
a pressure system failure.
Cyclopropane (27)
n - Decane (1)
An important general point is that the amount of energy
Dichlorodifluoromethane (17)
stored in gas-filled systems is always considerably higher
Dichloromonofluoromethane (17)
than in liquid-filled systems at the same pressure. The use of Dichlorotetrafluoroethane (17)
liquid as a pressurizing medium is always the safer option. Ethane (l)(6) (llb)(17)(19)(29)
Ethylene (3)(6)(1 1h)(l 7)(1 9)(35)
2 Stored energy Helium (7)(1 0)(17)(32)
n - Hexane (llg)(19)
Total system energy for a pressurised system will be the n - Hydrogen (2)(15) (17)( 18d)(19)
p - Hydrogen (12)(17)
sum of the fluid expansion energy, the strain energy in the
Hydrogen sulphide (5)
vessel and any chemically released energy. The release
Methane (1)(6)(8)(1 1a)(17)(l 9)(24)(28)
of chemical energy can normally be avoided by choosing
Methyl chloride (17)
a suitable test fluid and is not considered here. Strain Monochlorodifluoromethane (17)
energy is normally low by comparison with other energy Monochlorotrifluoromethane (17)
sources, especially in gas-filled systems. This annex Neon (16)(17)
therefore concentrates on fluid expansion energy. Neopentane (33)
Nitrogen (l)(6) (9)(17) (18e)(19)(23)
In estimating energy release it is normal to assume that Nitrous oxide (17)
the fluid expansion process is thermodynamically n - Nonane (5)
reversible and sufficiently rapid for heat transfer to the Oxygen (2)(17) (18f)(19)(23)(25) (31)
n - Pentane (l)(lle)(19)
surroundings to be negligible. The expansion is, therefore,
Perfluorocyclobutane (14)
isentropic and we can assume that the expansion energy,
Propane (1)(6 )(11c)(17)(19)
Ex, the change in internal energy of the closed system, Propylene (5)(1 1i)(17)(19)
AU, and the work done on the system, W, are of equal Sulphur dioxide (17)( 18g)(19)
magnitude ie Trichloromonofluromethane (17)
Trichlorotrifluroethane (17)
EX= -AU =-W Water (2)(1 8h)(19)(22)(26)
.................
, .,, , .,...{...
u ,...:,,. ...... .
?s
m
0)
5:
ma
~ ,. .,.. . ., ...:...,.
~
..:.
m
0
0
g
0-
0 W
-1
1
,.. , :.
I I ,,
0
available which will perform isothermal and produced. Where substances have had their pVT
isentropic expansion calculations for a wide range properties measured to very high pressures, it is possible
of substances and mixtures. Their proper use, to develop an equation of state to represent the pVT
however, requires a knowledge of thermodynamic properties of the liquid. This has been done for water and
and fluid properties. In the case of nitrogen, Saville a small number of other common substances. Saville et
et al have evaluated fluid expansion energy from al have used these to produce the plots of fluid expansion
the IUPAC equations of state (Angus et al, 19794). energy against pressure shown here at Figures 3 and 4.
Figures 1 and 2 are the resulting plots of fluid
expansion energy against pressure. For liquid-filled systems, it maybe necessary to take
account of strain energy, for example, when the
(c) We assume an ideal (perfect) gas for which pressurizing liquid has low compressibility. Strain energy
Es for a cylindrical vessel can be calculated from
pV = nRT where p =
system pressure (Pa)
V =
internal volume (m3)
[3(1-2V)+N
2
n =
amount of fluid (mol)
R =
universal gas constant
(8.314 J/K.mol)
T = absolute temperature (“K)
where E is the Young’s modulus of the vessel
The energy released on expansion depends upon the material (Pa)
thermodynamic path taken during expansion: v is Poisson’s ratio for the vessel
material
for isothermal expansion, Ex = pi Vi In (pf /pi) K is the ratio of outside to internal
y-l diameter of the vessel
for isentropic expansion, Ex=+pi Vi (fi)~ -1
Pj Examples
[1
In practice, no expansion is either completely reversible or When a pressure system fails, accident statistics suggest
entirely adiabatic and the real thermodynamic pathway that every conceivable type of failure can occur, with the
will lie between the two. Isothermal expansion has been most common being the loss of plugs or closures and
recommended by some authors as conservative. failure of the vessel itself, usually at welded seams.
However, no real gas obeys the perfect gas equation and Although brittle failure of the vessel should not occur if
the effect of these imperfections can produce greater pressure vessels are manufactured from the correct
errors than the error involved in the assumptions about materials, it can be used to provide an upper band to
the expansion process. fragment speed and is recommended for that reason.
(d) If all else fails, it is possible to use the pressure- Failure due to brittle fracture
volume product as a measure of expansion energy.
Although simple, it does significantly underestimate Experimental work suggests it is reasonable to assume
expansion energy in most cases because it ignores that, for gas-filled systems, 400/. of the expansion energy
the nature of the gas and the type of expansion goes into fragment energy and 600/0 into blast. For liquid-
process. If it must be used we recommend a safety filled systems, blast has little comparative energy and it
factor of 1.5 for all pressures <50 MPa (500 bar) ie should be assumed that all expansion energy goes into
fragment energy. An upper band to fragment speed can
Ex =qpV whereq = 1.5 be obtained by setting the total energy available (E) equal
to the kinetic energy of the whole vessel ie
Liquid filled systems
E=+ m V2 where m is the vessel mass (kg)
Conservative values for the expansion energy of a liquid V is initial fra ment
can be produced using the equation speed (m/s7
AU =~V kt (pf2 - pi2) This speed can then be used for the main vessel
fragments. Where additional mass is present, due to
features such as flanges etc, the kinetic energy of the
where kt is the isothermal compressibility which can be fragment will be the same as that of the area of vessel
found from pVT data. which it replaces. As a result of the increase in mass,
therefore, the fragment velocity will be reduced.
More accurate calculations are possible but are complex.
Pressure test safetyl gives further advice on how more As a working procedure, we consider it reasonable to
accurate estimates of expansion energy of liquids can be assume that fragments will be between 1Y. and 20% of
the shell area and that identifiable features will be ejected Reinforced concrete
intact eg end caps, closures, manhole covers, nozzles.
The mass, size, shape and speed of each fragment will The following formulae are recommended:
need to be determined.
2.55 X 10-9 KNMVr8
G(x/d) =
Failure due to ductile fracture d 2.8
For ductile fracture, failure modes need to be identified by where G(x,@ = (x/2d)z if G(tid) s 1(ie
inspection by assuming fracture along lines of weakness G@@ = (id) -1 if G(x/cf) 2 I(ie.
such as welds. The force on the ejected fragment should
be calculated from the pressure-area product and a 1500
K=-
period of acceleration assumed to take place until the ~: 5
A safety factor of 1,25 is recommended in order to stop [See Figure 3.11 in Pressure test safety]
perforation of all missiles and, since the formula
underestimates thickness for the thinnest shields, a
minimum thickness of 3 mm is recommended.
soil Test chambers
For compact missiles with a length to diameter ratio of For internal blasts within a test chamber, experimental
1:1, the following formula is recommended: work using charges of 5kg TNT has been carried out to
produce pressure-time histories which have been
x = 0.4S Moss In (1 + 5.4 x 10-4 V2) approximated by a simple model. It is possible to use this
approach to estimate the impulse load taken by the test
where x = soil penetration (m) chamber from the peak pressure and impulse received by
S = soil parameter (0.5 for sand, 10 for the cubicle walls during the initial shocks. For totally
average soil, 2.0 for soft soil) enclosed chambers it is necessary to add on the pressure
M = mass of missile (kg) load and impulse due to the released gas. If the chamber
V = speed of missile (m/s) is fully vented, for example with one wall completely open,
then the addition of the pressure and impulse loads due to
An alternative formula for missiles with length to diameter the released gas is not necessary.
ratio >10 is included in Pressure test safety.
Saville et al provide references for charts from which
Examples shock loading on chambers can be determined and
describe a method for estimating the gas pressure loading
Again, Saville et al provide examples of how fragment for unvented chambers. Additionally they provide a simple
size and velocity can be assessed and of how method for estimating the blast-like effect of missile
containment thicknesssess can be calculated for common impact. An example is given of how this approach can be
containment materials. used to calculate peak pressures and impulse loads.
In comparison with the behaviour of missiles, our Blast from an explosion damages a structure by causing it
knowledge of blast waves is very limited. Most of the to deform. Damage is most likely when the period of the
information available is for military explosives and for blast impulse is close to the natural vibration period of the
chemical explosions such as gas explosions. In order to structure. If the blast impulse period is long compared to
assess the damage caused by a failed pressure vessel, it the natural period, the structure can be considered to be
is assumed that the blast from a ruptured pressure vessel loaded quasi-statically. In this case the displacement of
is the same as the blast caused by the detonation of the the structure is related solely to the peak force produced
amount of TNT which will release the same energy ie 1kg by the blast and the stiffness of the structure. If the blast
of TNT is equivalent to a stored energy of 4.5 MJ. impulse period is short when compared to the natural
period, the blast load will be over before the structure has
Although blast can largely be avoided by using liquid as moved. This is known as impulsive loading. Where the
the test medium rather than gas, the impact of missiles on blast impulse period is close to the natural period,
protective walls has a blast-like effect and consideration deflection will be between the static and impulsive cases
of blast should still be made. and it will be necessary to solve equations of motion
numerically to obtain the response of the structure.
Saville et al review the physics of blast formation and how
this has been used to develop relationships to predict It is clearly important that damage assessment is not
blast effects from known data. For explosives and based on the peak blast pressure alone; if loading is
chemical explosions, this has been used to estimate safe impulsive rather than quasi-static then severe over-
distances from explosions and distances to which debris estimation of damage could result,
might be propelled. Factors which may need to be taken
into account include: Saville et al show how the blast response of structures
made from flat plates, including steel and concrete, can
(a) reflection of blast waves from unyielding surfaces; be represented as a pressure impulse diagram so that the
pressure-impulse combinations which result in structural
(b) energy yield magnification due to reflection of blast deformation can be predicted, Example calculations are
waves from the ground or from internal surfaces of given for representative structures,
a blast chamber; and
6 Din F Thermodynamic functions of gases VOIS1-3 25 Weber L A J Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 1970 74A 93
Butterworth 1956-61
26 UK steam tables in S1 units Arnold 1970
7 Mann D B and Stewart R B Technical note 8
ANBS 1959 27 Lin D C K et al JChem Eng Data 197116416
9 Strobridge T R Technical note 129 ANBS 1962 29 Starling K E and Kwok Y C Hydrocarbon
processing 197150 (4) 140
10 Mann D B Technical note 154 ANBS 1962
30 Angus S and Armstrong B /nternationa/
11 Canjar L N et al Hydrocarbon Processing and thermodynamic tables of the fkiid state - argon 1971
Petro/eum Refiner (a) 196241 (9) 291; (b) (10) 149; Butterworth 1972
(c) (11) 203; (d) (12) 115; (e) 196342 (1) 129; (f) (8) 127;
(g) 196443 (6) 177; (h) 196544 (9) 219; (i) (10) 137; 31 Roder H M and Weber L A Oxygen technology
(j) (10) 141; (k) (11) 293; (1)(11) 297 survey VOI 1: ‘Thermophysical properties’ NASA 1972
15 Kubin R F and Presley L L SP 3002 Nat. Aero. 35 Angus S et al International thermodynamic tables
Space Admin. 1964 of the f/uid state - ethy/ene 1972 Butterworth 1974
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