Chapter 3 Battery Theory

3. 1 What is a Battery
A battery consists of one or more electro-chemical cells. Although the terms battery and cell are
often used interchangeably cells are the building blocks of which batteries are constructed. Bat-
teries consist of one or more cells that are electrically connected.
3.1.1 Cells
A cell normally consists of the four principal components shown in Figure 3-1. These are:
• A positive electrode that receives electrons from the external circuit when the cell is
discharged,
• A negative electrode that donates electrons to the external circuit as the cell
discharges,
• Electrolyte which provides a mechanism for charge to flow between positive and
negative electrodes.
• A separator which electrically isolates the positive and negative electrodes.
In some designs, physical distance between the electrodes provides the electrical isolation and
the separator is not needed.
In addition to the critical elements listed above, cells intended for commercial batteries normally
require a variety of packaging and current collection apparatus to be complete.
How a Cell Works
When a battery or cell is inserted into a circuit, it completes a loop which allows charge to flow
uniformly around the circuit. In the external part of the circuit, the charge flow is electrons result-
ing in electrical current. Within the cell, the charge flows in the form of ions that are transported
from one electrode to the other. The positive electrode receives electrons from the external circuit
on discharge. These electrons then react with the active materials of the positive electrode in
“reduction” reactions that continue the flow of charge through the electrolyte to the negative
electrode. At the negative electrode, “oxidation”! reactions between the active materials of the
negative electrode and the charge flowing through the electrolyte results in surplus electrons that
can be donated to the external circuit.
External Load

V The plate with the more positive potential is

known as the positive plate

Porous Separator

Electrolyte

-ve +ve

Figure 3-1 A Single Battery Electro-chemical Cell

It is important to remember that the system is closed. For every electron generated in an oxida-
tion reaction at the negative electrode, there is an electron consumed in a reduction reaction at
the positive.
As the process continues, the active materials become depleted and the reactions slow down until
the battery is no longer capable of supplying electrons. At this point the battery is discharged.

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Basic Battery Concepts

Recharging
The world of batteries divides into two major classes: primary and secondary batteries. Primary
batteries such as the common torch battery are used once and replaced. The chemical reactions
that supply current in them are irreversible. Secondary batteries can be recharged and reused.
They use reversible chemical reactions. By reversing the flow of electricity i.e. putting current in
rather than taking it out, the chemical reactions are reversed to restore active material that had
been depleted.
Secondary batteries are also known as rechargeable batteries, storage batteries or accumulators.

3. 2 Basic Battery Concepts

There are two parameters that measure battery performance: voltage and capacity. In very simple
terms, the voltage is the force propelling each of the electrons coming out of a battery and the
capacity is the number of electrons that can be obtained from a battery. How these parameters
relate to batteries is explained below.
3.2.1 Voltage
All lead batteries work on the same set of reactions and use the same active materials. At the
positive electrode, lead dioxide (PbO2) is converted to lead sulphate (PbSO4) and at the negative
electrode, sponge metallic lead (Pb) is also converted to lead sulphate (PbSO4). The electrolyte
is a dilute mixture of sulphuric acid that provides the sulphation for the discharge reactions.
The reduction and oxidation reactions, each produce a fixed potential. The sum of the reduction
and oxidation potential is the voltage of the cell. For example, the discharge reaction at the posi-
tive electrode for a lead-acid cell is PbO2 + SO4-2 + 4H+ + 2e-→ PbSO4 + 2H2O which has a
potential of 1.685 volts. The reaction at the negative electrode is Pb + SO4-2 → PbSO4 + 2e-
which has a potential of 0.356 volts. This means that the overall voltage of a lead-acid cell is
2.04 volts. This value is known as the standard electrode potential. Other factors, such as the
acid concentration can also effect the voltage of a lead-acid cell. The typical open circuit voltage
of commercial lead-acid cells is around 2.15 volts.
Thus the voltage of any battery cell is established depending on the cell chemistry. Nickel-cad-
mium cells are about 1.2 volts, lead-acid cells are about 2.0 volts, and lithium cells may be as
high as nearly 4 volts. Cells can be connected together so that their voltages accumulate. This
means lead-acid batteries with nominal voltages of 2v, 4v, 6v, etc. are available.
3.2.2 Capacity
While the voltage of a cell is fixed by its chemistry, cell capacity is variable depending on the
quantity of active materials it contains. Individual cells may range in capacity from fractions of
an ampere-hour to many thousands of ampere-hours.
The capacity of a cell is essentially the number of electrons that can be obtained from it. Since
current is the number of electrons per unit time, cell capacity is the current supplied by a cell
over time and is normally measured in ampere-hours (Ah).
3.2.3 Voltage and Capacity
Batteries normally consist of multiple cells that are electri-
cally connected. The way that the electrical connections
are made determines the voltage and capacity of the bat-
tery. If the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the
negative terminal of the next and so on through the battery
the result, as illustrated in Figure 3-2, is called a series-
connected battery. The voltage of this type of battery is the
sum of the individual cell voltages. For example, a 12-volt
battery consists of 6 x 2-volt lead-acid cells connected in
series. Although the voltages add, the cell capacity is fixed
at the value for the individual cell.
Figure 3-2 12V Battery Block (6 Cells in series)

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 Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Construction

The other way to connect cells within a battery is to connect the negative terminal from one cell
to the negative of the next cell and to connect the positive terminal to the positive terminal. When
this is done throughout the battery, the result is the parallel-connected battery. The capacities of
the individual cells add to make the battery capacity but the battery voltage remains as the volt-
age of the individual cell.
Series-connected batteries are far more common than parallel-connected. Usually it is easier to
get added capacity by just using a larger cell rather than a parallel-connected battery.
All of the battery connections may be made internally so that it is difficult to determine the
number of cells by external examination. However, knowing the voltage of the basic cell, it is
easy to determine the number of cells by dividing the cell voltage into the battery voltage.
Cells used for batteries should always be identical. Mixing cells of different chemistry or differ-
ent size may be hazardous and should be avoided.

3. 3 Battery Construction
While there are various choices for a rechargeable system, lead-acid batteries are still the most
commonly used for UPS and Stand-by systems. Lead-acid batteries are usually more economical
and have a high tolerance for abuse. The fact that all of the batteries used for starting, lighting,
and ignition (SLI) service on automobiles and trucks are lead-acid indicates their ability to with-
stand varied forms of maltreatment. Lead-acid batteries also provide motive power for
everything from fork-lift to submarines. Lead-acid batteries are also mainstays of the backup sys-
tems that provide power when the electrical supply fails. Now, development of the sealed-lead
battery has allowed lead technology to be used in applications such as electronics that need a
clean power source.
3.3.1 Secondary Lead Acid Batteries
Purely for convenience, batteries are made in 12 volt blocks using six cells but are also available
in 6 volt (three cell), 4 volt (two cell) and even 2 volt (single cell) blocks.
There are two main types of lead-acid batteries which may be used in back up power
applications:
• open - vented
• sealed or Valve Regulated VRLA

OPEN-VENTED SEALED/VRLA

Older technology Environmentally friendly

Separate battery room Suitable for office environments

Regular routine maintenance Low regular routine maintenance

Separate safety requirements Self-contained. Safe

Store/use in vertical position Store/use in any orientation

Note: The VRLA Lead-acid battery is now the battery of choice for modern UPS
systems.
Open Vented
Secondary batteries are made so that their chemical reactions can be reversed. This feature ena-
bles them to be recharged efficiently after they have delivered their electric energy. The most
common types of secondary batteries are lead-acid and nickel-cadmium storage batteries.
Lead-acid batteries consist of a plastic or hard-rubber container that holds three or six cells. Each
cell has two sets of lattice like electrodes or plates. The frames of these structures, called grids,
are made of a lead-antimony alloy. The meshes (open spaces) of the negative electrode are filled
with a mass of pure lead in spongy form. The meshes of the positive electrode contain lead diox-

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Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Construction

ide, a compound of lead and oxygen. An electrolyte of sulphuric acid and water surrounds the
electrodes.

Vent Hole Cap Connector to

next cell

Terminal Posts

Case

Cell

Lead Plate
(negative)

Separator

Lead Plate
(positive)

Figure 3-3 Typical Lead Acid Battery Construction

Most lead-acid storage batteries have six cells. Each cell contains two sets of lead electrodes
called plates. The plates are separated by plastic or rubber sheets. A solution of sulphuric acid,
called the electrolyte, surrounds the plates. Each terminal post on the outside of the battery is
connected to one set of plates. Vent holes in the case allow water to be added to the electrolyte
and also permit gases produced in the cell to escape.
During the discharge process, chemical reactions take place between the electrode materials and
the electrolyte. At the negative electrode, atoms of pure lead react with negative sulphate ions of
the electrolyte. The negative sulphate ions, along with positive hydrogen ions, form when sul-
phuric acid dissolves in water. As the lead atoms combine with the sulphate ions, each lead atom
loses two electrons and becomes a molecule of lead sulphate.
The electrons lost by the lead atoms flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode
through a device using the electric current. At the positive electrode, they are captured by mole-
cules of lead dioxide, which in turn combine with the hydrogen and sulphate ions of the
electrolyte. This reaction produces lead sulphate and water.
Adding together the positive and negative electrode reactions yields a combined discharge reac-
tion. Thus, sulphuric acid is consumed and water is produced during battery use. Eventually the
sulphuric acid becomes so diluted that the necessary chemical reactions can no longer occur.
After a lead-acid battery loses its ability to supply electricity, it can be recharged by means of a
battery charger. The battery charger forces electrons through the battery in a direction opposite to
that of the discharge process. This action reverses the chemical reactions that occur when a bat-
tery discharges.
The reversed reactions of the charging process restore the electrode materials to their original
form. They also increase the amount of sulphuric acid in the electrolyte to a satisfactory level.
After a battery has been charged, it can again produce current.
Nickel-cadmium storage batteries operate on the same general principles as lead-acid batteries
but use different chemical substances. In a nickel-cadmium battery, the negative electrode is
made of cadmium and the positive electrode of nickel oxide. A solution of potassium hydroxide
serves as the electrolyte.

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Battery Construction

The chemical composition of a nickel-cadmium battery allows the battery container to be sealed
airtight, which prevents the corrosive electrolyte from leaking. Because of this advantage, nickel-
cadmium batteries are used in drills, garden tools, and other portable equipment. Most space sat-
ellites use these batteries.
Sealed Rechargeable Batteries
Development work on the sealed-lead battery was begun in 1967 by subsidiaries of The Gates
Corporation with first commercial uses occurring in the early Seventies. It has become an
accepted high-performance power source for clean applications including computer power and
power backup, telecommunications, emergency lighting, security alarms, and consumer prod-
ucts. It is also becoming popular in cordless tools and appliances, electric vehicles, and other
applications which require frequent discharges.
The sealed lead cell shown in Figure 3-4 consists of positive and negative electrodes and their
accompanying separators that are wound in a spiral pattern. The electrodes consist of pure lead
grids pasted with mixtures of lead oxides. These oxides are converted to the proper active materi-
als when the cell receives its first charge in a process called formation. The pure lead supporting
grids allow the flexibility needed for winding the plate and also give excellent corrosion resist-
ance to prolong cell life. The separator consists of a fibrous glass mat. The cell works as a
starved electrolyte system where the quantity of electrolyte is limited to the amount that is either
absorbed in the plates or wets the fibres in the separator. The result is open gas paths between the
plates that allow gases evolved during overcharge to diffuse from one plate to the other where
they are recombined. This recombination provides a closed system reducing venting of gases
under normal overcharge conditions. A resealing safety vent is provided to handle pressure
buildup during abusive overcharges. Since the electrolyte is recycled, the water loss that requires
routine maintenance or limits life is minimized. The sealed-lead system has proven to provide
high performance and long life in a clean, compact package.

Terminal

Cover

Resealable
Safety Vent
Positive & Negative
Plates
Fibrous Separator

Plastic Internal
Container

Pure Lead Grids

Metal External
Container

Figure 3-4 Sealed Lead Acid Battery Construction

Note: Sealed valve regulated batteries (VRLA) used in stand-by power applications
have a similar construction to the battery shown in Figure 3-3, using the
sealed battery construction principles described above

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Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Life

3. 4 Battery Life
Every battery made has a rated “cycle life”. This is the number of “cycles” that the battery is
rated to perform. The number varies for a given battery based upon the following factors:
• Depth of discharge.
The percentage of the battery capacity that is used before the battery is fully
recharged.
• Operating temperature.
Higher average operating temperature decreases cycle life.
Lower average operating temperatures increase cycle life. (Operating temperatures
very much different from 70°F have other effects, see below. It is best to operate
between about 50° and 90°F.)
The number of cycles also will vary between different battery models due to the following:
• Amount of lead in the battery.
• Construction of the lead plates.
• Overall construction features of the battery.
3.4.1 Cycle Life, Depth of Discharge
Batteries that are cycled to a lower depth of discharge (say 30% of the battery capacity used ver-
sus 50%) will provide more cycles. If the energy per cycle is calculated, then multiplied by the
number of cycles, a lower depth of discharge results in more total power being delivered during
the battery’s life.
If the battery is discharged, but then not completely recharged before being discharged again,
this will have a bad effect on total cycles available. Batteries should always be recharged fully. It
is Very Poor operation to cycle the batteries between two partially discharged levels. i.e., dis-
charging the batteries down to 60%, then charging back to 90%, then discharging again is much
worse for the batteries than discharging to 70% then charging back to 100%, then discharging
again.
Over or ‘Deep’ Discharge
When a battery is discharged to the extent that its on-load voltage falls below a predetermined
limit, the battery is considered to be over discharged. Where extreme over discharging occurs the
battery is said to be deep discharged and both the battery’s capacity and its useful working life
will be adversely affected. Over discharging will cause sulphation of the plates within the battery
which results in an increase in the internal resistance (impedance) of the battery. In extreme
cases of deep discharge the battery may be unable to accept a recharge and, as such, will be at the
end of its useful working life. Depending upon the depth of over discharge, it may be possible
for the battery capacity to be recovered by very careful recharging. In the majority of critical
UPS applications, however, any battery that has been over discharged will require replacement.
3.4.2 Operating Temperature
Operating temperature has an effect on cycle life. It also has an effect on battery capacity. Most
manufacturers recommend a battery operating temperature of 20 to 25°C. Operation above this
temperature will result in increased capacity, but at the cost of decreased cycle life. An increase
of 10°C will halve the life expectancy of the cell. This can be mitigated by reducing the float
charge voltage but not by more than 20%.
Figure 3-5 shows how high temperatures will reduce the battery service life and in extreme cases
will cause thermal runaway, resulting in possible oxygen/hydrogen gas production and battery
swelling. VRLA batteries cannot be recovered from this condition and should be replaced.

Note: Extreme temperatures will destroy batteries.

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 Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Charge and Discharge

Years

100%

50%

Years of Design Life

25%

7%

3%

20 30 40 50 60 °C
Temperature

Figure 3-5 Temperature/Life Characteristics of aTypical VRLA Battery

Operation below the rated temperature will result in reduced capacity, but increased cycle life. It
is best to operate as close to the rated temperature as possible.
Figure 3-5 shows the extrapolated service life for a typical VRLA battery at different ambient
temperatures. As can be seen, higher ambient temperatures will reduce service life.
Fully charged batteries will not freeze until their temperature is about –40°F. This is the approxi-
mate freezing point of the concentrated sulphuric acid found in a charged battery. However, as a
battery discharges, the acid solution becomes more dilute, and the battery can freeze at a higher
temperature. The more discharged, the higher the freezing temperature. Thus, batteries stored
outside in the winter time should not be deeply discharged. Actual allowable depth of discharge
depends upon expected outside temperatures. Freezing the battery will stop the chemical reac-
tion, and more significantly, will probably crack the case.

3. 5 Battery Charge and Discharge

The faster a battery is discharged, the less power can be delivered. Because the electricity is
delivered by a chemical reaction, the reaction must have time to occur. The slower the reaction
occurs, the deeper it can reach into the lead plate material, delivering more total power. The same
is true for charging the battery. A slower charge results in more power put into the battery (within
limits).
3.5.1 Battery Rating
Batteries are rated for capacity (Amp Hours) based upon a set charging and discharging rate,
known as the C-factor. “C” stands for the total rated nominal capacity of the battery. The factor,
say C20, is the number of hours over which this capacity is to be delivered. Most batteries are
rated at a C20, or “20 hour” rate. Discharge them faster than in 20 hours, and capacity is reduced.
Discharge them slower, and capacity is increased.
When charging batteries, the charge rate needs to be controlled to be less than C20, preferably
less than C10. This means the system components should be selected and controlled to take
between 5 and 10 hours, minimum, to recharge the batteries to 100%. If the battery is only 50%
discharged, the time drops to about half. (Not quite half, because the charging at the end slow
down quite a bit to finish “filling” the battery.)

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Battery Connection

3.5.2 Sulphation/Undercharge
If a battery has an open-circuit voltage lower than its rated value, then sulphation may well be
the cause.
When a battery is left in a discharged state or for prolonged periods of storage, lead sulphate
crystals begin to form, acting as a barrier to recharge and preventing normal battery operation.
Depending on the degree of sulphation, a battery may be recovered by constant current charging
at a higher voltage with the current limited to one tenth of the battery capacity for a maximum of
12 hours.

Note: The applied voltage will exceed the normal recommendation and so the
battery must be monitored (not left unattended) and removed from charge if
excess heat is dissipated. The voltage required to ‘force’ this maximum
current into the battery will reduce as the battery recovers until normal
charging can take place.
In extreme circumstances a battery may never fully recover from sulphation and must therefore
be replaced.
3.5.3 Overcharge
Optimum charging relies mainly on voltage, current and temperature factors which are interre-
lated and all of which can cause overcharge.
Excessive charge voltages will force a high overcharge current into the battery, which will dissi-
pate as heat, and may cause gas emission through the safety valve (hence the term ‘Valve
Regulated’). Within a short period this will corrode the positive plate material and accelerate the
battery towards end-of-life.
3.5.4 AC Ripple
Batteries are dc power storage devices and require charging with dc voltage. Any ac voltage
superimposed upon the dc charging voltage is known as ac ripple and will adversely affect the
useful working life of the battery.
3.5.5 Charging
Correct charging of a VRLA battery is essential in order to maintain optimum performance and a
long useful life.
Circuitry within the Power Supply or UPS will ensure the correct charging method is used. In
most systems the battery is ‘float charged’ in which case the battery is continuously on charge
with a voltage of between 2.25 and 2.3 Volts/cell applied to it.

3. 6 Battery Connection
Battery blocks used in stand-by power systems are connected either in parallel to provide the
required “Capacity”, or in series string to gain the correct “Voltage” for the supported
equipment.
3.6.1 Series Strings
Note: In any battery configuration, all of the cells used in a series string must be
identical to each other.
A series string is a single series of blocks connected ‘end-to-end’ to form the battery.
The positive terminal of the first block is connected to the negative terminal of the second block,
the positive terminal of the second is connected to the negative of the third, etc.
The overall voltage of the battery is the sum of the individual block voltages and must be
arranged to match the float voltage setting of the UPS or charger circuit.

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 Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Connection

The capacity of the battery is unchanged

with this arrangement, being the same as
each individual block.

For example
If 12 x 12V 10Ah blocks are connected in
series, the resulting battery is 144V with a
10Ah capacity.

Figure 3-6 Serial Battery String

3.6.2 Parallel Strings
A parallel string is a combination of two or more series strings, and each string must contain the
same number of blocks. Batteries are paralleled for two main reasons. The primary reason is to
increase the capacity (Ah rating) of the battery bank. The other reason is to increase the resil-
ience of the battery bank so that a single faulty battery will not cause all of the batteries to be
unavailable to the supported load.
The positive terminal of the first battery string is connected to the positive terminal of the second
battery string, the positive terminal of the second is connected to the positive of the third, etc.
The negative terminal of the first battery string is connected to the negative terminal of the sec-
ond battery string, the negative terminal of the second is connected to the negative of the third,
etc.
The overall voltage of the battery is the same as the voltage of each string.
The capacity of the battery is the sum of the capacities of the individual strings.
For example
If 3 strings of 12 x 12V 10Ah
batteries are connected in
parallel,
the resulting battery is 144V
with a 30 Ah capacity.

Figure 3-7 Parallel Battery Strings

It is unusual for more than six battery strings to be paralleled.

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Chapter 3 - Battery Theory
Battery Protection

3. 7 Battery Protection
Protection for battery systems will normally take the form of Fuses or Circuit breakers connected
in series with the battery, normal in the positive and negative lines. They provide protection for
the battery and supported equipment, from excessive levels of current. This overcurrent may
occur if there is a short circuit within the battery string or a high charging current is generated.
3.7.1 Transition Boxes
Transition boxes are used to simplify the connection of a battery to a UPS or power supply.
In addition to providing space for the correct termination of battery cables they also contain suit-
able fuses to protect the individual battery strings and associated cabling.

String 1

Fuses
String 2

Fuses

Figure 3-8 Fused Transition Boxes for Two Battery Strings

When two or more parallel battery strings need to be connected to the same UPS, it is common to
use transition boxes. Fused transition boxes allow individual battery strings and cables to be pro-
tected and also enable an individual battery string to be safely isolated for maintenance or repair
without completely disconnecting the UPS equipment.
It is important to keep the lengths of cables within each battery string approximately the same to
ensure that the impedance (and hence the current share) of each battery string is approximately
the same.

3. 8 Battery Sizing
Stand-by batteries are sized to provide emergency back-up power to a Power Supply or UPS in
the event of a total or partial loss of ac input supply.

Note: Statistically 95% of all mains disturbances last for less than 5 minutes with
anything longer likely to last for many hours.
A typical stand-by battery must be able to support the load for the time determined by the user
and then have enough additional capacity to allow time for a generator to start, or for an orderly
shut down of the critical load or application.
3.8.1 Calculation
To select the correct size of battery requires, as a minimum, two pieces of information:
• battery load and
• required back-up or autonomy time.
Battery Load
The load on a UPS battery can be calculated by adding the actual UPS load to the losses in the
UPS inverter section.

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Battery Sizing

Example:
If the load connected to the UPS is 40kVA at a power factor of 0.8,
then UPS load = 32kW.
If the UPS Inverter efficiency is 90%,
then the inverter losses = 3.5kW
The battery must then supply 32 + 3.5 = 35.5kW (dc) to support the load.
The very latest generation of on-line UPS have inverter efficiency of up to 97%, producing
longer battery autonomies than could previously be achieved from the same battery connected to
a UPS with a less efficient inverter.
Back-up or Autonomy Time
This is the time that the battery must support the load described above and is often called auton-
omy or discharge time.
Batteries are sold in discrete sizes with various Ampere hour ratings (Ah) so a calculation must
be performed to establish the correct battery blocks to be used.
Example:
The battery must supply the load of 35.5kW (dc) for 10 minutes.
The battery voltage is fixed at 576 Volts (by the battery charger/rectifier),
therefore the battery must supply 61.63 Amperes for 10 minutes.

Note: The calculation given above is simplified as the actual battery voltage will
drop as the battery discharges
Battery manufacturers will usually supply graphs or tables which can be used with this informa-
tion to establish exactly which size of battery should be used.
In the example, typical manufacturers’ data shows that 48 batteries (576 volts) of capacity 24Ah
will support the load for 10 minutes.
Most UPS systems have fixed dc bus voltages and therefore the battery autonomy is increased
either by increasing the Ampere hour rating of the batteries used, or by paralleling battery
strings, or both.
Some modern UPS systems have variable dc bus voltages so that the battery configuration can be
optimised for autonomy and/or physical size and/or cost.

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Battery Sizing

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