Emily Peters

Biology Semester Review

Period 2

Bio Review Sheet

Selective breeding- selecting the parents for a next generation
• Based on increased yield of crops, production, or disease resistance.
• Luther Burbank was first to do it.

Inbreeding- crossing individuals with similar characteristics so the traits with show in
offspring.
• Problems: genetics of an organism could become too similar. Recessive
genetic defects.
Hybridization- cross between dissimilar individuals- could be different by related species.
• Often stronger (vigor)
Mutations- increase mutations using mutagens, which are anything that cause mutation.

Transgenic Organism-
• Bacteria producing human insulin and human growth hormone.

Cloning- a clone is a member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from

a cell.

Karyotype- Picture of chromosomes

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 1 is a sex chromosome XX = female XY= male,

the rest are autosomes.

Blood Grouping- the clumping due to proteins on the surface of red blood cells is called
antigens. (Types: A, B, AB –universal recipient, O- universal donor) The Rh factor
determines if the blood is positive or negative.
• Polygenes- pairs of genes determined by expression of a trait.
• Sex- linked traits- located on the sex chromosome. (colorblindness,
Hemophilia, Muscular Dystrophy- on the X chromosome)
• No disjunction- Turner’s Syndrome= lack ovaries, short, larger neck;
Klinfelter’s syndrome = reduced fertility, mentally retarded, feminist XXY
• Downs Syndrome, PKU dosent develops mentally and emotionally.
• Evolution- process In which organisms change over time
• DNA Fingerprinting= use DNA to identify individuals

• Darwin- grew up wealthy, studied at Cambridge, had always had an interest in natural
history, decided to sail as a captain’s companion on the HMS Beagle (5 years), On the
beagle he took specimen and preserved them. Made detailed observations and studied
them for the next 22 years. He was impressed by the diversity of life. Collected unknown
fossils and found fossils of marine animals on the mountain tops sp surmised must have
been water at one time. Planned on writing 6 books. While writing he received a short
manuscript from Alfred Wallace, an English naturalist, that was studying in Indonesia.
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Biology Semester Review
Period 2

Wallace came up with the same ideas as Darwin did. Both presented their ideas at the
Linnaeus Society in 1858. Because Darwin could support his ideas better, his name was
credited. Published the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in
1859. Spent last years of his life supporting his theory. Also suffered from headaches.
Hypochondriac? Influences= Lamarck, Lyell, Malthus.

• The Theory- Natural Selection= survival of the fittest. The Organisms physical traits or
their phenotypes and their behavior help an organism survive and reproduce in its
environment. If it isn’t suited to the environment then it won’t live or reproduce.
Gradualism= through time we see a gradual change in the organisms as the organisms
were able to reproduce and pass their variation to the next generation. Examples of
Darwin’s ideas=there were both long and short necked giraffes but the long necked could
reach the trees, and the short ones couldn’t so they starved and didn’t reproduce. Only
long necked giraffe reproduced and that trait was passed down to their offspring. (Darwin
knew nothing about genetics at this time.)

• Creationists believe that there has been no change in the Earth or organisms on the Earth
since the time of creation.

• Common Descent- modern organisms have been produced through evolution. New
organisms come from preexisting organism. If you look far enough back then all species
have a common ancestor. An evolution doesn’t explain how life began.

• Evidence- Fossils=earth more than 4 billion yrs old rather than a few thousand. Hutton
and Lyell were geologist’s earths changing through natural forces. Radioactive
(Absolute) Dating= rocks made up of many elements some radioactive. Will decay over
time to a nonradioactive substance. Rate of radioactive decay is called half life. C14=
5770 yrs. K40= 1/3 billion years U238= 4.5 billion years.

• Similarities- embryos of different animals look similar. This tells us similar genes are at
work in early development. Homologous Structures= limbs grow into wings, legs,
flippers, and they have the same origin just a different function. Helps the animal survive
in that environment. Vestigial Structures- they no longer have a purpose.

• Classification- Aristotle created the first classification system divided into herbs (soft
stems), shrubs (several woody stems), and trees (woody stems). And the animals into
land, water, and air dwellers. Carolos Linnaeus- classified on structural similarity. He
divided them into 2 kingdoms (plants an animals); then into kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, then species. If an organism has the same genus and species it can
interbreed. Name in two parts =binomial nomenclature (genus, then species). We now
have 6 kingdoms 1) Eubacteria 2) Archaebacteria 3) Protista 4) Fungi 5) Plant 6) Animal.
The larger taxon is called a domain 1) Bacteria 2) Archea 3) Eukarya .When scientists
look at evolutionary trends that is phylogeny. Cladograms are used to show evolutionary
trends.
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Biology Semester Review
Period 2

• Viruses- the first viruses were seen in 1944 with an electron microscope. The structure=
unicellular article made up of genetic material. To become active it requires a host cell.
Bacteria virus- bacteriophage, plant virus=TMV, Animal Virus- polio.

• Lytic Cycle= Virus attaches to the receptor site of the host’s cell wall. The DNA or RNA
is injected into a cell- the protein coat is left outside. Viruses’ DNA serves as new
genetic code codes for more viruses DNA and protein- cell now makes more viruses-
some virus genes turns off host’s cells. Cell Wall breaks open and the viruses are
released to attack other host cells.

• Lysogenic infection- virus enters the cell but doesn’t reproduce and lyses the cell.
Instead the virus DNA inserts itself on the host DNA (called propage) and goes through
mitosis with cell- lies dormant. This propage may block the entry of other viruses.
Eventually viral DNA becomes active and causes copies of it to be made cell lyses.

• Prokaryotes- 1) Eubacteria= common 2) Archaebacteria= harsher environment (older).

• Gram staining= Gram + = violet; gram - = red

• Metabolic diversity=heterotrophic or autotrophic and are they releasing energy?
• Respiration- aerobic (with oxygen) obligate aerobes. Anaerobic- obligate
anaerobes. Facultative- they live in both.
• Binary Fission (reproduction)
• Endospore- method of survival
• Uses- food, waste water treatment, nitrogen fixation
• Control methods- temperature, sterilization, chemical, and drying things out.

• Animal Kingdom= multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs, who lack cell walls.

There are vertebrates(have a backbone) and invertebrate(don’t have a backbone).Division
of eating (Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Parasites, Filter Feeders, Detritus Feeders).
Symmetry= 1) bilateral= body can be divided into 2 equal/ identical halves. There are 2
sides; dorsal=back, ventral=lower surface/belly. Anterior= head end.

• Porifera (Sponges) = they are believed to have evolved from single celled
organisms. They have many pores and they are also asymmetrical. They have 2 cell layers.
They get their food with sessile which are attached to the surface. Filter feeder- food enters
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Biology Semester Review
Period 2

through the pores and is caught by flagellated choanocyte cells. The choanocytes also
digest the food. Archaeocytes absorb the digested food and carry it to the other cells. They
receive oxygen through their pores. Reproduction= budding; regeneration; sexual. Sponges
DO NOT have a nervous system. They provide habitats for many marine animals.

• Cnidarians (jellyfish and hydra, coral)= soft bodied with stinging cells arranged in
the mouth. Layers- epidermis, mesoglea, gastro dermis. They have radial symmetry.
There are 2 body forms the polyp and the medulla. Food getting= use tentacles to sting the
prey. Excretion- undigested food passes through the body wall. Respiration= diffusion
through the epidermis and gastro dermis. They have a primitive nervous system.
Statocysts= control balance. Either asexual or sexual.

• Platy helminthes= bilateral symmetry, cephalization (development of a brain). 1)

Free Living- Either carnivores or scavengers. Mouth=a pharynx. Excretion= flame cells.
Respiration= diffusion- oxygen and carbon dioxide. Nervous system= simple brain, 2
nerve chord. Locomotion= use cilia to glide. Asexual. If sexual- they are hermaphrodites.
2) Parasite Classes= uses blood and tissue for food. May use the digested food from its
host. Excretion and respiration both by diffusion. Have no nervous system. Limited
locomotion. Asexual. Or sexual- complicated lifestyles.

• Flukes= found in blood vessels surrounding the intestine. Fertilized eggs are
released when the blood vessels opens and exit with feces. Poor sanitation. The eggs get
into the water and hatch into swimming larva. Larva then enters the snail. When the larvae
are living in the snails they undergo asexual reproduction. Bore through skin and get into
the bloodstream.

• Tape Worm= Head is called the scolex. Have suckers as well as hooks. They
absorb from the host’s intestine. The rest of the body is made into sections called
proglottids. Each one has male and female parts. Each proglottid contains 100.000 eggs.

• Roundworms= 2 openings (mouth and anus). Can be either free living or

parasitic. Hookworms; elephantitis.

• Annelid= 1) Oligochaetes (earthworms) 2) Leeches 3) Polychaetes. Annelids are

worms with segmented bodies with bristles called setae attached to each segment.
Circulation-closed. Nitrogen wastes are passed through the nephdia. Response- well
developed nervous system. Movement (2 major groups of muscles.) Sexual reproduction.

• Oligochates- uses the gizzard. Closed circulatory system. Hermaphrodites.

Clitellum= the sticky band that keeps the mating worms together. They mix and aerate the
soil.

• Leeches= external parasites. They have an external extension that they use to suck
the blood called the proboscis. Can suck up to 5x the blood of their own body weight.
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Biology Semester Review
Period 2

• Polychaetes- either filter feeders or predators. Have paddle like appendages tipped
with setae. Live in marine habitats.

• Gastropods= have a single shell or no shell. Live on land. Mantle cavity acts as a
lung using diffusion. Feeding uses a tongue.

• Bivalves- filter feeders. Poorly developed nervous system. Separate sexes. Use
gills for respiration. The heart surrounds the intestine.

• Arthropods- they have jointed legs. Some appendages are modified into legs,
wings, or claws. Their exoskeleton is their suit of armor that also prevents water loss.
Grow by molting. Segmented bodies. Book lungs= spiders. Separate sexes many times the
male is eaten by the female. Metamorphosis. Incomplete metamorphosis- egg-> nymph->
adult. Complete Metamorphosis= egg -> larva-> pupa -> adult/ They have a dorsal brain
with a ventral nerve chord.

• Crustacean= have a hard exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate. They have 2 or

3 body segments.

• Chelicerata-have a cephalothoraxes. And an abdomen. Their mouthparts are are

chelicerae and pedipalps.

• Arachnids- 4 pairs of legs. Capture prey with webs. Ocelli but eyesight is poor.
Female eats the male after mating. Pedipalps are modified into claws.

• Uniramia- 1 pair of legs per body segment. 1 pair of poison glands on each body
segment. Head, thorax, and abdomen.

• Communication using pheromones and there is also a bee dance (round=closer,

and waggle= farther away)

• Fish= all types of feeders. Their digestive system is mouth, stomach, pyloric
ceca, intestine, and the anus. Respiration= gills. Swim bladders- regulate air pressure to all
swimming at various depths. Closed circulatory system. 2 chambered heart. Atrium and a
ventricle. Excretion= kidneys. The brain= Olfactory lobe= smell; Cerebrum= smell and
nourishment of young; Optic Lobes= sight; Cerebellum= body movement; Medulla=
balance. Oviparous= female releases eggs, male fish then externally fertilizes them.
Ovoviviparous= internal fertilization. The eggs develop from a yolk sac inside of the
mother. Viviparous= internal fertilization direct nourishment from fetus.

• Jawless fish- lamprey and hagfish. Have no backbone. Larvas are filter feeders.
The mouth is a circular row of teeth.
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Biology Semester Review
Period 2

• Cartilaginous fish- sharks, rays, skates.

• Bony Fish- osteichthyes- most have scales.

• Amphibians= as young they breathe with gills and as adults they breathe with
lungs and skin. Adaptations= bones and limbs had to become stronger. Formation of ribs
to support internal organs. Ears to receive sound waves, and development of lungs.
Circulation= closed. 3 chambered heart. Eye has a nictitating membrane. Oviparous.