Sandrine Anterrion. chubishu@yahoo.co.

uk 0788 300 3371

Music and emotions: How further research could

benefit Music therapy.

Introduction: As a musician, and long-time classical music lover, I have often

found myself amazed by the beauty of great pieces, by composers like Mozart, Verdi,
Haydn, Handel, who seem to use their notes like a painter would use a brush; describing
minute details with immense virtuosity.
As a singer, I have often wondered at the power those musical structures had over the
heart, the mind, and indeed the body (I have been told more than once, to stop moving,
during formal choir concerts!...)
As a human being, with my hang-ups, and life’s up-and-downs, I have always found
refuge in the certitude that there was a piece out there, which, without any words, or
with words in a different language than my own, would speak exactly the comfort I
craved, or would support me in my weaknesses, just like the voice of a father,
commiserating with me over my dead canary.
As I grew up, and asked professionals around me, I found myself extremely
disappointed, by the apparent state of the Music Therapy sector. It seemed to me
something else could be done, to inject the power of music into a patient’s subconscious
structure. I have tried over the years to examine the complex matters of how a famous
piece I had sung affected me, as I understood and embodied the characters within. For
sure, conductors and composers have known it for a long time, so why cant doctors?...
From whatever research I have had time to read about, it has been proven that the mind
and the body reacted, in various ways, when exposed to stimuli of music and sound.
My questions are: What else could be done, to further those researches? What
directions could Mankind take, when it comes to social inclusion, according to the
word of Bach? I am also wondering about the potential of spirituality when
associated with Music, and why those stimuli are losing their value, in a society
where music is often so diluted in power, and where people are so preoccupied with
fast-food signals, such as TV, computers, etc… that they forget to look out for those
precious messages, let alone LISTEN to them.

I would like to start this essay with a very charismatic quote from Kant, taken from
“Critique of Pure Reason”: “The Mind is not passive and receptive, but is
actively engaged in forming representations of reality.”
Bernhardi, a student of Kant’s theories, declares that “[Poetry] is a representation of
reality”.
Basing one self on the above statements, could one extend the latter to Music?
Let us perhaps look at several points I would like to develop, as far as I am able,
within the restricted time and space of this essay….

Imagination and creative powers of the human brain work in two-way, self-
nourishing patterns, with Music. The latter stimulates the imagination of the listener;
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and this is easiest to illustrate with film music, where image is accompanied and
supported by a score. The composer, on the other hand, puts his mind and pencil at
work, in order to produce beautiful sound; albeit having previously fed his imagination
with a library of melodies and rules in harmony, which he has previously heard.
Quite a few evenings by candle-light would have never been the same without some
carefully-chosen pieces of music…
Painters and cinematographers alike enjoy being stimulated by some acoustic creation
or another. What remains a mystery is just how this works.
Several studies have been led, by various scientists, as quoted within this paper,
and/ or in the reference section.
Far from trying to emulate them, I propose to go through a few of the observations
made by them, and by myself, and to suggest a few more angles of dissection, so to
speak….
Studies on responses to environmental noises were led by Patrick Gomez and Brigitta
Danuser, for the International Journal of Psychology.
More tests should perhaps be carried as to ascertain/ evaluate the impact of individual
stimuli: various individual musical instruments, as well as various voice textures. All
should be tried on people from various backgrounds, psychological as well as cultural.
All should be studied with a range of pitches, dynamics, shapes (chords, staccato,
legato, etc…).
Each instrument or voice, according to every listener, represents or refers to a sound
in nature, or to a character in their existence. Otherwise the truth is, the sound just
would not be relatable. For example, it would be fascinating to prove that a flute in
a given symphony does remind one listener of a bird’s chant, thus evocating the
action of waking up in the morning, or reminding him/ her of a weekend spent close
to Mother Nature, in the great countryside. The voice of a certain alto, on a certain
pitch, at a certain volume, might remind one of a mother’s warning call. It would be
interesting to understand what this alto part would do for a concert goer, on a
subconscious basis; especially when interacting with other voices….
To quote J.G. von Herder: “We experience the world through sounds”…
This would certainly need to be explored, as it could solve a few puzzling problems
as met by today’s psycho-analysis methods.
Whilst words cannot always express everything one may feel, musical associations
and structures can simply evocate past, present experiences, or future aspirations.
Those structures are therefore a tool which needs to be carved, in order to let
patients use them adequately. I strongly despise current methods in music therapy,
which mainly consist in improvisations between doctor and patient, followed by
discussions. Although I would not dare despise the professionals themselves, I feel
this is such a superficial use of Music’s greater power, that this can only be a waste.
I would like to quote Kathryn Whitney, a singer and musicologist, whose talk I
attended in May 2010: “The piano is wordless, but not voiceless”. I would love for
members of this society, ailing hearts, and ailing minds, to feel that they all have a
voice; but a refined one: why use untrained talent/ mediocre skills, when one could
emulate Beethoven, and look up to his sociological and emotional ideals? Why stay
on the ground and play bongos, or drum into a xylophone, when more sophisticated
structures already exist, wherein everyone could have a part at singing?
The personal views on race, gender (, etc…) of composers hardly matter in this
case, because we would only be looking at the strongest dynamics they wrote
between men and women, for example, in selected pieces…
• Stimuli: Human Voices/ Instruments imitating a specific sound, like the race of a
horse. (Scores as appendices available on request) A typical example, according to
my knowledge of opera is one of Verdi’s chorus pieces, in Mc Beth. Depicting the
horsemen running to kill Banquo, the music and (male) voices paint in turn:
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Whispered and shouted Threats, curses, murmured evil plans, and self-contentment.
It is by all accounts a masterpiece. But the most amazing, in my view, is the
composition techniques Mr Verdi used to simulate the sound of approaching horse
hooves: crescendos on fast strings, winds, and drums; concluding into a chorus of
men chanting staccato notes, of the same melody. This is followed by vocal sotto
voce, as they tiptoe to catch Banquo, accompanied by flutes, on staccato…. The
action goes on with alternations of effects, such as these. Such powerful imagery is
just a sample of what the mind of a composer, together with orchestral instruments,
can produce, for the satisfaction and conscious escapism of the listener.
This, in my view, is a great motivation for discussion between therapist and patient,
which could be extended into a creative process. The best way, however, to enjoy
the action as depicted is to sing it, and to learn the part. Becoming a performer
means one has to embody every accent, every diminuendo, and every expression as
painted by the voice. Some will be written in the score, others instructed by the
conductor.
• Stimuli: Bass strings piccati. They vibrate the same way in the hearing system, as a
heart beat. Therefore the brain, physiologically and psychologically, will associate
the two. This will mostly happen on a subconscious level, hence the so-called
subliminal effects of music, on the mind of the listener.
• Stimuli: Tremolos (shivers/ trills) in violin parts often paint sharp or delicate
emotions… (See: sounds of the Sea, wind rustling through branches, trembling of
the body…). Reaction: See the reflexes of a dog or cat, alerted by “alarming” noises
in a nearby tree or garden… The animal gets ready for action, self-defence, or
attack. To transpose this onto the human mind frame, whenever at a live concert, let
every classical music lover, as an exercise, observe ones involuntary inner thoughts,
or bodily tensions, whilst listening to an orchestra playing a phrase of the sort
(Examples taken from Verdi’s “La Traviata”- appendices available on request).
Most composers will often use this effect with the intent of depicting an
atmosphere, or a sensitive scene, and not with the sole purpose of decoration in
mind.

What I will call next the “Anticipation factor” represents the psychological effect
produced by a good composition, onto the listener and/or performer. Like a captivating
story, like a giant puzzle, a well-written piece has the potential to stimulate the creative
mind, as well as the IQ, by exciting the mind, and stimulating conscious and
subconscious expectations within young and old.
• Anticipation factor: the excitement provided by the expectation of a climatic
moment, of a surging emotion or another, of a resting place…(Eg: Fidelio’s
Overture, by Beethoven- characterises various jumps and phallic, decisive
movements, often accompanied by threatening accents; only to rest again, as in a
valley, with strings and winds playing melancholic and compassionate chords. This
rest is of course followed by more sudden, and more semi- predictable action.)
• Anticipation factor can benefit cognitive intelligence (logical suites/ “problems”,
as represented by musical sentences…. The equivalent of logic problems, with
numbers, or geometric figures, only in a much more creative way….)
• Anticipation factor can re-structure emotional paths, by aligning “solutions” to the
listener’s emotional “puzzles”, hence defining a route for his/hers subconscious
thinking pattern, or subconscious questions.

One of Hanslick theories, according to my understanding, is that Music cannot convey

definite emotions, on its own, but needs words, in order to be complete…. The fact is,
Music can be effective without words, and most of the great operas’ libretti have been
written in a foreign language.
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Passages from various oratorios can also demonstrate how wrong a statement this could
be: if we use the same words, associated with various interpretations, we can observe
many discernable differences.
The phrase “Dies Irae” (“Day of Wrath”), for instance: let us compare them in the
context of the Requiems by Cherubini, Mozart, and Verdi… Whilst Verdi’s is a
volcanic thunder of voices, percussions and strings, Cherubini’s is a line-up on voices
crescending from sotto voce, and trembling at the thought (whilst the strings spiral and
torment them) of the impending punishment day in question. Mozart’s “Dies Irae” is a
forte, sustained by strong accents on winds, strings, percussions, in the first instance;
then it becomes a women-only frightened response to the men’s announcements, and is
then echoed by extra-fast, shy, shimmering high strings, all piano. (Appendices as
annotated cores available on request)

A small survey led by me (rather left to the last minute, I am afraid…) shows that most
performers will identify emotionally to various pieces, in very different ways.
I asked singers, musicians, and musicologists around me which music evocated most
the following, according to their own experience: Sadness, Loss, Joy, Excitement, and
Fear. (Results not included references on request…)

Reiterations and Propaganda:

• The Power of message re-iteration within a movement (eg Oratorio) is magnified
when words are associated with music. The leitmotiv is no longer just the verb, but
also musical phrases. The word entities are ascertained, punctuated, and therefore
identified with melodic structures…
A typical example, in my view, is the Credo, from Haydn’s Nelson Mass: the first
syllable of “Credo” (“I believe”) is reinforced by an extra-assertive “thump” of
drums, winds, etc… The latter musical motif is then repeated ad aeternam,
throughout the movement, reminding the listener of the associated short word it
came with in the first place. That minuscule affirmation is thus hammered
throughout the joyful, declamatory SATB chorus.
Another example is the echoing, bouncy, lively “Dixit Dominus” first movement by
Handel; wherein the words “Dixit Dominus”, “Scabellum”, “Inimicos”, with all the
implications they carry, are driven into the listener’s mind, by way of repetition,
and by way of changing and varying the melodies around them. The composer uses
in this case, several cognitive psychological techniques: not content with repeating,
he associates the words with various contexts, and stimuli, and attractive, strong
harmonic arrangements. In the listener’s mind, therefore, are not left just the
memory of the statements from the scripture, but the memory of the same scripture
associated with several visual memories, several olfactory memories, from
childhood, adolescence, etc… A scripture he/she will associate with various
thoughts and meanings in his/ her own life, according to whatever the associated
music patterns are in turn linked with, in his/her own experience.
Kant’s theory, as above, also comes to mind, once again.
Why then, could this not be directed in ways of therapy?
• An extension of the above principle is that of the “Joy reiteration”, as I like to call
it.
It is in my opinion, depicted in the “Nisi Dominus” movement of Monteverdi’s
Vespers. The hope and affirmation as sung by the 2 soprano parts, on the Cs (“Ni”,
“Do”, “Mi”) climbing up to Ds, then to high Fs; are repeated throughout, and also
on other words. The stubborn geyser-like intervals jump up according to regular
patterns, defying almost any logic, or any expectation of a change in melody. The
whole SATB (8-voice) chorus follows more or less the same phrase, in cannon,
multiplying by 4(at least) the effect, as one voice would fill in a gap left by another,
 –5–
with the same statements. (Appendices as noted scores are available, on request).
Some drilling effect as such, surely, could be used to emphasize positive thinking,
and resilience over adversity?...
Please note that the orchestral part on “Nisi Dominus” is virtually empty, hence not
at all supporting the voices, which represent every walk of life, in their textures.
This could further support the principle that one should reach for inner strength, and
inner inspiration, whenever an expected lead is lacking.
Singing practice of this movement often develops a sense of autonomy, much like
sailing or windsurfing; and since one has to remind oneself consciously to jump
back to that same note, produce the same accents and vowels on the notes as
described, ones mind might picture a circular dance motion, and feel rejoicing, as
well as empowerment. Please read further, as below.
Another structure to induce excitement, or/and enjoyment, is one that allows
simplicity, hence reassurance, to shine through. When the listener knows what is
coming next, in his favourite tune, he will feel somewhat at home, and, as explained
above, empowered. His intelligence is subconsciously somewhat flattered.
Again, with this principle, possibilities are endless, as far as therapy is concerned, as
long as nothing should be handled in a way which should patronize the client/ patient.

Some of the studies led so far (and so far as read by myself) seem to concentrate upon
the inherent power of Music; crossing out the listener’s experience and interpretation
of it. (Carl E. Seashore, Psychology of Music)
However, it is common understanding amongst regular concert goers, as well as
singers/ musicians, that the very potential of music lies in its ability to stimulate the
individual’s imagination, and to leave range for more bodies of identification; precisely
because of its less precise nature, when compared to words.

Taken individually, the notes of a sonata will not have the impact that their succession,
therefore character and formula, will create. I suppose one could easily be tempted to
compare the phenomenon to that of a cake recipe, individual ingredients versus
aromatic, well-risen pastry.
This overall effect is enhanced on an emotional basis, as demonstrated in research, by
its key: Minor usually =Sad/ Major usually =Positive. (Hussain, Thompson,
Schellenberg)

The composition’s overall effect also includes silences. The latter will be influenced by
what came before, and what the listener’s mind will be anticipating. Sometimes,
however, the silence is just a phrase of rest, away from the emotional exercise as heard
before. Sometimes it symbolizes a satisfied desire, an achievement. If used judiciously,
and in context, couldn’t this be applied to one specific psychological case or another?

According to a paper by Nathalie Gosselin, Roehampton University, babies as young as

2 months will be sensitive to concordance and dissonance. This cognitive psychology
study demonstrated how various parts of the brain are directly and indirectly affected by
unpleasant/ pleasant music. There is a physiological link between appreciation of music,
and emotional response.
Could this link be extended to demonstrating other theories on the emotional impacts of
music?

Music and Society: Many aspects of how music is enjoyed, are of course linked to
the enjoyment (or at least awareness) of other people. I would like to approach the
subject by looking into a few aspects of general interest.
 –6–
• Music and social context: Our experience of music can influence, and be
influenced by social groups, places, and purposes. For example, at funerals, mustn’t
one be sad, whichever piece of music we listen to? And at weddings, we are bound
to rejoice, and this will influence our understanding of the notes we hear. The social
context is a modern equivalent to the Greek forum, where all judgements were
made on members of society. Anywhere a crowd is gathered, ones interpretation of
music or events will be shaped by others, wit the exception perhaps of an opera/
classical concert… Things are different at a rock concert, however, where the
crowd’s movements, expressions, cheering, as well as the overall message of
freedom and rebellion specifically surrounding the genre, do tend to draw one into
the euphoria.
• Spirituality and Music: One is influenced by the other, and vice-versa. Writers
have given us masses, and for centuries have fed our religious imaginations, as well
as provided a platform for our worship. On the other hand, many composers of
sacred work have dug into their faith to produce Kyries of awe-inspiring grandeur,
which in turn painted God’s qualities within choruses, or string quintets. Often a
matter of social context again, religious music is played in most (if not all) temples,
churches and mosques across the Globe. In Western churches at least, it often helps
to convey emotions, of tenderness, compassion, melancholy, etc… Prayer, or at
least its psychological structure (as applicable in this essay) can help to extend the
imagination, concentrate, build faith (Placebo effect), confidence, and will power.
The scriptures one would base oneself upon would justify those personal attitudes,
from one faith to the other. All the latter components are beneficial to build not only
ones personality, but also good musical structures.
• The Modern society we live in is cold, fast, in-a-hurry; and its people have no
voice, unless they are lucky enough to be in the media industry.
The latter body is a very parsimonious one, and its selecting processes are often
dubious.
The family unit no longer has time or no longer bothers to communicate.
Therefore, most members of these occidental groups have learnt to shut down their
emotions, their eyes, and also their ears.
Body language signals are often ignored, and/or rejected, as part of our daily lives.
This is partly because of information overload, partly because of the rigidities of
standards, when it comes to expressivity.
Other signs of a decline are the rise of 21st Century electronic dance music, with
poor melodies, under-researched harmonic structures, and over-aggressive
messages. Those heart-beat-like drum sequences are often associated with violent,
scatted, as well as repetitive, and self-contradicting rhythms. This translates into a
very self-destructive pattern or message, which can be likened of that of
schizophrenia.
Social divisions are also great, within the family, and between races.
Should the use of great classical choruses, such as Mozart’s “Qui Tollis” (Mass in
C), accompanied by the study of them, not represent a way out of restrictive and
punishing social behaviours? Just as it might be therapeutic for someone to look
into a great garden painted on canvas, in order to escape there mentally, is it not a
wonderful tool to be able to project oneself onto a place where instrumental or
singing parts are supportive of each-other?
Just as marvellously rewarding it is for someone with depression, to listen to a
brilliantly- written piece of poetry, is it not the same principle, should that patient
learn the structure, and then actually made the assertion of performing those musical
parts?
For a start, learning various characters in singing can be compared to learning an
actor’s lines.
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One can project oneself thoroughly, from insecure male to invincible warrior, for
example, or from betrayed housewife to glorious seductive vixen. Those are indeed
the characters one sometimes has to learn to portray with the voice, or even with
body language…
Let us take then the example of the “Qui Tollis” movement, which is a sacred piece,
wherein a whole population of believers/ chorus are praying, pleading to God. For
this purpose, the sopranos head off in long chords, lamenting in a descending scale.
The basses and tenors follow the sopranos’ parts, without ever overtaking them.
They also have the tact to carry them, or to prepare the ground for them, in
compassion (anticipating the Sops parts, then leaving the space to them again, once
again diving down, or sticking to a less eloquent part…)
Mainly, they act as supporting actors, or perhaps like stunt artists, in charge of
doubling them, in dangerous scenes…
From time to time, tenors will take the lead, and seem to be letting the sopranos
renew their energy.
In my eyes, it is a remarkable landscape of human heads and hands, reaching out, in
beautiful harmony, for their Creator, in a united and organized legal pleading.
The piece in itself is moving and pleasant to the ears, but unless one were to analyse
it/ discuss it, together with clients/ patients; unless one were to assign role plays,
according to present cases, then its therapeutic potential would fail to be fully
explored…
The benefits would not just be for psychological problems, but also social ones. Just
as some people take on couples therapy, why this could be a way of oiling
communication between families, and indeed neighbourhoods.
There is, of course, much to be written about this piece, and others, but that could
be the subject of another paper.

• Conclusion:
I would like to quote Angela Esterhammer: “Language as Action in the world”.
Every time we speak, we create a wave, and launch a ship, of some sort. To refer to
Kathryn Whitney’s statement, whenever we play music, we pursue a goal, some venture
or another, and what is more, others follow.
It is important to me that music should be widely appreciated, but also internationally
used for the benefits of Mankind.
Perhaps Mozart and his colleagues were, in their own ways, stylish prophets: they
understood, and announced, in their own language, reasons for Man’s existence, and
saw insights into the Human mind. Just as religious prophets like Jesus-Christ or David,
used images/ parables, in order to illustrate matters of the mind in simple, direct ways; I
believe Mozart or Handel used notes and arrangements, to speak directly to the mind of
generations to come.
All could be more united, in Music; and a few more studies would further the success of
Music Therapy, all over the world.

I am looking forward to the day when I can see developments being made, and
empirical studies everywhere causing people of all nations to shout in choral unison:
“Dank! Dank!”, to their God, and/or to their favourite musician, ad aeternam--
Just like Herr Mozart had written it, centuries ago, in the great story of the Magic Flute.
(Mr Mozart did know a thing or two about flutes, as History went on to show..)
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• Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the following Masters: Mozart, Verdi,
Haydn, Handel, and the other great composers who are not named here; for their
sublime influence onto my life. I would like to thank the people I have studied
music with, namely: my singing teacher Valerie Saint Martin; the various
conductors and chorus masters I have sung under; the Chelsea Opera Group, who
gave me the passion of the orchestra and the inspiration of the great maestri; Mr
Paul and Stephen Rhys, also great teachers and conductors.
I would also like to thank all the good people of Facebook Land, who kindly
agreed to take part in my survey. My kindest regards to all 3 of them.

• References:
Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason”(1781).
Gosselin, Roehampton University, Emotional responses to unpleasant music …(2006).
European Journal of Cognitive psychology. Gomez, Danuser, International Journal of
Psychology.
Sue Hallam, Cross, & Thaut (2009). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology.
Collier, Beyond Valence and activity in the emotional connotations of music (2007).
K.Whitney, Welsh Royal College of Music (2010).
P. Gomez & B.Danuser, Affective and physiological responses to environmental noises
and music (2003). International Journal of psychology.
Hussain, Thompson, Schellenberg ( 2002)
K. Mead & L. Ball, Musical tonality and context-dependent recall… (2007) European
Journal of Cognitive Psychology.
M. Budd, Music and the Emotions (1985), Routledge and Kegan Paul.
C. Seashore, Psychology of Music (1967), Dover publications.
E.Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music. (1957)
Angela Esterhammer , The Romantic Performance, Language and action (2003).
Bernhardi
J. von Herder