Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Electronic Instrumentation

Chapter 1
Introduction

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Chapter 1. Introduction
• Basic Architecture for an Electronic/Optoelectronic
Instrumentation Measurement System. Definitions.
• Sensors and Categories of Sensor by Input Mechanisms
• Characterization of Sensors and Measurement Systems
• Calibration Curve/Transfer Function
• Static Characteristics
• Dynamic Characteristics
• Errors in Measurements
• Summary

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Basic Architecture for an Electronic

Instrumentation Measurement System
q: Sensor/transducer output Vo: Output voltage of the
(electrical magnitude) Signal conditioning circuit

m
q Vo
Sensor/ Analog Signal ADC
p1 p2 Transducer Conditioning
p3

Storage Digital Signal

m: Magnitude to be measured Conditioning:
Transmission
p1, p2,… : Influence magnitudes/variables
FPGA, µC,
Display µP, DSP

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Basic Architecture for an Opto-Electronic

Instrumentation Measurement System

Light
Light Input m
Output q Vo
Analog Signal
p1 p2 Detection
Conditioning
p3

• Light Input from a Semiconductor laser diode or LED (sometimes not necessary).
• “Optical Signal conditioning” sometimes present (eg. Interferometer).
• Output from detector can be either a current (photodiode) an impedance change (photoconductor) or a
voltage (photovoltaic sensor).
• The information from the interest magnitude can be either in the amplitude, phase, polarization or
wavelength of the light.

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Sensors
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and
responds with an electrical signal

• There is always a form of energy conversion associated to the transduction

process.
• A sensor can be a simple sensor or can be a complex system.
• Sensors can be classified in many ways depending on the criteria chosen:
• Field of applications
• Conversion Phenomena
• Specification
• Other

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Categories of Sensor Input Mechanisms

• Resistive Sensors
• Variable Inductance/Magnetic Coupling
Passive Sensors
Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors

• Voltage Generating Sensors

Active Sensors
• Current Generating Sensors/optical Sensors

• Other Sensors

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Characterization of Sensors and

Measurement Systems
• Transfer Function:

• Calibration Curve (static):

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Calibration Curve
9
Output (q)

7
• Input Range
6
Output Range

• Output Range
5

4
• Span

3 • Full Scale Input

2
• Full-Scale Output
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Input Range Magnitude (m)

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Calibration Curve: Example

RT/R0

3,5 Pt100
Cu100
3
Ni120
2,5

1,5

0,5

-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 T, ºC

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Sensitivity
9
Output (q)

8
• Definition:
7

4
• Local Value
3
• UNITS!!
2
• Slope of the transfer
1
function (local)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)

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Non-Linearity
9 •Associated to a linear
Output (q)

approximation of the
8
transfer function.
Least-Squares
7 aproximation
•IMPORTANT: Different
6 linear aproximations
5
may be used, leading to
different non-linearity
4 error values
3 •Maximum deviation
2 Terminal points from the nonlinear
aproximation transfer function
1 (usually in percent of
FS value)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Hysteresis
9
Output (q)

8 •Deviation of the sensor’s

output at specified point
7
when it is approached
6 from the opposite
directions (usually in
5
percent of FS value)
4

• Typical causes of
3
Hysteresis are friction
2 and structural changes in
the materials
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Resolution
• Resolution: The smallest increment of the input that can be sensed.
• Important: For sensors with a continuous response some texts talk about
infinitesimal resolution. That does not mean “infinite Resolution”.
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2

Amplitude (mV)
0.2
Amplitude (mV)

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6

-0.8 -0.8
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
time (ms) time (ms)

Limited by the Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N=0dB)

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Resolution
• In sensors with discrete
Output (q)

response (after ADC

1000
conversion for exampled),
the minimum resolution
0110
achievable is usually
limited by A/D quantization
error (step size).
0100

• NOTE: that only will be

10
true if the resolution
asociated to the SN ratio at
the ADC input is lower than
00
0 2 4 6 8
the ADC’s resolution.
Input (m)

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Precision/Accuracy
9
Output (q)

8
• Precision: consistency of
7 the measurement. It is
associated to the capacity of
6
the sensor to give the same
5 output (measurement) under
the same input (Stimulus).
4

3 • In modern sensors
uncertainty is preferred
2
asociated to the Limiting error
1 of the measurement (to be
discussed later)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude (m)

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Precision
80
Sample Count

70
• Precision of the nth measurement
60

50

40
• Where:

30

20

10

0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75
Measured Value (q)

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NOTE
• Precision: Quality of the system to give always the same output under
the same stimulus (input)

• Accuracy: Error between the measurement and the true value (Y): i.e.
conformance between the measurement and the standard.

Accurate Measurements require the use of a

precision measurement system which is
calibrated against a certified, accurate standard

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Other Parameters
• Stability: Quality of the system to maintain its characteristics under
changes of the measurement conditions (e.g. Temperature) or aging.
Usually characterized through drifts in the calibration curve (offset &
sensitivity drifts).

• Dead Band: Insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of input signals.

• Those related to the physical/electronic characteristics of the

sensor/transducer:

• Output Impedance
• Excitation (Power supply) Example of Datasheet
• Weigh
• ……

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Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic Transfer Function: V (t ) = f [m(t ),...]
• Transient Response:
• Previous characteristics assume a steady state. The time response shows
the behavior of the sensor or the instrumentation system to the changes in
the magnitude of interest by observing the signal output with time. The
step response is used as a basic test and for characterizing the system.
• Basic parameters are: overshoot in the under-damped response, peak
time, settling time that is the time to reach and thereafter remain within a
prescribed percentage of the steady-state value (5%), rise time and delay.
• Frequency Response:
• Range of work frequencies, bandwidth and types of pass-band.
• Some cases don´t respond to a constant. Even more, narrow-band ones.
• Dynamic sensitivity for the amplitude. Don´t forget the phase.

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Parameters of the time response

Step response
Output response
Error band (±ε)
tp
Os
Value 2 • Os: overshoot
100%
tr
• ts: settling time
50%
• tr: rise time
t10-90
0% Value 1
• td: delay
td • tp: peak time
ts

Magnitude of interest: analog step or discrete change

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Frequency response
F [ jω ] Dynamic sensitivity: sensitivity for each frequency input

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Dynamic Characteristics
• Step Response: • Frequency Response: F [ jω ]

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Errors in Measurements

All measuring instruments should be regarded as

guilty until proven innocent (P.K. Stein)

Sources/Classification of Errors
• Systematic Errors
• Random Errors (Noise/Interference)
• Gross Errors (Northrop)/Human Errors (Stein)

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Limiting Error (LE)

Limiting Error (guarantee error) describes the

outer bounds of the expected worst case error

• It includes all source of errors (gross/human errors

apart)
• Value given by designer/manufacturers to specify
the precision (accuracy) of the instrument/sensor
• Related to uncertainty

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Systematic Errors (I)

• The output of a sensor or a complete measurement
system (Vo) will be function of the mesurand (q)
and other, indirect factors, along with the
characteristics of signal conditioning.

• The influence of this factors in the final output is

deterministic. Sources:
• Signal conditioning and its imperfections.
• Influence Variables.

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Propagation of Systematic Errors

• As the influence of the different parameters is
deterministic, the combined effect of errors (∆xi)
using the linear error-propagation law using Taylor
series and removing all second and higher-order
terms.

• Usually is expressed in relative error.

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Example
• Let’s calculate the LE in the calculation of the DC
power in a resistor from the measurement of the
current and its value:

• If we use a 2% precision multimeter and the value

of the resistor is known to the 1%, the LE in the DC
power calculation is 5%
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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Influence Variables
• The output of the sensor is related not only to the
measurand value and the signal conditioning
(former example), but to other environmental
variables:
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Vibration
• ….
• The influence is also studied using the deterministic
linear error propagation law that allows also for
cancelation of effects (next chapter).

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Random Errors (I)

• Associated to any measurement or electronic
signal we find random, non-deterministic variations
as the result of different sources:
• Electronic noise (Johnson, shot,..)
• Interference
• It is important to note that whilst some sources
may well be truly random (noise), some can be
rendered as systematic (interference) if enough
effort is devoted to discover and model the
sources. However, usually is easier to model them
directly as noise.

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 Introduction Electronic Instrumentation

Propagation of Random Errors

• In this case all the sources are independent and
their influence are added to the variance of the
final result.

• This quantity is usually expressed in terms of signal-

to-noise ratio as will be discussed further .

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Gross/Human Errors

• Humans are always part of an instrument chain as

designers, manufacturers or observers.

• History is full of examples of errors due to wrong

use of measurment units (SI vs Standard/Imperial)

• Instrumentation misuse, calculation errors and

other human mistakes are the main source of
wrong measurements!!!!

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Summary

• The typical Architecture for an Electronic/Optoelectronic

Instrumentation Measurement System has been
presented, along with different sensor input mechanisms
• The Characterization of Sensors and Measurement
Systems has been presented through the description of
the Static and Dynamic Characteristics from the
Calibration Curve/Transfer Function
• Errors in Measurements have been also described and
classified as something inherent to every measurement.

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