HCM 2000

A 4-Hour Introduction to HCM2000…
Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Part II: Concepts
Part I - Introduction
Part II - Concepts
Part III – Methodologies
Part IV - Corridor and Area-Wide Analyses
Part V - Simulation and Other Models
Part II Chapters
n 7: Traffic Flow Parameters (13)

n 8: Traffic Characteristics (32)
n 9: Analytical Procedures Overview (12)
n 10: Urban Street Concepts (51)
n 11: Pedestrian and Bicycle Concepts (21)
n 12: Highway Concepts (20)
n 13: Freeway Concepts (30)
n 14: Transit Concepts (33)

Part II Purpose and Content
n To educate HCM users on LOS concepts and

use
• Facility-type concepts
• Discussion of typical capacity parameters
• Review of precision and accuracy of variables
• Suggested default values
• Sample service volume tables
• Quick-estimation method for signalized
intersections (Chapter 10)

7: Traffic Flow Parameters
n Uninterrupted Flow
• Volume and flow-rate
• Speed
• Density
• Headway and spacing
• Relationships among
basic parameters

7: Traffic Flow Parameters
n Interrupted Flow
• Signal Control
• Stop- or Yield-Controlled
Intersections
• Speed
• Delay
• Saturation Flow Rate
and Lost Time
• Queuing

8: Traffic Characteristics
n Vehicle and Human Factors

• Vehicles
• Drivers
• Pedestrians
• Bicycles
• Bus/LRT

n Demand and Volume

• Temporal variation
• Analysis hour
• Spatial distributions
–– Directional
Directional
–– Lane
Lane

n Measured and Observed Values

• Volume/Flow Rate
• Speed
• Headway
• Saturation flow
• Bus flow
• Passenger flow

9: Analytical Procedures Overview
n Precision and Accuracy

• Statistical accuracy of many methods not
known
• Validation of current procedures generally not
statistically adequate
• Stochastic properties of traffic should be
considered in judging appropriate degrees of
complexity and sensitivity

HCM2000 Structure

9: Analytical Procedures Overview
n Hourly and daily volume equivalencies

• PHF
•• K-factor
K-factor
•• D-factor
D-factor
n Use and development of local defaults
n Use and development of service volume
tables

10: Urban Street Concepts
n Urban Streets
• Flow characteristics
• Levels of service
• Required input data and estimated values
• Service volume table

Example Service Volume Table

n Signalized Intersections
• Characteristics
• Capacity and LOS
• Required input data and
estimated values

Required Signal Data

Intersection Control Type

Example Service Volume Table:
Signalized Intersection

n Unsignalized Intersections
• TWSC, AWSC, and roundabouts
–– Characteristics
Characteristics
–– Capacity
Capacity
–– Performance
Performance measures
measures
–– Service
Service volume
volume tables
tables

TWSC Intersection

Quick Estimation Method:
Signalized Intersections
n Determines critical v/c, signal timing, and
delay
• Consists of six steps:
–– 1)
1) assemble
assemble input
input data
data
–– 2)
2) determine
determine left-turn
left-turn treatment
treatment
–– 3)
3) compute
compute lane
lane volumes
volumes
–– 4)
4) estimate
estimate signal
signal timing
timing plan
plan
–– 5)
5) calculate
calculate critical
critical v/c
v/c
–– 6)
6) calculate
calculate average
average delay
delay

Quick Estimation Method:
n Input
n Input Data
Data Requirements
Requirements (some
(some may
may be
be estimated):
estimated):
•• Volumes
Volumes
•• Lanes
Lanes
•• Adjusted
Adjusted saturation
saturation flow
flow rate
rate
•• Left-turn
Left-turn treatment
treatment
•• Cycle
Cycle length
length (min
(min and
and max)
max)
•• Lost
Lost time
time
•• Green
Green time
time
•• Coordination
Coordination (yes(yes or
or no)
no)
•• PHF
PHF
•• Parking
Parking (yes
(yes or
or no)
no)
•• Area
Area type
type (CBD
(CBD or
or not)
not)

11: Pedestrian and Bicycle Concepts
n Terminology and principles

n Characteristics
n Performance measures
n Required input data and estimated values
n Service volume tables

11: Pedestrian and Bicycle Concepts

Pedestrian Sidewalk

LOS Criteria for Uninterrupted
Bicycle Facilities

12: Highway Concepts
n Multilane highways
• Capacity
• Free-flow speed
• Parametric relationships
• Factors affecting free-flow speed
• Factors affecting flow rate
• LOS

Speed-Flow Relationships on
Multilane Highways

Multilane Highway

12: Highway Concepts
n Two-Lane Highways
• Classification
• Basic relationships
• Passing lanes
• LOS

Two-Lane Highways:
Basic Relationships

Class I Two-Lane Highway

13: Freeway Concepts
n Freeway facilities
• Basic freeway segments
• Freeway weaving
• Ramps and ramp junctions
• Freeway facilities
n Concepts covered:
• Fundamental characteristics
• Important parameters

Basic Freeway Segment
Speed-Flow Relationships

Freeway Facility Segments

Freeway Facilities:
Traffic Management Strategies
n Traffic management process
n Freeway management strategies
• Capacity-management strategies
• Demand-management strategies
n Performance measures

14: Transit Concepts
n Introduction and definitions

n Transit facilities discussed:
• Bus
–– Loading
Loading areas
areas
–– Stops
Stops
–– Busways
Busways
–– Exclusive
Exclusive arterial
arterial bus
bus lanes
lanes
–– Mixed-traffic
Mixed-traffic lanes
lanes
• Light rail
• Street car

14: Transit Concepts
n Presented discussions:
• Basic concepts
• General capacity ranges
• Priority treatments
• Quality-of-service concepts
–– Definitions
Definitions
–– Performance
Performance measures
measures
–– Quality-of-service
Quality-of-service factors
factors
–– Quality-of-service
Quality-of-service framework
framework

Relationship Between Person and
Vehicle Capacity: Buses

Part III: Methodologies
Part II - Concepts
Part III Chapters
15:
15: Urban
Urban Streets
Streets (30)
(30)
16:
16: Signalized
Intersections (174)
(174)
17:
17: Unsignalized
Unsignalized Intersections
Intersections (118)
(118)
18:
18: Pedestrians
Pedestrians (34)
(34)
19:
19: Bicycles
Bicycles (26)
(26)
20:
20: Two-Lane
Two-Lane Highways
Highways (52)
(52)
21:
21: Multilane
Multilane Highways
Highways (32)
(32)
22:
22: Freeway
Freeway Facilities
Facilities (64)
(64)
23:
23: Basic
Basic Freeway
Freeway Segments
Segments (32)
(32)
24:
24: Freeway
Freeway Weaving
Weaving (40)
(40)
25:
25: Ramps
Ramps and
and Ramp
Ramp Junctions
Junctions (42)
(42)
26:
26: Interchange
Interchange Ramp
Ramp Terminals
Terminals (18)
(18)
27:
27: Transit
Transit (46)
(46)

Part III Chapters
15:
15: Urban
Urban Streets
Streets (30)
(30)
16:
16: Signalized
Intersections (174)
(174)
17:
17: Unsignalized
Intersections (118)
(118)
18:
18: Pedestrians
Pedestrians (34)
(34)
19:
19: Bicycles
Bicycles (26)
(26)
20:
20: Two-Lane
Two-Lane Highways
Highways (52)
(52)
21:
21: Multilane
Multilane Highways
Highways (32)
(32)
22:
22: Freeway
Freeway Facilities
Facilities (64)
(64)
23:
23: Basic
Basic Freeway
Freeway Segments
Segments (32)
(32)
24:
24: Freeway
Freeway Weaving
Weaving (40)
(40)
25:
25: Ramps
Ramps and
and Ramp
Ramp Junctions
Junctions (42)
(42)
26:
26: Interchange
Interchange Ramp
Ramp Terminals
Terminals (18)
(18)
27:
27: Transit
Transit (46)
(46)

15: Urban Streets
n Changes since 1997 update:

• Most major changes were incorporated into
the 1997 update
–– Intersection
Intersection delay
delay estimation
estimation procedures
procedures
• Chapter title has changed:
–– Arterial
Arterial Streets
Streets Urban
Urban Streets
Streets

15: Urban Streets
n Procedure
n Procedure assesses
assesses the
the mobility
mobility function
function of
of an
an
arterial
arterial
•• Access
Access function
function is
is not
not analyzed,
analyzed, but
but recognized
recognized as
as an
an
important
important consideration
consideration
n Limitations
n Limitations of
of the
the Procedure:
Procedure:
•• On-street
On-street parking
parking effects
effects
•• Driveway
Driveway density
density
•• Lane
Lane additions/lane
additions/lane drops
drops
•• Mid-block
Mid-block grades
grades
•• Mid-block
Mid-block capacity
capacity constraints
constraints
•• Mid-block
Mid-block medians/TWLT
medians/TWLT lane
lane
•• Turning
Turning movements
movements greater
greater than
than 20%
20% of
of total
total volume
volume
•• Upstream
Upstream queue
queue effects
effects
•• Cross-street
Cross-street congestion
congestion

Urban Street Methodology

Methodology Change
No longer uses “analysis section”…just

segments

Sensitivity of Results to Input
Variables
Class I Urban Street

Future Plans
n Enhancements
• Running time sensitivity to flow rate
• Improve sensitivity to filtering and metering
n Next Generation
• Include evaluation of access impacts
• Provide multimodal LOS

Part III Chapters
15:
15: Urban
Urban Streets
Streets (30)
(30)
16:
16: Signalized
Intersections (174)
(174)
17:
17: Unsignalized
Intersections (118)
(118)
18:
18: Pedestrians
Pedestrians (34)
(34)
19:
19: Bicycles
Bicycles (26)
(26)
20:
20: Two-Lane
Two-Lane Highways
Highways (52)
(52)
21:
21: Multilane
Multilane Highways
Highways (32)
(32)
22:
22: Freeway
Freeway Facilities
Facilities (64)
(64)
23:
23: Basic
Basic Freeway
Freeway Segments
Segments (32)
(32)
24:
24: Freeway
Freeway Weaving
Weaving (40)
(40)
25:
25: Ramps
Ramps and
and Ramp
Ramp Junctions
Junctions (42)
(42)
26:
26: Interchange
Interchange Ramp
Ramp Terminals
Terminals (18)
(18)
27:
27: Transit
Transit (46)
(46)

Operational methodology
The
The basic
basic method
method remains
remains essentially
essentially unchanged
unchanged from
from 1997
1997 update
update
1. Input module
• Geometric conditions
• Traffic conditions
• Signalization conditions
2. Volume adjustment 3. Saturation flow rate
• Peak-hour factor • Ideal flow rate

• Lane groups • Adjustments
• Lane group volumes
4. Capacity analysis
• Lane group capacities

• Lane group v/c ratios
• Aggregate results
5. Level of service
• Lane group delays
• Aggregate delays
• Determine LOS

1997 Changes to Chapter 9
n Improved
n Improved Procedure
Procedure for
for Actuated
Actuated Signals
Signals
n Improved
n Improved Delay
Delay Equation
Equation to
to Account
Account for:
for:
•• Oversaturated
Oversaturated Conditions
Conditions
•• Coordinated
Coordinated Operation
Operation
n Convert
n Convert Primary
Primary MOE
MOE to
to Control
Control Delay
Delay
n Account
n Account for
for Lane
Lane Utilization
Utilization Effects
Effects on
on Saturation
Saturation
Flow
Flow Rates
Rates
n Change
n Change in
in Approach
Approach to
to Lost
Lost Time
Time
n Fix
n Fix Minor
Minor Problems
Problems with
with Permitted
Permitted Left
Left Turn
Turn Model
Model
n Provide
n Provide Better
Better Guidance
Guidance for
for CBD
CBD Factor
Factor

Actuated Signals
n Improved
n Improved Procedure
Procedure for
for Actuated
Actuated Signals
Signals
•• Timing
Timing plans
plans estimated
estimated using
using actual
actual controller
controller data
data and
and
signal
signal design
design characteristics
characteristics
•• Timing
Timing plan
plan development
development isis iterative
iterative (requires
(requires
computer)
computer)
•• Substantial
Substantial improvements
improvements in in delay
delay and
and capacity
capacity
estimates
estimates for
for actuated
actuated control
control
•• Useful
Useful to
to evaluate
evaluate optimum
optimum controller
controller settings
settings
n New
n New Appendix
Appendix IIII to
to estimate
estimate average
average splits
splits
•• considers
considers effects
effects of
of initial,
initial, extension,
extension, maximum,
maximum,
detector
detector size,
size, detector
detector setback,
setback, etc.
etc.

Improved Delay Equation
n Improved
n Improved Delay
Delay Equation
Equation
•• Delay
Delay equation
equation toto add
add third
third term
term (d3)
(d3) accounting
accounting for
for
oversaturation
oversaturation
•• Accounts
Accounts for
for varying
varying length
length ofof congestion
congestion
•• Refinements
Refinements forfor actuated
actuated control
control
•• Refinements
Refinements to to account
account for
for coordinated
coordinated operation
operation and
and
effects
effects of
of upstream
upstream signals
signals
•• Guidance
Guidance toto users
users onon how
how to
to collect
collect data
data in
in
oversaturated
oversaturated conditions
conditions
•• Multiple
Multiple time
time periods
periods
•• Arrivals
Arrivals vs
vs departures
departures

The General Delay Model
d = d 1 + d2 + d3
Where:
d= average total delay, in seconds/vehicle
d 1 = uniform vehicle delay component, adjusted for
progression quality and for type of signal control
(pretimed vs actuated) in seconds/vehicle
d 2 = random and oversaturation (incremental) delay
component, adjusted for the duration of the peak
period, the type of signal control, and for upstream
traffic signal effects, in seconds/vehicle
d 3 = residual queue delay component to account for
oversaturation queues that may have existed prior
to the analysis period

Oversaturated Time Periods
Analysis of Multiple Time Periods
1400
1400
Capacity
1200
1200
(veh/hr)
Demand (veh/hr)
1000
1000
800
800
Demand
600
600
400
400
200
200
00
11 22 33 44
Time
Time Period
Period

Delay Model Components

LOS Based on Control Delay
n Convert
n Convert Primary
Primary MOE
MOE to
to Control
Control Delay
Delay
•• Current
Current HCM
HCM procedure
procedure estimates
estimates Stopped
Stopped delay
delay by
by
computing
computing total
total delay
delay and
and dividing
dividing by
by 1.3
1.3
•• Remove
Remove the
the 1.3
1.3 adjustment
adjustment
•• Modify
Modify LOS
LOS thresholds
thresholds upward
upward
1994 1997
A < 5 < 6.5
B < 15 < 19.5
C < 25 < 32.5 Subject to
D < 40 < 52.0 Change
E < 60 < 78.0
F > 60 > 78.0

Impact of Using Control Delay
n New LOS Thresholds

• 1.3 higher than before, rounded up
n New Survey Technique (Appendix III)
• time in queue survey, with adjustments
n Consistent with Chapters 10 & 11 and Most
Computer Models

Lane Utilization
n Adjust for Lane Utilization Effects

• Current HCM allows use of lane utilization
factor to adjust Volumes
• Proposed change will not adjust volumes but
rather adjust saturation flow rates to reflect
lane utilization effects (no fictitious vehicles)
• More accurate representation result in better
estimate of average delay
• Saturation flow rate is better for other models
(like TRANSYT and PASSER)

Computation of saturation flow rate
s = s0 N fw fHV fg fp fbb fa fLU fRT fLT
Adjustment factors:
] N = lanes ] fp = parking
] fw = lane width ] fbb = localbuses
] fhv = heavy vehicles ] fa = area type
] fg = grade ] frt = right turns
] flu = lane utilization ] flt = left turns

Lost Time
n clarifications (e.g., Y includes all-red)

n new variable
• e, extension of effective green into yellow
n calculate lost time, not input directly
• tL = l1+l2 (as before)
• l2 = Y-e (new calculation)
• g = G+Y-tL (as before)
n new defaults

Relationship between actual green
and effective green
G Y
g
r = R + tl (effective red time)

g = G + Y - tl (effective green time)
tl ~ Y + AR

CBD Factors
n Guidance for CBD Factors

• Better description of intent of CBD factor
–– "Dense
"Dense Business
Business District"
District"
–– Narrow
Narrow sidewalks
sidewalks
–– Frequent
Frequent parking
parking
–– Small
Small radius
radius turns
turns
–– High
High bus
bus // taxi
taxi activity
activity
–– High
High pedestrian
pedestrian volumes
volumes
• Should only be used in areas where geometric
design and/or other factors (pedestrian, bus
activity) significantly increase vehicle
headways

HCM 2000 Changes
n Re-organized and re-written

n New queue model
n New ped-bike adjustments
n New protected-permitted shared LT model
n Other minor changes

New Queue Model
n Back of queue
n Accounts for coordination
n Accounts for actuation
n Allows over-saturation
n Allows initial queue & multi-period
n Predicts various percentile values

Permitted Left Turn Changes
n Fix Minor Problems with Permitted Left Turn

Model
• Estimate of proportion of left turns in the left
lane on multi-lane approach
• Adjustments to equation dealing with
boundary conditions (no or very low flow
conditions)

Part III Chapters
15:
15: Urban
Urban Streets
Streets (30)
(30)
16:
16: Signalized
Intersections (174)
(174)
17:
17: Unsignalized
Intersections (118)
(118)
18:
18: Pedestrians
Pedestrians (34)
(34)
19:
19: Bicycles
Bicycles (26)
(26)
20:
20: Two-Lane
Two-Lane Highways
Highways (52)
(52)
21:
21: Multilane
Multilane Highways
Highways (32)
(32)
22:
22: Freeway
Freeway Facilities
Facilities (64)
(64)
23:
23: Basic
Basic Freeway
Freeway Segments
Segments (32)
(32)
24:
24: Freeway
Freeway Weaving
Weaving (40)
(40)
25:
25: Ramps
Ramps and
and Ramp
Ramp Junctions
Junctions (42)
(42)
26:
26: Interchange
Interchange Ramp
Ramp Terminals
Terminals (18)
(18)
27:
27: Transit
Transit (46)
(46)

n Most changes were incorporated into the

1997 update.
• Two way stop controlled
• All way stop controlled
• Roundabouts

Two-way stop procedure includes
n Revised critical gap parameters

n Revised methods for queue length estimates
n Revised control delay estimates

Analysis Methodology
Summarize Adjust
Demand Demand Develop
Volumes Volumes Critical Gap
Adjustments
Summarize
Physical Compute Evaluate Evaluate
Compute
Data Potential Upstream 2-Stage
Conflicting
Capacity Signal Effects Gap Acceptance
Flows
Determine Evaluate
Impedance Flared Approach
Adjustment Effect
Factor
Determine
Probability of Compute
Queue-Free State Movement
Capacity
Determine
LOS

1994 HCM capacity equation
-Vt
(-Vt00
3600
3600
)
Cx = 3600 e
x
tf
f
where:
V = conflicting volume (vph)
t ff = follow-up time (sec)
t cc = critical gap (sec)
t 00 = t cc - (t ff /2)

1997 HCM capacity equation
Vc,y
c,y t cc
e 3600
3600
Cp,x = Vc,y
p,x c,y Vc,y
c,yt ff
3600
1-e 3600
Where
tf = follow up time (sec)

f
t cc = critical gap (sec)
Vc,y = conflicting volume (vph)
c,y
c = potential capacity for movement x (pcph)
p,x
p,x

Capacity for gap acceptance
method
1000
800
Model
600
Capacity
Veh/h 400
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Field Capacity, veh/h

Critical Gaps and Follow-up Times
for TWSC Intersections

Critical Gap Adjustment Factors
tc,adj =t + t c,HV P + t G - t - t
c,adj c,base
c,base c,HV HV
HV c,g
c,g c,T
c,T 3,LT
3,LT
where
tt == 1.0
1.0 sec
sec for
for 2-lane
2-lane road;
road; 2.0
2.0 sec
sec for
for 4-lane
4-lane road
road
c,HV
c,HV
P
P == Percent
Percent heavy
heavy vehicles
vehicles in
in minor
minor movement
movement
HV
HV
ttc,G == 0.1
0.1 for
for movements
movements 9,
9, 12;
12;
c,G
0.2
0.2 for
for movements
movements 7,
7, 8,
8, 10,
10, and
and 11
11
G
G == Percent
Percent grade/100
grade/100
tt c,T == 1.0
1.0 sec
sec for
for movements
movements 7,
7, 8,
8, 10,
10, and
and 11
11
c,T
tt 3,LT
3,LT =
= 0.7
0.7 sec
sec for
for movement
movement 77 or
or 10
10

Follow-up Time Adjustment Factors
t f,adj = t f,base + t f,HV P

f,adj f,base f,HV HV HV
where
tt == 0.9
f,HV
f,HV 0.9 sec
sec for
for 2-lane
2-lane road;
road; 1.0
1.0 sec
sec for
for 4-lane
4-lane road
road
P
P == Percent
Percent heavy
heavy vehicles
vehicles in
in minor
minor movement
movement
HV
HV

95th percentile queue length
estimates
250
C T = 1000
95th Queue length (veh)
200
150
500
100
50 100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
D/C
Revised control delay estimates
n Uses a similar equation to other chapters

n Allows for D/C ratios to be greater than 1.0
n Allows for any length of analysis
n Allows for the acceleration and deceleration
associated with control delay

Unsignalized Intersection Delay Equation
hdd x
D == 5 ++ s ++ 900T ( x - 1 ) ++ ( x - 1 ) 22 ++
450T
Where:
ss == service
service time
time
TT == analysis
analysis period
period
xx == degree
degree of
of utilization
utilization
hhdd == departure
departure headway
headway

LOS is based on control delay
Average Control Delay

Level of Service to Minor Street Traffic
A < 10 sec
B > 10 and < 15 sec
C > 15 and < 25 sec
D > 25 and < 35 sec
E > 35 and < 50 sec
F > 50 sec

Two-way stop procedure evaluates
n Pedestrian effects
n Flared minor street approaches
n Upstream signal effects
n Two stage gap acceptance processes
n Through Traffic impedance effects

Traffic Stream Priorities
Cross Intersection T-Junction

11
12 10
16
6 5
13 5 13
4 4
1 2
2 14 14
3 3
15 15
7 9 7 9
8
Rank 1: 2, 3, 5, 6, 15, 16 Rank 1: 2, 3, 5, 15

2: 1, 4, 2: 4,
13, 14 13,14
9, 12 9
3: 8, 11 3: 7
4: 7, 10

Definition of conflicting volumes
Subject
Subject No. Conflicting Traffic Volumes V c,i
Movement
Major Street 1 V5 + V6 + vO
Left Turn 4 V2 + V3 + vS
Minor Street 9 V2 /N + 0.5V3 + VR
Left Turn 12 V5 /N + 0.5V6 + VL
Conflicting Traffic Volume
VI VII
Part I (near side from left) Part II (far side from right) of 2-state
of 2-state gap acceptance gap acceptance process
process
Minor Street 8 2V1 + V2 + 0.5V3 + VS + 2V4 + V5 + 0.5V6 + VO

Through 11 2V4 + V5 + 0.5V6 + VO + 2V1 + V2 + 0.5V3 + VS
Movement
Minor Street 7 2V1 + V2 + 0.5V3 + VS + 2V4 + V5 /N + 0.5V6 + 0.5V12 + 0.5V11 +VL

Left Turn 10 2V4 + V5 + 0.5V6 + VO + 2V1 + V2 /N + 0.5V3 + 0.5V9 + 0.5V8 +VR

Pedestrian impedance
fpp = (Vxx)(w/s)
3600
where
f pp = pedestrian blockage factor
Vxx = pedestrian volume (peds/hr and/or
groups/hr)
w = lane width (ft)
s = pedestrian walking speed (assumed
at 4 ft/sec)

Pedestrians effects
45
40
35
30
Delay (s)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pedestrians per hour

Effect of flared minor approach
KACTUAL
CSEPARATE X
CAPAC ITY
CFLARED
CSHARED X
KACTUAL KMAX
QUEUE k

Flared minor street approaches
25
20
Delay (s)
15
10
0
0 1 2 3
Flare length (vehs)

Upstream signal parameters
include
n The distance between intersections
n Signal timings
n Travel speed on the arterial
n Saturation flow rates

Effect of Upstream Signals
C2
O2 G2 R2
SIGNAL 2
t2
V2 D2
N
VP2
DISTAN CE
VNP2
t2
t5
VP5 V NP5
V5 D5
SIGNAL 5
O5 G5 R5 t5
1 2 3 4
TIME
1
FLOWS "SPREAD RATIO" = t /t
PROBABILITY
P1 P2 P3 P4
SIGNIFICANT IF D 2 OR D 5 < 1500 FT (500 m)
(1/4 mile)

The two-stage gap acceptance process
part II
V5
m spaces for passenger cars
input line
V1 V2
part I

Two-stage gap acceptance
processes
25
20
Delay (s)
15
10
0
0 1 2 3
Median storage (vehs)

Shared lane delay to rank 1 movements
Vi,1
(1 - po,j* ) dmajor left ( N
)
d rank 1 = Vi,1 + Vi,2
; N>1
(1 - po,j* ) dmajor left ; N=1

Analysis Methodology
Summarize Adjust
Demand Demand Develop
Volumes Volumes Critical Gap
Adjustments
Summarize
Physical Compute Evaluate Evaluate
Compute
Data Potential Upstream 2-Stage
Conflicting
Capacity Signal Effects Gap Acceptance
Flows
Determine Evaluate
Impedance Flared Approach
Adjustment Effect
Factor
Determine
Probability of Compute
Queue-Free State Movement
Capacity
Determine
LOS

The all-way stop procedure
n Based on the notion that the service time is a

function of the conflict type
n The more difficult the conflict - the longer the
service time
n Defines “degree-of-conflict” cases
n The process is iterative

Key Operating Concepts
AWSC
AWSC intersections
intersections operate
operate in
in either
either
2-
2- or
or 4-phase
4-phase patterns
patterns
Vehicle
Vehicle headways
headways depend
depend on
on
Degree
Degree of
of conflict
conflict
Intersection
Intersection geometry
geometry
Turn
Turn maneuver
maneuver
Vehicle
Vehicle type
type

AWSC analysis computational procedure
Input Data
Saturation Headways
Departure Headways
and Service Time
Capacity and
Level of Service

Operating states of AWSC intersections
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Case 4 Case 5

Richardson capacity model
Intersection
Intersection of
of one-way
one-way streets
streets
Intersection
Intersection of
of two-way
two-way streets
streets
Generalized
Generalized model
model for
for single
single lane
lane sites
sites
Generalized
Generalized model
model for
for multi-lane
multi-lane sites
sites

Departure headway
n The mean departure headway is a function of

probability of the “degree-of-conflict” case
and the departure headway (or service time).
n The probabilities are themselves a function of
the departure headways.

Intersection of one-way streets
s1 1 - N (s 1 + s )2
Conflicting
sN = Approach
11- N W (s 12 + s 22)
Subject
Where: Approach
= arrival rate
s 1 = service time with no vehicle on conflicting approach
s 2 = service time with vehicle on conflicting approach
s i = mean service time for northbound approach

Capacity and delay
n The capacity is evaluated by increasing the

traffic demand on the subject approach until
the degree of utilization is equal to 1.0.
n The delay is evaluated using a non steady
state equation similar to the one used in the
TWSC section and in other chapters.

Emergence of Roundabouts in the U.S.A.
n Interest first appeared in early 1990’s

n Maryland and Florida produced first guides
n Most states now show an active interest
n FHWA has released a national guide

Methods of evaluating roundabouts
Analytical
Critical gap, follow-up time
SIDRA (Australian)
Empirical
Regression function based on geometric
features
ARCADY, RODEL (British)
Simulation
Microscopic modeling of roundabouts
CORSIM, Integration, Paramics

Injury accident reductions
Britain 35%
Denmark 36%
Switzerland 38%
United
United States
States 51%
The Netherlands 55%
Norway 74%
Australia 75%
France 78%
Source: Maryland Department of Transportation; NCHRP synthesis

Roundabout procedure
n Based on a gap acceptance approach

n Evaluated on limited US field experience
n Provides two estimates of capacity and offers
no advice on delays
• FHWA Guide offers additional information on:
–– Capacity
Capacity estimation
estimation (single
(single and
and double-lane)
double-lane)
–– Delay
Delay estimation
estimation

Comparison with others
1200
1000
UK
800 Suggested
Entry
relationship
capacity (exponential)
600 German
(veh/h)
400 Australia
(Troutbeck)
200
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Circulating Flow (veh/h)

Comparison with others
1200
Increased critical
1000 gap parameters
Entry 800
Capacity Suggested
(veh/h) lower-bound
600
relationship
400 Australia
German
(Troutbeck)
200
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Circulating Flow (veh/h)

Roundabout evaluation
n Suggest that the upper-bound is more

appropriate for most roundabouts.
n Use the lower bound estimate when the
speeds are particularly low and if
roundabouts are not common.

Single-Lane Roundabouts
1400
1200
Maximum Entry Flow (veh/h)
Urban & Rural Single-Lane Roundabouts

1000
Entering and circulating
flow = 1800 veh/h
800
600
400
Urban Compact Roundabouts

200
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Circulatory Flow (veh/h)

Double-Lane Roundabouts
2800
2400
Maximum Entry Flow (veh/h)
2000
1600
1200
800
400
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
Circulatory Flow (veh/h)

Capacity Adjustments
n Short lanes (flared approaches)
n Pedestrians

Capacity adjustments: Short lanes
n Short lanes are the additional partial lanes

added when flaring a roundabout from one to
two lanes
No. of vehicle spaces in short Capacity factor (applied to

lane double-lane approach capacity)
0 (single-lane approach) 0.500
1 0.707
2 0.794
4 0.871
6 0.906
8 0.926
10 0.939

Capacity adjustment: Pedestrians
at single-lane roundabout
Reduction factor M [-]
1.00
100 ped/h
0.95
200 ped/h
0.90
300 ped/h
0.85
400 ped/h
0.80
0.75
0.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
circular flow rate qk [pcu/h]

Capacity adjustment: Pedestrians
at double-lane roundabout
Reduction factor M [-]
1.00
0.95
100 ped/h
0.90
200 ped/h
300 ped/h
0.85
400 ped/h
0.80
0.75
0.70
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
circular flow rate qk [pcu/h]

Delay
n Control delay
• Includes initial deceleration delay, queue
move-up time, stopped delay, and final
acceleration delay
n Geometric delay
• Delay experienced by a single vehicle with no
conflicting flows
• Caused by geometric features
n Total delay = Control + Geometric
n Typical measure used: control delay

Delay
60
50
2000
1200
1600
0
800
240
400
40
Delay (s)
30
20
10
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Entering flow (veh/h)
Capacity
400 veh/h 800 veh/h 1200 veh/h 1600 veh/h 2000 veh/h 2400 veh/h
T=0.25 h

Queue Estimation
n Average queue (50th

th percentile)
• Equivalent to vehicle-hours of delay per hour

on an approach
• Useful for comparing performance with other
intersection forms
n Maximum queue (95th
th percentile)
• Used for design purposes

• Most common queue parameter

50th
th Percentile (Average) Queue
Estimation
Little’s rule:
L = v * d / 3600
where:
L = queue length, veh
v = entry flow, veh/h
d = average delay, s/veh

95th
th Percentile Queue Estimation
∞
100
90
80
70
Expected Maximum Number of Vehicles in Queue, Q95 [veh]

60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
v/c Ratio [-]

HCM
HCM Web
Web Sites
Sites
http://traffic.ce.gatech.edu/hcqs
Highway
Highway Capacity
Capacity Committee’s
Committee’s web
web site
site
http://www.hcmweb.net
HCM
HCM User’s
User’s web
web site
site (maintained
(maintained by
by FHWA)
FHWA)
http://www-mctrans.ce.ufl.edu/info-cen/hcs/hcs.htm
HCS
HCS software
software site
site

3rd party software
BOOK
CD-ROM
+ = HCM2000
.pdf files
Multimedia version
tutorials
examples
audio explanations
video clips
hypertext/search
software link

Part III Chapters
15:
15: Urban
Urban Streets
Streets (30)
(30)
16:
16: Signalized
Intersections (174)
(174)
17:
17: Unsignalized
Intersections (118)
(118)
18:
18: Pedestrians
Pedestrians (34)
(34)
19:
19: Bicycles
Bicycles (26)
(26)
20:
20: Two-Lane
Two-Lane Highways
Highways (52)
(52)
21:
21: Multilane
Multilane Highways
Highways (32)
(32)
22:
22: Freeway
Freeway Facilities
Facilities (64)
(64)
23:
23: Basic
Basic Freeway
Freeway Segments
Segments (32)
(32)
24:
24: Freeway
Freeway Weaving
Weaving (40)
(40)
25:
25: Ramps
Ramps and
and Ramp
Ramp Junctions
Junctions (42)
(42)
26:
26: Interchange
Interchange Ramp
Ramp Terminals
Terminals (18)
(18)
27:
27: Transit
Transit (46)
(46)

27: Transit Analysis
n Chapter is summary of Transit Capacity

and Quality of Service Manual.
n Capacity and LOS estimates are provided

• Bus
• LRT

Typical Busway Line-Haul
Passenger Volumes

Average Bus Speed in a
Freeway HOV Lane

Base Bus Running Time
(min/mi)

Bus Running Time Losses

Skip-Stop Speed Adjustment
Factor

Bus Lane Volumes and Speeds

Factors Influencing Transit
Capacity and Speed

Transit LOS Analysis
n Quality of service is computed at three

different levels of aggregation:
• Transit Stop
• Transit Route
• Transit System

Transit LOS Analysis
n Six
n Six Quality
Quality of
of Service
Service Criteria
Criteria are
are identified
identified at
at
each
each level
level of
of aggregation.
aggregation.
•• Service
Service Frequency
Frequency
•• Hours
Hours of
of Transit
Transit Service
Service
•• Passenger
Passenger Load
Load
•• Reliability
Reliability
•• Service
Service Coverage
Coverage
•• Ratio
Ratio of
of Transit
Transit to
to Auto
Auto Travel
Travel Times
Times

Transit LOS Assessment
n Service Frequency

n Hours of Service

n Passenger Load

n Bus Service Reliability

n Ratio of Auto to Bus Travel Tiime

Transit Analysis
n Additional
n Additional performance
performance measures
measures can
can be
be computed
computed
•• Bus
Bus &
& rail
rail stop
stop dwell
dwell time.
time.
•• Bus
Bus &
& rail
rail stop
stop capacity
capacity
•• Mean
Mean bus
bus speed
speed
– freeway HOV lanes.
– urban street bus lanes.
– Mixed flow lanes
•• Mean
Mean rail
rail speed
speed
•• Vehicle
Vehicle and
and person
person capacity
capacity of
of bus
bus lanes.
lanes.

Parts IV and V: Corridor and Area-
Wide Analyses and Simulation
Part II - Concepts
Part IV & V Chapters
n 28: Assessment of Multiple Facilities (6)

n 29: Corridor Analysis (33)
n 30: Areawide Analysis (39)
n 31: Simulation and Other Models (37)

Parts IV and V:
Purpose and Content
n To provide guidance on the use and
adaptation of HCM procedures for corridor
and area-wide analyses

28: Assessment of Multiple Facilities
n System analysis framework

• Roadway structure (points, segments,
facilities, corridors, area-wide)
• Facility types (arterial, freeway, rural
highway)
Point Corridor
Facility
Segment Areawide
28: Assessment of Multiple Facilities
n Six Measures of System Performance
•• Quantity
Quantity of
of congestion
congestion
•• Intensity
Intensity of
of congestion
congestion
•• Duration
Duration ofof congestion
congestion
•• Extent
Extent of
of congestion
congestion
•• Variability
Variability
•• Accessibility
Accessibility
n System Performance Report Card

•• Modal
Modal LOS
LOS Report
Report Card
Card (A/C/A/D)
(A/C/A/D)

System Performance Evaluation:
“Report Card” Approach

29: Corridor Analysis

29: Corridor Analysis
n Guidance on the Application of Part III

Chapters to Corridor Analysis
n Highway Corridor Methodology
• Compute segment capacity
• Adjust temporal demand for Bottlenecks
• Compute free flow speed
• Compute actual speed
• Compute queue delay
• Compute performance measures
n Transit/Highway Corridors

30: Area-wide Analysis
n Extension of the HCM to Regional

Planning Models
n Highway Facilities Methodology
• Determine free flow speed
• Determine link capacity
• Determine link speed
• Determine performance measures
n Transit Facilities Methodology
n Example Problems

Determination of Link Speed

31: Simulation and Other Models
Typology of Models

n Strengths of simulation models

• Treats variations in time and space
• Considers interactions of queues
n Shortcomings of simulation models
• Requires considerable input
• Requires verification, calibration, and
validation
• Can provide misleading results to users
who are not sufficiently familiar with the
base assumptions and processes

n Simulation Model Descriptors

• Stochastic vs. Deterministic Models
• Event Based vs. Time Based Models
• Micro, Meso, Macro Models
• Static Flow vs. Time Varying Models
• Descriptive vs. Optimization Models
n Examples

n Selecting a Model
• Determining Project Scope
• Assessing HCM Methodologies
• Selecting a Model
–– Model
Model Capabilities
Capabilities
–– Data
Data Availability
Availability
–– Ease
Ease of
of Use
Use
–– Past
Past Performance
Performance
–– Validation/Calibration
Validation/Calibration

Performance Measures for
Uninterrupted Flow Facilities

HCM 2000

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A 4-Hour Introduction to HCM2000…

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n 7: Traffic Flow Parameters (13)

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n To educate HCM users on LOS concepts and

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Vehicle and Human Factors

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Demand and Volume

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Measured and Observed Values

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Precision and Accuracy

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Hourly and daily volume equivalencies

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Terminology and principles

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Introduction and definitions

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

n Changes since 1997 update:

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

No longer uses “analysis section”…just

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

Highway Capacity Manual 2000

2. Volume adjustment 3. Saturation flow rate

• Peak-hour factor • Ideal flow rate

• Lane group capacities