EROSION

Erosion is defined as the removal of soil, sediment, regolith, and rock fragments from the
landscape. Most landscapes show obvious evidence of erosion. Erosion is responsible for the
creation of hills and valleys. It removes sediments from areas that were once glaciated, shapes
the shorelines of lakes and coastlines, and transports material down-slope from elevated sites. In
order for erosion to occur three processes must take place: detachment, entrainment and
transport. Erosion also requires a medium to move material. Wind, water, and ice are the
mediums primarily responsible for erosion. Finally, the process of erosion stops when the
transported particles fall out of the transporting medium and settle on a surface. This process is
called deposition.

Erosion can also be defined as the process of weathering and transport of solids (sediment, soil,
rock and other particles) in the natural environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere.
It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by down-slope creep of soil and other
material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the
case of bioerosion.

Erosion is a natural process, but it has been increased dramatically by human land use, especially
industrial agriculture, deforestation, and urban sprawl. Land that is used for industrial agriculture
generally experiences a significant greater rate of erosion than that of land under natural
vegetation, or land used for sustainable agricultural practices. This is particularly true if tillage is
used, which reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the soil and disturbs both soil structure
and plant roots that would otherwise hold the soil in place. However, improved land use
practices can limit erosion, using techniques such as terrace-building, conservation tillage
practices, and tree planting.

A certain amount of erosion is natural and, in fact, healthy for the ecosystem. For example,
gravels continuously move downstream in watercourses. Excessive erosion, however, causes
serious problems, such as receiving water sedimentation, ecosystem damage and outright loss of
soil.

Erosion is distinguished from weathering, which is the process of chemical or physical

breakdown of the minerals in the rocks, although the two processes may occur concurrently.

In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind. The general wind circulation moves small
particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of
origin, which is known as deflation. Erosion can be the result of material movement the wind.
There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore by moved
to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid
objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in
areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support
vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a
homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-
grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a
widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters
thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich
soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally
productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very
readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to
reduce the wind erosion of loess.

Our natural environment comprises a number of elements that are affected in quantum by the
presence of external forces like wind, water and ice. Soil, rock and sediments from river beds
and mountainous terrain are displaced by these forces regularly, by the minute. While the force
of gravity is the major influencing factor, burrowing animals and chemical or physical
weathering are also responsible for erosion. Erosion occurs concurrently, with the slightest shift
in velocity or movement of the force responsible. Wind erosion is a natural process, but can also
be induced or magnified via indiscriminate land use, deforestation, unmonitored construction,
overgrazing and urbanization.

Wind velocity plays a very important role in the displacement of surface soil. Soil erosion not
only disturbs the balance between the soil structure and plant roots, but also disrupts terrace-
cultivation in a major way. Conservative practices in agriculture for tilling and sowing are
affected by wind erosion. The ecosystem allows for a certain quantum of erosion; however, loss
of soil in large quantities takes a long time to get replaced and causes damage to the delicate
balance of nature. The rate of wind erosion depends on precipitation, temperature, wind speed
and soil and rock type. These geologic factors affect the well-being of natural vegetation, living
organisms as well as human life. Ecosystems with high-intensity winds are likely to be subjected
to more erosion. Sediment and silt content on slopes are lost in the presence of strong winds. The
resultant removal from one area and deposit in another affects the porosity and permeability of
the surface.

Ground cover, both the litter and organic layers, is held firm by embedded roots and compacted
rocks that stay firm due to precipitation and pressure. However, construction of roads and
buildings and wanton deforestation increased the rate of wind erosion. The wind is able to easily
blow away the sediments and ground cover that has come loose due to human action. These
actions also impact drainage patterns, embankments and soil compaction, leading to exposure of
mineral soil. Heavy grazing and drastic changes in vegetation also magnify the rate of wind
erosion. Slash and burn treatments and shifting cultivation not only expose the ground cover to
greater wind erosion, but also affect the habitats of dependent living organisms. Treatments such
as these also render the region unproductive. The soil within a region slowly degenerates and
becomes less fertile. Sad but true, nearly 40% of available agricultural land is thus degraded.
Increased human and animal activities make erosion by wind easier and damaging to the
ecosystem.

Overpopulation ripples on to vegetation removal for construction purpose and furrowing for
vehicles, which in turn leads to mass wastage by wind velocity and movement. The erosion
process involves the movement of sediment from higher to lower elevations, with sudden,
disastrous results. The responsible mechanisms for the displacement include manifestation of
topographical shifts. Depressions thus formed magnify the impact of poor engineering along the
soil surface. Detached and airborne soil particles break soil aggregate and lower infiltration rate.
This results in surface runoff during the monsoons. Concentrated and ephemeral flow routes
constitute a change in the environment hydraulics. Wind erosion is largely the result of many
superimposed, interactive processes. The bioerosion doubled in character due to scraping and
grinding abrasion processes result in rock wedges and fissures, and ultimately, a breakdown.
Wind erosion causes deflation of surface sediment by ecological succession. Global air
temperature and precipitation intensities lead to greater rate of wind erosion.
\wind erosion is carried out in the following ways:
a. Deflation: This is the lifting and blowing away of loose sand and pebbles by wind. This
results in the lowering of the land surface to form large depressions called deflation
hollows.
b. Abrasion: This is the process whereby sand particles carried by wind are used to blast or
wear away rock surfaces as in rock pedestal, zeugen and yandang.
c. Attrition: This is the process whereby wind borne particles collide with one another,
resulting in the wearing away of each other. This results in reduced and rounded sizes of
the particles.

Features of Wind Erosion

1. Rock pedestals: A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a
naturally occurring rock whose shape, as its name implies, strikingly resembles a
mushroom. The rocks are formed in a number of different ways: the processes of erosion
and weathering, glacial action or from a sudden disturbance.

2. Zeugen: These are tabular masses with a layer of soft rocks lying beneath a surface layer
of hard rocks. It has a long ridge and furrow landscape with length 10- 30 meters. They
are formed by wind abrasion in deserts. The wind abrasion wears the mass into a ridge
and furrow landscape leading to the formation zeugen. Mechanical weathering starts the
formation by opening up joints of the surfaces of hard rocks.
3. Yardangs: A yardang is a Streamlined hill carved from bedrock or any consolidated or
semiconsolidated material by the dual action of wind abrasion, dust and sand, and
deflation. Yardangs are elongate features typically three or more times longer than they
are wide, and when viewed from above, resemble the hull of a boat. Facing the wind is a
steep, blunt face that gradually gets lower and narrower toward the lee end.

4. Mesas and Buttes: Mesa is a flat, table like land mass. It is a resistant horizontal top
layers with steep sides and is made up of soft and hard layers. It is a characteristic
landform of arid environments, particularly the southwestern United States. Many
examples are also found in Spain, Sardinia, North and South Africa, Arabia, India,
Australia, badlands and Colorado regions of North America. The largest mesa in the
world is considered to be the Grand Mesa located in western Colorado in the United
States. The term "mesa" is used throughout the United States to describe a flat-topped
mountain or hill. In Spanish such a landform is more usually known as a meseta.

A butte is a conspicuous isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small,
relatively flat top; it is smaller than mesas, plateaus, and tables. In some regions, such as
the north central and northwestern United States, the word is used for any hill. The word
"butte" comes from a French word meaning "small hill"; its use is prevalent in the
 western United States, including the southwest, where "mesa" is also used. Because of
their distinctive shapes, buttes are frequently key landmarks in both plains and
mountainous areas. In differentiating mesas and buttes, geographers use the rule that a
mesa has a top wider than its height, while a butte's top is narrower.

5. Ventifacts and Dreikanters: These are pebbles sharpen or faceted by sand blasting.
Wind abrasion shapes and polishes the pebbles and new facets develop when wind
faceted develop when wind direction changes. Ventifacts with three wind raceted
surfaces are called Dreikanters.

Deposition

The erosional transport of material through the landscape is rarely continuous. Instead, we find
that particles may undergo repeated cycles of entrainment, transport, and deposition. Transport
depends on an appropriate balance of forces within the transporting medium. A reduction in the
velocity of the medium, or an increase in the resistance of the particles may upset this balance
and cause deposition. Reductions in competence can occur in a variety of ways. Velocity can be
reduced locally by the sheltering effect of large rocks, hills, stands of vegetation or other
obstructions. Normally, competence changes occur because of large scale reductions in the
velocity of flowing medium. For wind, reductions in velocity can be related to variations in
spatial heating and cooling which create pressure gradients and wind. In water, lower velocities
can be caused by reductions in discharge or a change in the grade of the stream. Glacial flows of
ice can become slower if precipitation input is reduced or when the ice encounters melting.
Deposition can also be caused by particle precipitation and flocculation. Both of these processes
are active only in water. Precipitation is a process where dissolved ions become solid because of
changes in the temperature or chemistry of the water. Flocculation is a chemical process where
salt causes the aggregation of minute clay particles into larger masses that are too heavy to
remain suspended.

Due to wind erosion, landforms have experienced drastic changes in their shapes, forms and
names. Hence, there are various landforms classified as wind deposits. The process of their
formation is known as Wind Deposition.

Sand dunes, inselbergs, barchans and ripples are the depositions of the wind. They will be
clearly discussed below.

1. The most common wind-formed deposit is the sand dune, found in deserts and on the
shores of oceans and lakes. Dunes are formed by sand accumulating around any object
that serves as an obstacle to the wind. As windblown sand is deposited in the lee of such
an obstacle, the wind is slowed still more, and the dune continues to grow. Dunes in some
localities may reach a height of 200 m (650 ft). When materials finer than sand are
carried by the wind and are finally dropped to earth, the deposit that results is known as
loess. Thick layers of loess are found in Europe and the Americas, and loess deposits of
 Asia reach a thickness of several hundred meters. They are the basis for some of the
richest agricultural soils of the world. A mainland shoreline may also be protected from
ocean waves by barrier islands, which are long, narrow islands running parallel to the
mainland shore. A shallow bay, sometimes called a lagoon, separates barrier islands from
the mainland. A barrier island may have formed as a spit, or as a sand dune that has since
been drowned by rising sea levels. Barrier islands tend to migrate, as a result of the action
of wind and/or water.

2. Inselberg: A monadnock or an inselberg is an isolated hill or mountain, often heavily

eroded on its lower slopes, rising abruptly from a plain. It is formed from the existence of
extensive old plateau. It is caused as a result of weathering. Examples are found in
Northern Nigeria, Kalahari Desert and Western Australia.

3. Barchans: A barchan is a crescentic or moon shaped structure. They may occur in groups
or singly. A barchans has a convex shape on the windward side and a concave shape at
the leeward side with horns of 15- 30m long. It is formed by wind deposition in deserts.
They are deert landforms. E.g. Turkerstan desert,Sahara desert. It is formed when an
obstacle like rock impedes the movement of winds, resulting in the accumulation of sand
 materials. Later, the sand begins to accumulate on the other side or the obstacle, leading
to a crescentric structure with horns called Barchan.

4. Ripples: These are miniture sand dunes between 5 centimeters and 2 meters in height and
0.1 to 5 centimeters in height. They are created by saltation when the sand grains are of
similar size and the wind has a constant speed. Also called sand ripples. A series of small
wavy ridges created in sand or silt by wind or water are called wind ripple mark or sand
ripple marks. They can be found in Argentina.